PRICING DECISIONS

TRUE-FALSE STATEMENTS
1. In most cases, a company sets the price instead of it being set by the competitive
market.

2. In a competitive market, a company is forced to act as a price taker and must

emphasize minimizing and controlling costs.

3. The difference between the target price and the desired profit is the target cost of
the product.

4. In a competitive environment, the company must set a target cost and a target
selling price.

5. The cost-plus pricing approach establishes a cost base and adds a markup to
this base to determine a target selling price.

6. The cost-plus pricing model gives consideration to the demand side—whether

customers will pay the target selling price.

7. Sales volume plays a large role in determining per unit costs in the cost-plus
pricing approach.

8. In time and material pricing, the material charge is based on the cost of direct
materials used and a material loading charge for related overhead costs.

9. The first step for time and material pricing is to calculate the material loading
charge.

10. The material loading charge is expressed as a percentage of the total estimated
costs of materials for the year.

11. Divisions within vertically integrated companies normally sell goods only to other
divisions within the same company.

12. Using the negotiated transfer pricing approach, a minimum transfer price is
established by the selling division.

13. There are two approaches for determining a transfer price: cost-based and
market-based.

14. If a cost-based transfer price is used, the transfer price must be based on
variable cost.

15. A problem with a cost-based transfer price is that it does not provide adequate
incentive for the selling division to control costs.

16. In the formula for a minimum transfer price, opportunity cost is the contribution
 margin of goods sold externally.

17. The market-based transfer price approach produces a higher total contribution
margin to the company than the cost-based approach.

18. A negotiated transfer price should be used when an outside market for the goods
does not exist.

19. The number of transfers between divisions that are located in different countries
has decreased as companies rely more on outsourcing.

20. Differences in tax rates between countries can complicate the determination of
the appropriate transfer price.

*21. The absorption cost approach is consistent with generally accepted accounting
principles because it defines the cost base as the manufacturing cost.

*22. The first step in the absorption cost approach is to compute the markup
percentage used in setting the target selling price.

*23. Because absorption cost data already exists in general ledger accounts, it is cost
effective to use it for pricing.

*24. The markup percentage in the contribution approach is computed by dividing the
desired ROI/unit plus fixed costs/unit by the variable costs/unit.

*25. Under the contribution approach, the cost base consists of all of the variable
costs associated with a product except variable selling and administrative costs.

Answers to True-False Statements

Item Ans. Item Ans. Item Ans. Item Ans. Item Ans.
1. F 6. F 11. F 16. T *21. T
T 7. T 12. T 17. F *22. F
T 8. T 13. F 18. T *23. T
F 9. F 14. F 19. F *24. T
5. T 10. T 15. T 20. T *25. F
 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
26. Factors that can affect pricing decisions include all of the following except
a. cost considerations.
b. environment.
c. pricing objectives.
d. all of these are factors.

27. In most cases, prices are set by the

a. customers.
b. competitive market.
c. largest competitor.
d. selling company.

28. A company must price its product to cover its costs and earn a reasonable profit
in
a. all cases.
b. its early years.
c. the long run.
d. the short run.

29. Prices are set by the competitive market when

a. the product is specially made for a customer.
b. there are no other producers capable of manufacturing a similar item.
c. a company can effectively differentiate its product from others.
d. a product is not easily distinguished from competing products.

30. All of the following are correct statements about the target price except it
a. is the price the company believes would place it in the optimal position for its
target audience.
b. is used to determine a product's target cost.
c. is determined after the company has identified its market and does market
research.
d. is determined after the company sets its desired profit amount.

31. In cost-plus pricing, the target selling price is computed as

a. variable cost per unit + desired ROI per unit.
b. fixed cost per unit + desired ROI per unit.
c. total unit cost + desired ROI per unit.
d. variable cost per unit + fixed manufacturing cost per unit + desired ROI per
unit.

32. In cost-plus pricing, the markup percentage is computed by dividing the desired
ROI per unit by the
a. fixed cost per unit.
b. total cost per unit.
c. total manufacturing cost per unit.
d. variable cost per unit.

33. The cost-plus pricing approach's major advantage is

 a. it considers customer demand.
b. that sales volume has no effect on per unit costs.
c. it is simple to compute.
d. none of these.

34. The following per unit information is available for a new product of Riley
Company:
Desired ROI $ 24
Fixed cost 40
Variable cost 60
Total cost 100
Selling price 124
Riley Company's markup percentage would be
a. 19%.
b. 24%.
c. 40%.
d. 60%.

35. Wenger Company has just developed a new product. The following data is
available for this product:
Desired ROI per unit $18
Fixed cost per unit 30
Variable cost per unit 45
Total cost per unit 75
The target selling price for this product is
a. $93.
b. $75.
c. $63.
d. $48.

36. All of the following are correct statements about the cost-plus pricing approach
except that it
a. is simple to compute.
b. considers customer demand.
c. includes only variable costs in the cost base.
d. will only work when the company sells the quantity it budgeted.

37. In the cost-plus pricing approach, the desired ROI per unit is computed by
multiplying the ROI percentage by
a. fixed costs.
b. total assets.
c. total costs.
d. variable costs.

Use the following information for questions 38-39.

Downing Company produces a high resolution computer monitor. The following

information is available for this product:
Fixed cost per unit $ 50
 Variable cost per unit 150
Total cost per unit 200
Desired ROI per unit 60
38. Downing Company's markup percentage would be
a. 120%.
b. 60%.
c. 40%.
d. 30%.
39. The target selling price for this monitor is
a. $110.
b. $200.
c. $210.
d. $260.

40. In time and material pricing, a material loading charge covers all of the following
except
a. purchasing costs.
b. related overhead.
c. desired profit margin.
d. all of these are covered.

41. The first step for time and material pricing is to calculate the
a. charge for obtaining materials.
b. charge for holding materials.
c. labor charge per hour.
d. charges for a particular job.

42. The labor charge per hour in time and material pricing includes all of the following
except
a. an allowance for a desired profit.
b. charges for labor loading.
c. selling and administrative costs.
d. overhead costs.

43. The last step in determining the material loading charge percentage is to
a. estimate annual costs for purchasing, receiving, and storing materials.
b. estimate the total cost of parts and materials.
c. divide material charges by the total estimated costs of parts and materials.
d. add a desired profit margin on the materials themselves.

44. In time and material pricing, the charge for a particular job is the sum of the labor
charge and the
a. materials charge.
b. material loading charge.
c. materials charge + desired profit.
d. materials charge + the material loading charge.

Use the following information for questions 45-47.

The following data is available for Computer Bytes Repair Shop for 2003:
Repair technician's wages $ 90,000
 Fringe benefits 20,000
Overhead 15,000
Total $125,000
The desired profit margin is $10 per labor hour. The material loading charge is 40% of
invoice cost. It is estimated that 5,000 labor hours will be worked in 2003.

45. Computer Bytes’ labor charge in 2003 would be

a. $25.
b. $28.
c. $32.
d. $35.
46. In January 2003, Computer Bytes repairs a computer that uses parts of $80. Its
material loading charge on this repair would be
a. $32.
b. $48.
c. $80.
d. $112.

47. In March 2003, Computer Bytes repairs a computer that takes two hours to repair
and uses parts of $60. The bill for this computer repair would be
a. $130.
b. $140.
c. $148.
d. $154.

48. Negotiated transfer pricing is not always used because of each of the following
reasons except that
a. market price information is sometimes not easily obtainable.
b. a lack of trust between the negotiating divisions may lead to a breakdown in
the negotiations.
c. negotiations often lead to different pricing strategies from division to division.
d. opportunity cost is sometimes not determinable.

49. All of the following are approaches for determining a transfer price except the
a. cost-based approach.
b. market-based approach.
c. negotiated approach.
d. time and material approach.

50. When a cost-based transfer price is used, the transfer price may be based on
any of the following except
a. fixed cost.
b. full cost.
c. variable cost.
d. all of these may be used.

51. All of the following are correct statements about the cost-based transfer price
approach except that it
a. can understate the actual contribution to profit by the selling division.
b. can reduce a division manager's control over the division's performance.
 c. bases the transfer price on standard cost instead of actual cost.
d. provides incentive for the selling division to control costs.

52. The general formula for the minimum transfer price is: minimum transfer price
equals
a. fixed cost + opportunity cost.
b. external purchase price.
c. total cost + opportunity cost.
d. variable cost + opportunity cost.
53. Variable costs of units sold internally will always be
a. lower than the variable costs of units sold externally.
b. higher than the variable costs of units sold externally.
c. the same as the variable costs of units sold externally.
d. Variable costs of units sold internally may be either higher or lower than for
units sold externally.

54. In the formula for the minimum transfer price, opportunity cost is the __________
of the goods sold externally.
a. variable cost
b. total cost
c. selling price
d. contribution margin

55. The transfer price approach that conceptually should work the best is the
a. cost-based approach.
b. market-based approach.
c. negotiated price approach.
d. time and material pricing approach.

56. The transfer price approach that is often considered the best approach because
it generally provides the proper economic incentives is the
a. cost-based approach.
b. market-based approach.
c. negotiated price approach.
d. time and material pricing approach.

57. All of the following are correct statements about the market-based approach
except that it
a. assumes that the transfer price should be based on the most objective inputs
possible.
b. provides a fairer allocation of the company's contribution margin to each
division.
c. produces a higher company contribution margin than the cost-based
approach.
d. ensures that each division manager is properly motivated and rewarded.

58. The negotiated transfer price approach should be used when

a. the selling division has available capacity and is willing to accept less than
the market price.
b. an outside market for the goods does not exist.
c. no market price is available.
d. any of these situations exist.

59. Assuming the selling division has available capacity, a negotiated transfer price
should be within the range of
a. fixed cost per unit and the external purchase price.
b. total cost per unit and the external purchase price.
c. variable cost per unit and the external purchase price.
d. none of these is correct.
60. The transfer price approach that will result in the largest contribution margin to
the buying division is the
a. cost-based approach.
b. market-based approach.
c. negotiated price approach.
d. time and material pricing approach.
61. The maximum transfer price from the buying division's standpoint is the
a. total cost + opportunity cost.
b. variable cost + opportunity cost.
c. external purchase price.
d. external purchase price + opportunity cost.

Use the following information for questions 62-63.

The Rubber Division of Morgan Company manufactures rubber moldings and sells them
externally for $50. Its variable cost is $20 per unit, and its fixed cost per unit is $7.
Morgan's president wants the Rubber Division to transfer 5,000 units to another
company division at a price of $27.

62. Assuming the Rubber Division has available capacity of 5,000 units, the
minimum transfer price it should accept is
a. $7.
b. $20.
c. $27.
d. $50.

63. Assuming the Rubber Division does not have any available capacity, the
minimum transfer price it should accept is
a. $7.
b. $20.
c. $27.
d. $50.

64. All of the following are correct statements about transfers between divisions
located in countries with different tax rates except that
a. differences in tax rates across countries complicate the determination of the
appro-priate transfer price.
b. many companies prefer to report more income in countries with low tax rates.
c. companies must pay income tax in the country where income is generated.
d. a decreasing number of transfers are between divisions located in different
countries.

65. Transfers between divisions located in countries with different tax rates
a. simplify the determination of the appropriate transfer price.
b. are decreasing in number as more companies "localize" operations.
c. encourage companies to report more income in countries with low tax rates.
d. all of these are correct.

*66. Which of the following is consistent with generally accepted accounting

principles?
a. Absorption cost approach
 b. Contribution approach
c. Variable-cost approach
d. Both absorption cost and contribution approach

*67. Under the absorption cost approach, all of the following are included in the cost
base except
a. direct materials.
b. fixed manufacturing overhead.
c. selling and administrative costs.
d. variable manufacturing overhead.
*68. The first step in the absorption cost approach is to compute the
a. desired ROI per unit.
b. markup percentage.
c. target selling price.
d. unit manufacturing cost.

*69. The markup percentage in the absorption cost approach is computed by dividing
the sum of the desired ROI per unit and
a. fixed costs per unit by manufacturing cost per unit.
b. fixed costs per unit by variable costs per unit.
c. selling and administrative expenses per unit by manufacturing cost per unit.
d. selling and administrative expenses per unit by variable costs per unit.

*70. In the absorption cost approach, the markup percentage covers the
a. desired ROI only.
b. desired ROI and selling and administrative expenses.
c. desired ROI and fixed costs.
d. selling and administrative expenses only.

*71. The absorption cost approach is used by most companies for all of the following
reasons except that
a. absorption cost information is readily provided by a company's cost
accounting system.
b. absorption cost provides the most defensible bases for justifying prices to
interested parties.
c. basing prices on only variable costs could encourage managers to set too low
a price to boost sales.
d. this approach is more consistent with cost-volume-profit analysis.

*72. Under the contribution approach, the cost base includes all of the following
except
a. fixed manufacturing costs.
b. variable manufacturing costs.
c. total fixed costs.
d. variable selling and administrative costs.

*73. In the contribution approach, the markup percentage covers the

a. desired ROI only.
b. desired ROI and fixed costs.
c. desired ROI and selling and administrative expenses.
d. fixed costs only.
 *74. The markup percentage denominator in the contribution approach is the
a. desired ROI per unit.
b. fixed costs per unit.
c. manufacturing cost per unit.
d. variable costs per unit.

*75. The reasons for using the contribution approach include all of the following
except this approach
a. avoids arbitrary allocation of common fixed costs to individual product lines.
b. is more consistent with cost-volume-profit analysis.
c. provides the most defensible bases for justifying prices to all interested
parties.
d. provides the type of data managers need for pricing special orders.

Answers to Multiple Choice Questions

Item Ans. Item Ans. Item Ans. Item Ans. Item Ans. Item Ans. Item Ans.
26. d 34. b 42. b 50. a 58. d *66. a *74. d
b 35. a 43. d 51. d 59. c *67. c *75. c
c 36. c 44. d 52. d 60. a *68. d
d 37. b 45. d 53. d 61. c *69. c
d 38. d 46. a 54. d 62. b *70. b
c 39. d 47. d 55. c 63. d *71. d
b 40. d 48. d 56. b 64. d *72. c
33. c 41. c 49. d 57. c 65. c *73. b

EXERCISES
Ex. 76
Sole Company is considering introducing a new line of hand-held organizers targeting
the preteen population. Sole believes that if the organizers can be priced competitively at
$90, approximately 500,000 units can be sold. The controller has determined that an
investment in new equipment totaling $8,000,000 will be required. Sole requires a
minimum rate of return of 14% on all investments.

Instructions
Compute the target cost per unit of the handheld organizer.

Solution 76 (6-10 min.)

Sales (500,000 × $90) $45,000,000
 Less desired ROI ($8,000,000 × 14%) 1,120,000
Target cost for 500,000 units $43,880,000

Target cost per unit = $43,880,000 ÷ 500,000 = $87.76

Ex. 77
Carter Corporation produces window air conditioners. The following information is
available for Carter's anticipated annual volume of 400,000 units.
Per Unit Total
Direct materials $21
Direct labor 27
Variable manufacturing overhead 36
Fixed manufacturing overhead $6,000,000
Variable selling and administrative expenses 42
Fixed selling and administrative expenses 3,600,000

The company has a desired ROI of 25%. It has invested assets of $72,000,000.

Ex. 77 (cont.)

Instructions
Compute each of the following:
1. Total cost per unit.
2. Desired ROI per unit.
3. Markup percentage using total cost per unit.
4. Target selling price.

Solution 77 (12 min.)

1. Total cost per unit:
Per Unit
Direct materials $ 21
Direct labor 27
Variable manufacturing overhead 36
Fixed manufacturing overhead ($6,000,000 ÷ 400,000 15
Variable selling and administrative expenses 42
Fixed selling and administrative expenses ($3,600,000 ÷ 400,000) 9
$150

2. Desired ROI per unit = (25% × $72,000,000) ÷ 400,000 = $45

$45 + $0
3. Markup percentage using total cost per unit = ———— = 30%
$150
4. Target selling price = $150 + ($150 × 30%) = $195

Ex. 78
Barkley Corporation is in the process of setting a selling price for a new product it has
just designed. The following data relate to this product for a budgeted volume of 60,000
units.
Per Unit Total
Direct materials $10
Direct labor 20
Variable manufacturing overhead 5
Fixed manufacturing overhead $900,000
Variable selling and administrative expenses 3
Fixed selling and administrative expenses 540,000
Barkley uses cost-plus pricing to set its target selling price. The markup on total unit cost
is 25%.

Instructions
Compute each of the following for the new product:
1. Total variable cost per unit, total fixed cost per unit, and total cost per unit.
2. Desired ROI per unit.
3. Target selling price.

Solution 78 (18 min.)

1. Direct materials $10
Direct labor 20
Variable manufacturing overhead 5
Variable selling and administrative expenses 3
Variable cost per unit $38

Budgeted Cost
Total Costs Volume Per Unit
Fixed manufacturing overhead $900,000 ÷ 60,000 = $15
Fixed selling and administrative expenses 540,000 ÷ 60,000 = 9
Fixed cost per unit $24

Variable cost per unit $38

Fixed cost per unit 24
Total cost per unit $62

2. Total cost per unit $62

Markup × 25%
Desired ROI per unit $15.50

3. Total cost per unit $62.00

 Desired ROI per unit 15.50
Target selling price $77.50

Ex. 79
Whiz-by Company is in the process of setting a selling price for its newest model
scooter, the Zip. The controller of Whiz-by estimates variable cost per unit for the new
model to be as follows:
Direct materials $30
Direct labor 26
Variable manufacturing overhead 8
Variable selling and administrative expenses 10
$74

In addition, Whiz-by anticipates incurring the following fixed cost per unit at a budgeted
sales volume of 20,000 units:
Total Costs ÷ Budget Volume =
Cost per Unit
Fixed manufacturing overhead $480,000 20,000 $24
Fixed selling and administrative expenses 520,000 20,000 26
Fixed cost per unit $50

Whiz-by uses cost-plus pricing and would like to earn a 12 percent return on its
investment (ROI) of $500,000.

Instructions
Compute the selling price that would provide Whiz-by a 12 percent ROI.
Solution 79 (6 - 10 min.)
Variable cost per unit $ 74
Fixed cost per unit 50
Desired ROI per unit 3*
Target selling price $127
*$50,000 × .12 = $60,000; $60,000 ÷ 20,000 = $3 per unit

Ex. 80
Sparks Engine Service repairs and rebuilds diesel engines. The following budgeted cost
data is available for 2003:
Time Material
Charges Charges
Technicians' wages and benefits $300,000
Parts manager's salary and benefits $ 36,000
Office manager's salary and benefits 56,000 9,000
Other overhead 24,000 55,000
Total budgeted costs $380,000 $100,000

Sparks has budgeted for 10,000 hours of technician time during the coming year. It
desires a $32 profit margin per hour of labor and a 50% profit margin on parts. Sparks
estimates the total invoice cost of parts and materials in 2003 will be $500,000.

Instructions
1. Compute the rate charged per hour of labor.
2. Compute the material loading charge.
3. Sparks has received a request from Mercer Corporation for an estimate to rebuild a
diesel engine. The company estimates that it would take 20 hours of labor and
$4,000 of parts. Compute the total estimated bill.

Solution 80 (18-20 min.)

1. Per Hour
Total Cost Total Hours Charge
Hourly labor rate for repairs
Technicians' wages and benefits $300,000 ÷ 10,000 = $30.00
Overhead costs
Office manager's salary and benefits 56,000 ÷ 10,000 = 5.60
Other overhead 24,000 ÷ 10,000 = 2.40
$380,000 ÷ 10,000 = 38.00
Profit margin 32.00
Rate charged per hour of labor $70.00
Solution 80 (cont.)
2.
Material
Material Total Invoice Cost,
Loading
Charges Parts and Materials
Charge
Overhead costs
Parts manager's salary and benefits $36,000
Office manager's salary and benefits 9,000
$45,000 ÷ $500,000 = 9%
Other overhead 55,000 ÷ $500,000 =
11%
20%
Profit margin 50%
Material loading charge 70%

3. Job: Mercer Corporation

Labor charges
20 hours @ $70 $1,400
Material charges
Cost of parts and materials $4,000
Material loading charge (70% × $4,000) 2,800 6,800
Total price of labor and materials $8,200

Ex. 81
Frank's Transmission Service has budgeted the following time and material for 2002:

BUDGETED COSTS FOR 2002

Time Material
Charges Charges
Mechanics' wages and benefits $ 72,000
Service manager's salary and benefits $ 42,000
Office employee's salary and benefits 24,000 6,000
Cost of parts used 100,000
Overhead (supplies, utilities, etc.) 20,000 17,000
Total budgeted costs $116,000 $165,000

Frank budgets 4,000 hours of repair time in 2002 and will charge a profit of $6 per hour,
in addition to a 25% markup on the cost of parts.

On February 15, 2002, Frank is asked to prepare a price estimate to rebuild the
transmission in a 1997 Lincoln Navigator. Frank estimates that this job will take 12 labor
hours and $300 in parts.
Instructions
1. Compute the labor rate for 2002.
2. Compute the material loading charge rate for 2002.
3. Prepare a time and materials price estimate for rebuilding the Navigator
transmission.

Solution 81 (18-20 min.)

1. Computation of labor rate
Total Cost Total Hours Per Hour
Charge
Hourly labor rate for repairs
Mechanics' wages and benefits $ 72,000 ÷ 4,000 = $18
Overhead costs
Office employee's salary and benefits 24,000 ÷ 4,000 = 6
Other overhead 20,000 ÷ 4,000 = 5
$116,000 ÷ 4,000 = 29
Profit margin 6
Rate charged per hour of labor $35

2. Computation of material loading charge

Material
Material Total Invoice Cost,
Loading
Charges Parts and Materials
Charge
Overhead costs
Service manager's salary and benefits $42,000
Office employee's salary and benefits 6,000
48,000 ÷ $100,000 = 48%
Other overhead 17,000 ÷ 100,000 = 17%
$65,000 ÷ 100,000 = 65%
Profit margin 25%
Material loading charge 90%

3. Price estimate for time and materials

Job: Rebuild Navigator transmission

Labor charges: 12 hours @ $35 $420

Material charges
Cost of parts and materials $300
Material loading charge (90% × $300) 270 570
Total price of labor and materials $990
Ex. 82
Mathis Corporation manufactures automotive compact disc changers. It is a division of
American Motors, which manufactures automobiles. Mathis sells the CD changers to
American, as well as to retail stores. The following information is available for Mathis's
CD changer: variable cost per unit $105; fixed costs per unit $75; and a selling price of
$260 to outside customers. American currently purchases CD changers from an outside
supplier for $240 each. Top management of American would like Mathis to provide
50,000 changers per year at a transfer price of $105 each.

Instructions
Compute the minimum transfer price that Mathis should accept under each of the
following assumptions:
1. Mathis is operating at full capacity.
2. Mathis has sufficient excess capacity to provide the 50,000 changers to American.

Solution 82 (9 min.)
1. The minimum transfer price is $260 [$105 + ($260 – $105)], the outside market
price, since Mathis is operating at full capacity.

2. The minimum transfer price is $105, the variable cost of the changers, since Mathis
has excess capacity. However, since the market price is $240 (American's current
cost), Mathis should be able to negotiate a price much higher than $105.

Ex. 83
Modine Manufacturing, a division of Datson Corporation, produces car radiators. Modine
sells radiators to auto parts stores, as well as to Datson. The following information is
available for Modine's radiators:
Fixed costs per unit $ 90
Variable cost per unit 60
Selling price per unit 215

Datson can purchase comparable radiators from an outside supplier for $200. In order to
ensure a reliable supply, Datson's management ordered Modine to provide 100,000
radiators per year at a transfer price of $200 per unit. Modine is currently operating at full
capacity. It could avoid $4 per unit of variable selling costs by selling internally.

Instructions
1. Compute the minimum transfer price that Modine should be required to accept.
2. Compute the increase (decrease) in contribution margin for Datson for this transfer.
Solution 83 (9 min.)
1. The minimum transfer price that Modine should accept is:

($60 – $4 + ($215 – $60) = $211

2. The decrease in contribution margin per unit to Datson is:

Contribution margin lost by Modine ($215 – $60) $155

Increased contribution margin to vehicle division ($200 – $56) 144
Net decrease in contribution margin $ 11

Total contribution margin decrease is:

$11 × 100,000 units = $1,100,000
Ex. 84
Allcell Manufacturing is a division of Birch Communications, Inc. Allcell produces cell
phones and sells these phones to other communication companies, as well as to Birch.
Recently, the vice president of marketing for Birch approached Allcell with a request to
make 20,000 units of a special cell phone that could be used anywhere in the world. The
following information is available regarding the Allcell division:

Selling price of regular cell phone $80

Variable cost of regular cell phone 45
Additional variable cost of special cell phone 30

Instructions
Calculate the minimum transfer price and indicate whether the internal transfer should
occur for each of the following:
1. The marketing vice president offers to pay Allcell $95 per phone. Allcell has available
capacity.

2. The marketing vice president offers to pay Allcell $95 per phone. Allcell has no
available capacity and would have to forgo sales of 20,000 phones to existing
customers to meet this request.

3. The marketing vice president offers to pay Allcell $145 per phone. Allcell has no
available capacity and would have to forgo sales of 30,000 phones to existing
customers to meet this request.

Solution 84 (13 min.)

1. Assuming that Allcell Manufacturing has available capacity, variable cost would be
($45 + $30) or $75 and the opportunity cost would be zero. Therefore, the minimum
transfer price would be $75 = $75 + $0. Since the $95 transfer price being offered
exceeds the $75 minimum transfer price, the offer should be accepted.

2. Assuming no available capacity, and that the new units produced would be equal to
the number of standard units forgone, variable cost of the special cell phone would
be ($45 + $30) or $75 and the opportunity cost would be ($80 - $45) or $35.
Therefore, the minimum transfer price would be $110 = $75 + $35. Since this is
higher than the $95 transfer price, Allcell Manufacturing should reject the offer.

3. Assuming no available capacity, and that in order to produce the 20,000 special cell
phones, 30,000 standard cell phones would be forgone, the minimum variable cost
would be ($45 + $30) or $75 and the opportunity cost would be:

Total contribution margin on standard cell phones ($80 – $45) × 30,000

—————————————————————— = —————————— = $52.50
Number of special cell phones $20,000

Therefore, the minimum transfer price would be $127.50 = ($45 + $30) + $52.50.
Since the $145 transfer price being offered exceeds the minimum transfer price of
$127.50, Allcell Manufacturing should accept the offer.
Ex. 85
Pubworld is a textbook publishing company that has contracts with several different
authors. It also operates a printing operation called Printpro. Both companies operate as
separate profit centers. Printpro prints textbooks written by Pubworld authors, as well as
books written by non-Pubworld authors. The printing operation bills out at $0.02 per
page and a typical textbook requires 600 pages of print. A developmental editor from
Pubworld approached the printing operation manager offering to pay $0.012 per page for
5,000 copies of a 600-page textbook. Outside printers are currently charging $0.015 per
page. Printpro's variable cost per page is $0.01.

Instructions
1. Calculate the appropriate transfer price and indicate whether the printing should be
done internally by Printpro under each of the following situations:
a. Printpro has available capacity.
b. Printpro has no available capacity and would have to cancel an outside
customer's job to accept the editor's offer.

2. Calculate the change in contribution margin for each company, if top management
forces Printpro to accept the $0.012 transfer price when it has no available capacity.

Solution 85 (13 min.)

1a. Assuming that the printing operation has available capacity, the printing operation's
variable cost is $0.01 and its opportunity cost is $0. The minimum transfer price
would be $0.01 = $0.01 + $0. Therefore, in this case, the printing operation should
accept the offer to print internally. The $0.012 transfer price would provide a
contribution margin of ($0.012 - $0.01) or $0.002 per page. Depending on its
bargaining strength, the printing operation might want to ask for a transfer price
higher than $0.012, since the company is saving money at any price below the
$0.015 price charged by outside printers.

1b. Assuming no available capacity, the printing operation's variable cost is $0.01 per
page and its opportunity cost is ($0.02 – $0.01) or $0.01 per page. The minimum
transfer price would be $0.02 = $0.01 + $0.01. Therefore, the printing would not
accept the internal transfer price of $0.012.

2. Printpro would lose:

($0.02 - $0.01) × 600 pages × 5,000 copies = $30,000

Pubworld would save:

($0.015 – $0.012) × 600 pages × 5,000 copies = $9,000
*Ex. 86
The following information is available for a product manufactured by Wilson Corporation:
Per Unit Total
Direct materials $125
Direct labor 95
Variable manufacturing overhead 30
Fixed manufacturing overhead $500,000
Variable selling and admin. expenses 20
Fixed selling and admin. expenses 110,000

Wilson has a desired ROI of 16%. It has invested assets of $16,500,000 and expects to
produce 2,000 units per year.

Instructions
Compute each of the following:
1. Cost per unit of fixed manufacturing overhead and fixed selling and administrative
expenses.
2. Desired ROI per unit.
3. Markup percentage using the absorption cost approach.
4. Markup percentage using the contribution approach.

*Solution 86 (12-14 min.)

$500,000 per unit
1. Fixed manufacturing overhead = ———————— = $250 per unit
2,000
$110,000
Fixed selling and administrative expenses per unit = ———— = $55 per unit
2,000

16% × $16,500,000
2. Desired ROI per unit = ————————— = $1,320 per unit
2,000

$1,320 + ($20 + $55)

3. Absorption cost markup percentage = ——————————— = 279%
$125 + $95 + $30 + $250

$1,320 + ($250 + $55)

4. Contribution markup percentage = ——————————— = 602%
$125 + $95 + $30 + $20

*Ex. 87
Peachtree Doors, Inc. is in the process of setting a target price on its newly designed
patio door. Cost data relating to the door at a budgeted volume of 5,000 units is as
follows:

Per Unit Total

 Direct materials $250
Direct labor 170
Variable manufacturing overhead 80
Fixed manufacturing overhead $500,000
Variable selling and administrative expenses 25
Fixed selling and administrative expenses 375,000

*Ex. 87 (cont.)
Peachtree uses cost-plus pricing that provides it with a 25% ROI on its patio door line. A
total of $4,000,000 in assets is committed to production of the new door.

Instructions
1. Compute each of the following under the absorption approach:
a. Markup percentage needed to provide desired ROI.
b. Target price of the patio door.

2. Compute each of the following under the contribution approach:

a. Markup percentage needed to provide desired ROI.
b. Target price of the patio door.

*Solution 87 (12-14 min.)

1. Absorption approach
a. Computation of unit manufacturing cost:
Per Unit
Direct materials $250
Direct labor 170
Variable manufacturing overhead 80
Fixed manufacturing overhead ($500,000 ÷ 5,000) 100
Total manufacturing cost $600

Computation of markup percentage to provide a 25% ROI:

Markup [25% × ($4,000,000 ÷ 5,000)] + [$25 + ($375,000 ÷ 5,000)]

$300
Percentage = —————————————————————————— =
—— = 50%
$600
$600

b. Computation of target price:

Target price: $600 + (50% × $600) = $900

2. Contribution approach
a. Computation of unit variable cost:
Per Unit
Direct materials $250
Direct labor 170
Variable manufacturing overhead 80
Variable selling and administrative expenses 25
 Total variable cost $525

Computation of markup percentage to provide a 25% ROI:

Markup [25% × ($4,000,000 ÷ 5,000)] + [($500,000 ÷ 5,000) + ($375,000 ÷

5,000)] Percentage =
—————————————————————————————————
$525
$375
= —— = 71.429%
$525

b. Computation of target price:

Target price: $525 + (71.429% × $525) = $900

COMPLETION STATEMENTS
88. The difference between the target price and the desired profit is the
_________________ cost of the product.

89. In the cost-plus pricing formula, the target selling price equals cost +
(________________ × cost).

90. The _______________ pricing approach has a major advantage: it is simple to

compute.

91. Under the time and material pricing approach, the material charge is based on
the cost of direct materials used and a material __________________ for related
overhead costs.

92. The transfer of goods between divisions of the same company is termed
_____________ sales.

93. The three approaches for determining a transfer price are negotiated,
________________ based, and _________________ based transfer prices.

94. To ensure that the selling division attempts to control its costs, the transfer price
should be based on _________________ cost instead of actual cost.

95. The formula for the minimum transfer price is: Minimum transfer price = Variable
cost + ___________________.

96. __________________ involves contracting with an external party to provide a

good or service, rather than performing the work internally.
97. The __________________ approach is consistent with generally accepted
accounting principles because it defines the cost base as the manufacturing cost.

Answers to Completion Statements

88. target
89. markup percentage
90. cost-plus
91. loading charge
92. internal
93. cost, market
94. standard
95. Opportunity cost
96. Outsourcing
97. absorption cost

MATCHING
98. Match the items in the two columns below by entering the appropriate code letter
in the space provided.

A. Cost-plus pricing E. Outsourcing

B. Market-based transfer price F. Target selling price
C. Markup G. Time and material pricing
D. Negotiated transfer price H. Virtual companies

____ 1. Contracting with an external party to provide a good or service.

____ 2. An approach to cost-plus pricing that uses two pricing rates.

____ 3. Product's selling price is determined by adding a markup to a cost base.

____ 4. Transfer price is determined by agreement of division managers.

____ 5. Companies that have no manufacturing facilities.

____ 6. Percentage applied to a product's cost.

____ 7. Price that will provide the desired profit on a product.

____ 8. Transfer price is based on existing prices of competing products.

Answers to Matching
1. E 5. H
2. G 6. C
3. A 7. F
4. D 8. B
 SHORT-ANSWER ESSAY QUESTIONS
S-A E 99
A variation on cost-plus pricing is time and material pricing. Under this approach, two
pricing rates are set.

Required:
Explain where this approach is used and identify the steps involved in time and material
pricing. Also explain what the material loading charge covers and how it is expressed.

Solution 99
The time and material pricing approach is used often in service industries, especially
professional firms and consulting firms. This approach involves three steps: (1) calculate
the labor charge per hour, (2) calculate the charge for obtaining and holding materials,
and (3) calculate the charges for a particular job. The material loading charge covers the
costs of purchasing, handling, and storing materials, plus any desired profit margin on
the materials. It is expressed as a percentage of the total estimated costs of parts and
materials.

S-A E 100
There are three possible approaches for determining a transfer price: negotiated, cost-
based, and market-based transfer prices.

Required:
Explain how the transfer price is determined under each of the approaches.

Solution 100
Under the negotiated transfer price approach, the transfer price will range between the
external purchase price per unit and the sum of unit variable cost and unit opportunity
cost. In the cost-based approach, the transfer price is based on either the full cost or the
variable cost of the selling division. Under the market-based approach, the minimum
transfer price is the unit variable cost plus the unit opportunity cost.