Construction and Building Materials 81 (2015) 257–267

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Influence of fineness of ground recycled glass on mitigation

of alkali–silica reaction in mortars
Kaveh Afshinnia a,1, Prasada Rao Rangaraju b,⇑
a
Rm. 123 Lowry Hall, Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
b
Rm. 220 Lowry Hall, Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA

h i g h l i g h t s

 The effect of fineness of glass powder (GP) on ASR mitigation ability was evaluated.
 The benefits of using GP as both SCM and as an aggregate material to mitigate ASR were evaluated.
 Microstructural studies were conducted to determine the nature of distress in test specimens.
 GP when used as an aggregate material showed significant benefits in mitigating ASR.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The use of waste glass, both as a crushed glass aggregate and in a finely ground form, as a pozzolanic
Received 20 October 2014 material in concrete has been extensively studied in the past. However, the combined use of finely
Received in revised form 23 January 2015 ground glass powders with crushed glass aggregates has not been previously explored, as this presents
Accepted 18 February 2015
a unique opportunity to not only maximize the use of waste glass in concrete but also potentially address
Available online 4 March 2015
the alkali–silica reaction issues, often associated with the use of crushed glass aggregates in concrete.
This study focused on studying the influence of fineness of glass powder in mitigating alkali–silica reac-
Keywords:
tion in mortar specimens containing crushed glass aggregate and a natural reactive aggregate. In these
Glass powder
Alkali–silica reaction
studies the glass powders were used both as a cement replacement material and as an aggregate replace-
Durability ment material. Two different fineness of glass powder were evaluated in this study, with an average
Glass aggregate particle size of 17 and 70 microns. Mortar bars prepared with glass powder as aggregate replacement
Pozzolan material at 10%, 20% and 30% replacement levels were evaluated in the standard ASTM C1260 test
Sustainability method. Mortar bars prepared with glass powder as cement replacement material at 10% and 20% were
evaluated in the standard ASTM C1567 test method. The results from these studies showed that the finer
glass powder showed significantly improved ability to mitigate ASR, particularly when used as an aggre-
gate replacement material, both in the case of crushed glass and natural reactive aggregates. This study
shows that an aggregate comprised of 100% glass material can be produced without any deleterious
consequences of alkali–silica reaction, provided sufficient quantity of fine glass powder is used in the
mixture.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction materials (SCMs) such as fly ash, slag, meta-kaolin. As a cement

replacement material is beneficial not only to reduce the overall
1.1. Background usage of cement, but also to significantly improve the mechanical
and durability properties of concrete [1–4]. While the use of SCMs
Among the different ways to reduce the carbon footprint of such as fly ash, slag, silica fume and others is well established,
Portland cement concrete, the use of supplementary cementitious alternative sources of SCMs derived from waste streams present
an opportunity to not only reduce the burden of disposal of these
waste streams but also help alleviate the carbon footprint concerns
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 864 656 1241. of concrete industry.
E-mail addresses: kafshin@clemson.edu (K. Afshinnia), prangar@clemson.edu Glass-based food and drink containers make up a significant
(P.R. Rangaraju). proportion of the glass waste generated in the US. Based on a
1
Tel.: +1 864 656 1241.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.02.041
0950-0618/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
258 K. Afshinnia, P.R. Rangaraju / Construction and Building Materials 81 (2015) 257–267
report from Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 2012 on
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), it is estimated that 11.6 mil-
lion tons of glass was produced in 2012, of which only 28% was
recovered for recycling [5]. Recycling glass conserves a large quan-
tity of raw materials needed for production of new glass. For exam-
ple, for every ton of glass recycled, 1300 lb of sand (Si2O), 410 lb of
soda ash (Na2CO3), 380 lb of limestone (CaCO3) and 160 lb of feld-
spar (NaAlSi3O8) are conserved. The rate of recycling for waste
glass has steadily increased from 750,000 tons in 1980 to more
than 3 million tons in 2012 [5]. One impediment to recycling glass
is that glass comes in different colors, and typically the glass waste
stream comes in a commingled fashion. Commingled glass (i.e.
glass containers with different colors) cannot be collectively pro-
cessed due to the problems that arise from differences in melting
temperatures of each type of glass and the incompatibilities in
composition of glasses with different colors (Glass Packaging Insti-
tute, Website Access, EPA Website). Sorting of the glass by color is
essential in achieving a more efficient recycling program. However,
sorting facilities for glass containers are expensive and as a result
large amount of commingled glass that is not processed to form
cullet for reuse in production of new glass containers is landfilled.
1.2. Previous research on the use of recycled glass in concrete
The high silica content of soda glass typically used in bottled
containers (approximately 70%), can render a finely ground glass
some pozzolanic properties that can be beneficial for use with
Portland cement. A large number of studies have been carried
out to assess the pozzolanic reactivity of glass powder, obtained
by grinding bottled glass, in concrete when used as partial replace-
ment of cement [6–14]. A study by Shi et al. showed that the
strength activity index for mortars prepared with glass powder
having an average size of 100 microns is approximately 74% [6].
Also, it was found that by decreasing the glass powder size from
100 microns to approximately 10 microns the pozzolanic activity
of the glass powder was increased by 49% [6]. Shayan et al. used
glass powder with a maximum particle size of 10 microns as a
cement replacement material at 20% and 30% replacement level
by mass, in both lab and field studies, and concluded that the con-
crete specimens containing 20% glass powder as a cement replace-
ment had met the strength requirement of 5800 psi at 28 days.
Also, he showed that glass powder could improve the resistance
of concrete to chloride permeability [7]. A comparison study was
carried out by Maddalena et al. to evaluate the effect of glass pow-
der fineness when replaced as partial replacement of Portland
cement on pozzolanic activity, electrical resistivity, sulfate attack,
and chloride penetration of concrete specimens. In all of their stud-
ies, significant enhancement in the concrete properties was
observed when glass powder was employed in the mixtures [8].
For instance, his study showed that the compressive strength of
the specimens containing 30% glass powder with an average size
of around 10 microns was comparable to the compressive strength
of the control specimens. In other study by Nwaubani et al., glass
powder with an average size of 300 microns did not show any poz-
zolanic behavior [9]. Based on the findings from published studies,
the size of glass powder plays an important role in the pozzolanic
behavior of this material. The finer the glass powder particles, the
more reactive the glass powder is and better properties of concrete
can be achieved.
Although the soda glass contains high levels of alkali oxides
itself, some studies were carried out to evaluate the mitigation
effect of glass powder when used in concrete that were susceptible
to the ASR distresses [15–19]. A study by Dhir et al. was carried out
to evaluate the adequate dosages of glass powder with an average
size of 10 microns in mitigating ASR in concrete prism test (CPT)
[15]. Based on his test results, 30% replacement was found to be
sufficient to mitigate ASR in concrete prism. Glass powder with
an average size of 15 microns was employed by Nassar et al. to
assess its ASR mitigation effect in accelerated mortar bar test
(AMBT) specimens [10]. The results from the study indicate benefi-
cial influence of ground glass in mitigating ASR. Based on several
investigations on the size effectiveness of glass powder on its abil-
ity to mitigate ASR, glass powder when used as a Portland cement
replacement with mineral reactive aggregate, has been found to
mitigate ASR distress in concrete.
1.3. Significance of the proposed research
Virtually all of the research conducted on the use of ground
glass in concrete has focused on its use as a SCM and none have
studied the use of glass powder as an alternate aggregate material.
Also, considering that a partial replacement of cement with glass
powder does not present a high volume usage of waste glass, in
this study the use of glass powder along with crushed glass cullet
as an aggregate material was explored. The intent of this investiga-
tion was to use large volumes of crushed glass as aggregate, at the
same time mitigate any ASR potential of crushed glass aggregate
using the finely ground glass powder by replacing a portion of
the aggregate with the glass powder.
This research study was carried out to study the effect of two
different average particle sizes of glass powder (17-micron and
70-micron) on the pozzolanic reactivity as well as the potential
to mitigate ASR distress. In these studies the glass powder was
used both as a cement replacement material as well as an aggre-
gate replacement material. In tests where glass power was used
as an aggregate replacement material, the primary aggregate was
either crushed glass particles or a crushed argillite, both of which
are highly reactive aggregate materials. In these investigations
accelerated mortar bar tests (AMBT) tests were conducted. In order
to study the microstructure of the specimens and the composition
of the reaction products, polished specimens were examined using
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy X-ray dispersive
analysis (EDX).
2. Experimental program
2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Cement
In this study, a Type I Portland cement with high-alkali content (Na2Oeq =
0.88%) meeting ASTM C150 specification was used [21]. The Blaine’s fineness of
the cement was 382 m2/kg, and the autoclave expansion of the cement was
0.018%, significantly lower than 0.20% limit required in ASTM C1260 specification
[25]. The chemical composition of the cement is given in Table 1.
2.1.2. Glass aggregates
Crushed glass aggregate with an oven-dry specific gravity of 2.42 and an
absorption value of 0.03%, produced from waste soda bottles of different mixed col-
ors was used in this study. A Bico disc-pulverizer with 8-inch ceramic grinding
plates was used to crush the glass cullets to obtain the required size fractions of
the glass aggregates to meet the gradation requirements of ASTM C1260.
2.1.3. Mineral reactive aggregates
A quarried argillite aggregate with an oven-dry specific gravity of 2.75 and
absorption of 0.34% was used in this study as a reactive mineral aggregate.
2.1.4. Fine glass powder
Two different glass powders from two different sources having approximately
identical chemical compositions but different average particle sizes – 17 and
70 microns, were employed in this study. To produce the glass powder with an
average size of 70 microns, crushed glass particles were ground using a Retsch pla-
netary ball mill (PM 100) at a speed setting of 250-rpm for 30 min. The average par-
ticle size of this glass powder was found to be 68.3 microns (approximately
70 microns). The 17-micron average size glass powder was supplied by Argos
USA. Table 1 shows the oxide compositions of cement and both glass powders. Also,
the particle size distribution curve for both glass powders are given in Fig. 1.
 K. Afshinnia, P.R. Rangaraju / Construction and Building Materials 81 (2015) 257–267 259

Table 1 Table 3
Chemical composition of cement and glass powders. Relative proportions of material used in preparation of mortar bars for the AMBT test
(ASTM C1567).
Chemical Cement Glass powder Glass powder
composition (%) (70-micron) (17-micron) Mix Cement Fine
aggregate
SiO2 19.45 70.13 69.6
Cement Glass Glass Glass
Al2O3 4.85 2.32 2.2
(%) powder powder aggregate
Fe2O3 3.79 0.63 0.9
(17 microns) (70 microns) (%)
CaO 61.37 12.61 11.6
(%) (%)
MgO 2.92 0.51 0.4
Na2Oeq 0.88 13.29 12.3 1 100% Cement + 100% 100 100
Loss on Ignition 2.54 1.84 1.5 GL Agg.
2 (90% Cement + 10% 90 10 100
GLP) + 100% GL
Agg. -17 microns
100 3 (80% Cement + 20% 80 20 100
GLP) + 100% GL Agg.
90 70 microns -17 microns
Percentage passing (%)

80 17 microns 4 (90% Cement + 10% 90 10 100

70 GLP) + 100% GL
60 Agg. -70 microns
5 (80% Cement + 20% 80 20 100
50 GLP) + 100% GL Agg.
40 -70 microns
30
20
10 regard; the effect of addition of glass powder on the workability of the mortars
0 was evaluated using the flow test according to the standard procedure per ASTM
0.00 0.01 0.10 1.00 C1437 [22]. In these tests the influence of glass powder dosage rate, as well as
Sieve size (mm) the influence of fineness of the glass powders on the workability of the mortar mix-
tures were evaluated. Glass powder dosage rate of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% as partial
Fig. 1. Particle size distribution curve for both glass powders. replacement of Portland cement by mass were evaluated studied, using both the
17-micron and the 70-micron glass powders. Additionally, control mix without
any glass powder was prepared as a reference mixture.

2.1.5. Fine non-reactive mineral aggregate

Local siliceous sand with a specific gravity of 2.6 and absorption of 1.0% was
used in this study. The fineness modulus of sand is 2.58.
2.2. Mixture proportions
The relative proportions of constituents that were used in preparation of test
specimens for the AMBT test is given in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. In the ASTM
C1260 test glass powder was employed as a partial replacement of either glass
aggregate or Argillite aggregate. In the ASTM C1567 test, glass powder was
employed as a partial replacement of Portland cement. It should be noted that when
glass powders are used as an aggregate replacement, the resultant aggregate grada-
tion does not conform to the requirements specified in the ASTM C1260 test; how-
ever, the workability of the mixtures was found to be adequate to allow for effective
consolidation of mortar in the test specimens. These tests should therefore be con-
sidered as modified AMBT test.
2.3. Experimental test methods
2.3.1. Flow test (ASTM C1437)
Although the flow behavior of mortars in itself is not directly related to the
effectiveness of glass powders in mitigating ASR, to ensure proper consolidation
of test specimens it is essential to have a good workability in mortars. It is in this
2.3.2. Strength activity index (ASTM C311)
Pozzolanic reactivity of the glass powder was evaluated by studying the com-
pressive strength of control and glass powder-dosed mortar cubes as per the stan-
dard test method described in ASTM C311 [23]. Mortar cubes containing 5%, 10%,
15% and 20% glass powder dosages as partial replacement of Portland cement were
cast and cured in the curing room for 24 h. After demolding and curing the test spe-
cimens in lime-saturated water at standard room temperature, the compressive
strength of the cubes was measured at 7, 28, and 56 days.
2.3.3. Thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA)
The consumption of calcium hydroxide due to pozzolanic reaction of glass pow-
der was evaluated using TGA test method. In this test, the mass loss observed
between 450 °C and 500 °C, which represents the typical range of temperature at
which calcium hydroxide decomposes, was studied to determine the amount of cal-
cium hydroxide that is present in the cement paste. The TGA test was conducted in
this study on samples prepared with each of the glass powder sizes to compare the
calcium hydroxide consumption in paste samples at different ages. In this study
paste samples with 10% glass powder dosage, for each of the two sizes of glass pow-
ders, were cast and cured at room temperature. In addition, control samples with no
glass powder were cast to serve as a reference to evaluate the pozzolanic reactivity
of the glass powder. At different ages, representative paste specimens were
obtained from the core part of the test samples and evaluated using TGA to quantify
the consumption of calcium hydroxide.

2.3.4. Accelerated mortar bar test (AMBT-ASTM C1260 & ASTM C1567)
Table 2
To evaluate the effect of glass powder size on its ability to mitigate ASR, accel-
Relative proportions of material used in preparation of mortar bars for the AMBT test
erated mortar bar tests per ASTM C1260 and C1567 were conducted using granular
(ASTM C1260).
crushed glass aggregate (or Natural argillite aggregate) and glass powder as partial
Mix Cement Fine aggregate replacement of Portland cement respectively [24]. In these test methods mortar
(%) bars containing either glass aggregate or mineral reactive aggregate (Argillite aggre-
Argillite Glass Glass gate) were cast and cured in a curing room for 24 h. After demolding, the mortar
aggregate aggregate powder bars were soaked in water and were cured in an oven at 80° C for 24 h. The mortar
(%) (%) (%) bars were then transferred into a container with 1 N NaOH soak solution at 80 °C.
1 100% GL Agg. 100 100 0 Changes in length of the mortar bars were recorded at various points of time, with
2 90% GL Agg. + 10% GLP 100 90 10 the first reading taken right before submerging the mortar bars in the 1 N NaOH
3 80% GL Agg. + 20% GLP 100 80 20 soak solution followed by measurements at periodic intervals after soaking in the
4 70% GL Agg. + 30% GLP 100 70 30 1 N NaOH solution up to 28 days. Mixtures with combination of Portland cement,
5 100% Argillite Agg. 100 100 0 pozzolan, and aggregate that expand less than 0.10% at 14 days are typically consid-
6 90% Argillite Agg. + 10% GLP 100 90 10 ered as a combination that has a low risk for ASR deterioration. Mixtures that result
7 80% Argillite Agg. + 20% GLP 100 80 20 in mortar bar expansions above 0.20% expansion are considered as a combination
8 70% Argillite Agg. + 30% GLP 100 70 30 that has a high risk of ASR deterioration. Mixtures that exhibit mortar bar expan-
sions between 0.10% and 0.20% are considered to represent aggregates that have
GL Agg.: Glass aggregate, GLP: Glass powder. a potential to cause deleterious reactions, however, usually this needs to be
260 K. Afshinnia, P.R. Rangaraju / Construction and Building Materials 81 (2015) 257–267
confirmed by other means such as concrete prism test or long-term field perfor-
mance data. Although, the standard test only requires expansion measurements
up to 14 days from the time the specimens are soaked in 1 N NaOH solution, in
the present study the expansion measurements beyond 14 days were taken to
study the trend in the expansion behavior exhibited by test specimens.
2.3.5. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectral analysis
(EDX)
In this investigation, the microstructural examination of polished sections from
mortar bars subjected to AMBT, containing crushed glass aggregate with and with-
out glass powder was conducted to identify the location and chemical composition
of ASR gel after 56 days. The specimens were prepared by sectioning samples from
the mortar bars using a lapidary saw followed by grinding and polishing the sur-
faces using resin-bonded diamond discs (MD-Piano Discs from Struers Inc.) in grit
sizes from #80 through #2000 using non-aqueous media (glycol and isopropyl alco-
hol) as lubricants and cleaning agents. The SEM examination was conducted in
back-scatter mode using Hitachi TM 3000 unit equipped with a Swift EDX unit hav-
ing a silicon-drift detector. The unit was operated in a variable-pressure mode and
no conductive coating was applied on to the samples. Reported chemical composi-
tion was based on averaged measurements taken from at least three locations with-
in close proximity of each other.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Flow test
Fig. 2 shows the difference in the flow values between control
mortar mixture and mixtures containing glass powders at differ-
ence cement replacement levels.
As shown in Fig. 2, regardless of the fineness of the glass powder
the flow of the mortar mixtures increased gradually with an
increase in the glass powder dosage. In addition, due to the lower
surface area of coarser glass powder (i.e. 70 micron) compared to
that of the finer glass powder (i.e. 17 micron) and the smooth sur-
faces of the fractured faces of the glass particles, mortar mixtures
prepared with coarser glass powder showed better flow character-
istics. This result is in agreement with the study by Wang et al.
[20]. It is presumed that the low absorption value of glass along
with its smooth conchoidal fractured surfaces allow for effective
sliding planes for materials to move about, thus increasing the flow
of the mixture.
3.2. Strength activity index
The strength activity index at 7-, 28- and 56-days of mortar
mixtures containing different glass powder dosages, for both
coarse and fine glass powders, are shown in Fig. 3a–c respectively.
As seen in Fig. 3a at an early age of 7-days, as the dosage of the
glass powder increased from 0% to 20%, the strength activity index
decreased by 41.6% (from 100% to 58.4%) for mixtures containing
coarser glass powder; however for mixtures with finer glass pow-
der, the strength activity index decreased by only 14% (from 100%
to 84%). This suggests that an increase in the fineness of the glass
powder can effectively negate the loss in compressive strength of
40
35 70 microns glass powder
Flow Percentage (%)
17 microns glass powder
30
25
20
15
10
0
5%
Fig. 2. Difference in flow values of mortars between control and glass powder-blended mortar mixtures.
the mortar mixtures containing glass powder. Similar trend is
observed in the evolution of the strength activity index of mortar
mixtures containing glass powders at 28-days, for both levels of
fineness evaluated.
At 56-days the strength activity index of mortar mixtures with
finer glass powder showed a distinct improvement at all dosage
levels, with 10% dosage level showing the maximum compressive
strength amongst all replacement levels evaluated. In fact, the com-
pressive strength of mixtures containing finer glass powder at 5%,
10% and 15% exceeded the compressive strength of the control mix-
ture at 56 days. However, the strength activity index of mixtures
containing coarser glass powder was consistently lower than that
of the control mixture by about 20%, regardless of the dosage level
of glass powder. These results clearly illustrate that a finely ground
glass powder can be used as an effective pozzolanic material at
dosage levels as high as 20% by mass replacement of cement.
3.3. Thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA)
Fig. 4 shows the calcium hydroxide content (as a percent by
mass of hydrated cement paste) over a period of 56 days for control
sample and samples containing 10% glass powders with either 17-
microns or 70-micron particle sizes. In comparing the results at 7,
28 and 56 days, it is evident that the presence or absence of glass
powders of different fineness has a distinct influence on the calci-
um hydroxide content present in the system. The influence of glass
powder on the calcium hydroxide content can be explained
through a combined effect of three mechanisms that may be in
play simultaneously. The three principal mechanisms that affect
the calcium hydroxide content in Portland cement pastes are:
(i) Dilution effect – The amount of calcium hydroxide produced
in a blended cement paste is a function of Portland cement
content alone, and not that of glass powder. Therefore, when
glass powder is added as a cement replacement, the calcium
hydroxide content produced is proportionately reduced.
(ii) Substrate effect – Presence of a substrate surface in a cement
paste matrix allows for a rapid precipitation of calcium
hydroxide during the early stages of cement hydration.
Therefore the presence of a material such as fine glass parti-
cles can allow for rapid precipitation of calcium hydroxide.
This has an accelerating effect on the cement hydration
and thus the amount of calcium hydroxide produced is
increased, particularly at early ages. Similar mechanism
has been proposed in literature when fine particulate mate-
rials such as ground limestone or other fine particulate
materials are added into Portland cement matrices [26].
(iii) Pozzolanic effect – Rapid pozzolanic reaction between calci-
um hydroxide and a highly reactive pozzolan is capable of
reducing the free calcium hydroxide content of cement
paste, particularly at early ages.
10% 15% 20%
Glass powder dosage
 K. Afshinnia, P.R. Rangaraju / Construction and Building Materials 81 (2015) 257–267 261

Strength activity index (%) 17 Microns glass powder 70 Microns glass powder For instance, at 7 days the calcium hydroxide content of sam-
120 ples containing 10% glass powder was less than that of control
100 samples by 2.5% for 70-micron glass particles and 8.9% for 17-mi-
cron glass particles. If these glass powders were inert materials
80
with no pozzolanic reactivity and did not provide any nucleating
60 surface, the calcium hydroxide content of samples with 10% glass
powder should be only about 10% less than that of control samples,
40
simply due to the dilution effect. However, the actual calcium
20 hydroxide contents of these mixtures are only 2.5% and 8.9% less
0 than that of control mixtures. In case of the coarser glass particles,
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% the pozzolanic effect is likely less substantial than that of fine glass
Glass powder replacement levels particles, and therefore only the substrate and the dilution effects
of the glass powder determine the net calcium hydroxide content
(a) 7 days
in the paste. However, in the case of fine glass powder the poz-
zolanic effect is likely significant enough to overcome the substrate
17 Microns glass powder 70 Microns glass powder
120
and dilution effects, and thus the net calcium hydroxide content is
8.9% less than that of the control. It should be noted the actual cal-
Strength activity index (%)

100 cium hydroxide content in both samples (i.e. with coarser and finer
80 glass powders) is still greater than the amount that is predicted
based on dilution effect, i.e. 10% less than that of control sample.
60 At 28 days, the calcium hydroxide content of samples contain-
40 ing 10% glass powder was less than that of control sample by
19% for the finer glass powder (i.e. 17-micron) and by 5.5% for
20
the coarser glass powder (i.e. 70-micron). These results suggest
0 that the coarser glass powder does not show significant pozzolanic
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% reaction even at 28 days. However, when finer glass powder was
Glass powder replacement levels used at 10% dosage level, the high pozzolanic reactivity of glass
(b) 28 days powder resulted in significant consumption of calcium hydroxide.
TGA studies were not conducted on cement pastes containing glass
17 Microns glass powder 70 Microns glass powder
contents greater than 10% in this study, however, it is anticipated
120
that similar trends would be in effect.
Strength activity index (%)

100

80 3.4. Mortar bars expansion (AMBT) studies with crushed glass

aggregate – glass powder was used as partial replacement of Portland
60
cement
40
Fig. 5 shows the expansion behavior of mortar bars prepared
20
with Portland cement in combination with different glass powder
0 dosages. Combination of Portland cement, pozzolan, and aggregate
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% that expand less than 0.10% at 14 days is typically considered as a
Glass powder replacement levels combination that has a low risk of ASR deterioration and therefore
(c) 56 days indicates a level of pozzolan dosage that is effective in mitigating
ASR [26]. The percent reduction in 14-day expansion of mixtures
Fig. 3. Strength activity index of mortar with different glass powder dosages at: (a) containing the two glass powders compared to control mixture is
7 days (b) 28 days (c) 56 days. shown in Fig. 6.

13
Control-No glass powder
Calcium hydroxide content (%)

12 10% Glass powder_70-micron

10% Glass powder_17-micron
11

10

7
7 28 56
Age (days)

Fig. 4. Calcium hydroxide reduction % versus paste age.

262 K. Afshinnia, P.R. Rangaraju / Construction and Building Materials 81 (2015) 257–267

1.6
1.5 Control
1.4 90% OPC+10% GLP-100% GLA-17 microns
1.3 80% OPC+20% GLP-100% GLA-17 microns
1.2 90% OPC+10% GLP-100% GLA-70 microns
1.1
80% OPC+20% GLP-100% GLA-70 microns 0.97
Expansion (%)
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6 0.56
0.5 10% 0.5
0.4 Control dosage 20%
0.3 dosage 0.19
0.2
0.1 0.11
0
0 7 14 21 28
Age (days)

Fig. 5. Mortar bars expansion versus time for samples containing glass powder as a cement replacement (ASTM C1567).

17 Microns glass powder 70 Microns glass powder

this study. For a given replacement level of cement with glass pow-
100 der the 17-micron glass powder offered slightly better mitigation
90 than the 70-micron glass powder. Also, with increasing dosage of
Percentage reduction in

80 glass powders in the mortars, the onset of rapid increase in the rate
expansion, %

70 of expansion in mortar bars is delayed as indicated by the arrows

60 shown in Fig. 5.
50
40
30 3.5. Mortar bars expansion (AMBT) with crushed glass aggregate –
20 glass powder was used as partial replacement of glass aggregate
10
0 Fig. 7 shows the expansion behavior of mortar bars prepared
10% 20%
with glass aggregate in combination with different glass powder
Glass powder replacement levels dosages. In addition, the reduction in 14-day expansion of speci-
mens containing glass powders compared to control specimens is
Fig. 6. Percent reduction in expansion of specimens containing glass powder at
given in Fig. 9a. Mortar bars showing expansion less than 0.10%
14 days compared to control specimens.
at 14 days are considered as non-reactive aggregate in accordance
with ASTM C1260.
Results from Figs. 5 and 6 show that with an increase in the As shown in Fig. 7, the ASR mitigation effect of glass powder
level of cement replacement with either of the two glass powders, when used as an aggregate replacement in mortar is related to
the mortar bar expansions significantly reduced compared to the the particle size of the glass powder. For instance, at a 10%
control mortar bars, however, neither of the two glass powders replacement level by weight of glass aggregate, the use of
were effective in reducing the expansions to below 0.10% at 17-micron and 70-micron glass powders yielded 14-day mortar
14 days at both 10% and 20% replacement levels investigated in bar expansions of 0.25% and 0.60%, respectively. However, with

1.60
1.50 Control-100% GLA
90% GLA+10% GLP- 17 microns
1.40
80% GLA+20% GLP-17 microns
1.30
70% GLA+30%GLP-17 microns
1.20 90% GLA+10% GLP-70 microns
1.10 80% GLA+20% GLP-70 microns
70% GLA+30% GLP-70 microns
Expansion (%)

1.00
0.97
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60 0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.10 0.03
0.00 0.05
0 7 14 21 28
Age (days)

Fig. 7. Mortar bars expansion versus time for samples containing glass aggregate.
 K. Afshinnia, P.R. Rangaraju / Construction and Building Materials 81 (2015) 257–267 263

0.50
100% Argillite aggregate
90% Argillite aggregate+10% GLP-17 microns
80% Argillite aggregate+20% GLP-17 microns
0.40
70% Argillite aggregate+30% GLP-17 microns
90% Argillite aggregate+10% GLP-70 microns
80% Argillite aggregate+20% GLP-70 microns
Expansion(%)
0.30 70% Argillite aggregate+30% GLP-70 microns

0.20

0.10

0.00
0 7 14 21 28
Age (day)

Fig. 8. Mortar bars expansion versus time for samples containing the Argillite aggregate.

17 microns glass powder 70 microns glass powder

17 microns glass powder 70 microns glass powder
100 100
Reduction in expansion (%)
Reduction in expansion (%)

90 90
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
10% 20% 30% 10% 20% 30%
Glass powder replacement levels Glass powder replacement level
(a) Glass aggregate (b) Argillite aggregate
Fig. 9. Percent reduction in expansion of specimens containing glass powder at 14 days compared to control specimens.

increasing replacement levels of glass powder (i.e. at 20% and 30% an expansion of only 0.05% even at 28 days in the test, indicating
aggregate replacement level) the difference between expansions of complete and effective mitigation (i.e. less than 0.10% expansion).
mortar bars with 70-micron and 17-micron glass powders is insig- Table 4 shows the expansions of mortar bars containing crushed
nificant at all ages up to 14 days. Also, it is evident from Fig. 7 that glass aggregate and different levels of glass powders when used as
regardless of the size of the glass powders, the mortar bar expan- either cement replacement material or as aggregate replacement
sion values for specimens containing either of the two glass pow- material at 3, 7, 14 and 28 days.
ders (i.e. 70 or 17 micron) at 20% or 30% aggregate replacement In this table, regardless of whether the glass powder was used
levels were less than 0.10% at 14-days, and in particular, the 17- as a cement replacement material or aggregate replacement mate-
micron glass powder at 30% aggregate replacement level showed rial, the glass powder content of the mixture is expressed as a ratio

Table 4
Expansion of Mortar Bars with Different Dosage levels of Glass Powders.

Test method Dosage type Glass powder Glass powder/ Expansion of mortar bars with two different glass powder sizes (%)
dosage level (%) Cement ratio
3-days 7-days 14-days 28-days
17 lm 70 lm 17 lm 70 lm 17 lm 70 lm 17 lm 70 lm
AMBT (ASTM C1260) No glass powder 0 0 0.07 0.07 0.4 0.4 0.97 0.97 1.16 1.16
AMBT (ASTM C1567) Glass powder dosage as 10 0.11 0.01 0.02 0.08 0.09 0.51 0.56 1.17 1.26
a replacement of cement 20 0.25 0 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.11 0.19 0.73 0.87
AMBT (ASTM C1260) Glass powder dosage as 10 0.225 0 0.03 0.03 0.12 0.25 0.6 1.02 1.25
a replacement of aggregate 20 0.45 0 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.23 0.59
30 0.675 0 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.13
264 K. Afshinnia, P.R. Rangaraju / Construction and Building Materials 81 (2015) 257–267

– glass powder-to-cement (GLP/C) ratio. From these results it is
apparent that the reduction in mortar bar expansions in presence
of the glass powder at any given age is influenced by both the size
of the glass powder as well as dosage of the glass powder in the
mortar mixtures. However, there are some limitations in terms of
increasing the dosage level of glass powder in the mixtures to miti-
gate mortar bar expansions.
Based on the results shown in Fig. 3, it can be observed that the
strength-activity index of 70-micron and 17-micron glass powder
at 20% cement replacement level is 64% and 88%, respectively, at
28 days. Although ground recycled glass powder is not recognized
as a pozzolan in the existing ASTM standards, considering that the
minimum strength-activity index required of any natural pozzolan
is at least 75% at 28 days per ASTM C618, the use of 70-micron
glass powder at 20% replacement is not advised. However, the
17-micron glass powder does meet the requirement of ASTM
C618 from a strength-activity index.
From a workability standpoint, the flow of mortars with 70-mi-
cron and 17-micron glass powders at 20% cement replacement
level is better than the flow of control mortar by 35% and 17%,
respectively. Therefore, both 70- and 17-micron glass powders
appear to provide a satisfactory performance at 20% cement
replacement level.
Comparing the AMBT results shown in Fig. 5 (glass powder as
cement replacement) and Fig. 7 (glass powder as aggregate
replacement) and from the analysis of data shown in Table 4, it
is evident that the use of glass powder as a partial replacement
of crushed glass aggregate is more effective in mitigating ASR
potential of crushed glass aggregates compared to its use as a par-
tial replacement of cement. The dilution effect, i.e. the use of glass
powder as a partial replacement of glass aggregate, along with the
pozzolanic reactivity of glass powder are the two main reasons for
the improved performance of the mortar bars containing crushed
glass aggregate in this test. Also, the use of glass powder as an
aggregate replacement material allows for significantly higher
levels of waste glass (both in the form of crushed glass as well as
powdered glass) to be recycled into concrete without deleterious
effects of ASR.
3.6. Mortar bars expansion (AMBT) studies with reactive argillite
aggregate – glass powder was used as partial replacement of argillite
aggregate
To validate the beneficial effects of glass powder in mitigating
ASR caused by crushed glass aggregate, parallel AMBT tests were
conducted on mortar bars containing a naturally reactive aggregate
– a siliceous argillite. In these studies the argillite aggregate was
partially replaced by the glass powder at 0%, 10%, 20% and 30%
by mass of the aggregate, while no changes were made in the
cement content. Fig. 8 shows the expansion behavior of these test

(a) 100% Glass aggregates

(b) 70% Glass aggregate with 30% glass powder (17 microns)

(c) 70% Glass aggregate with 30% glass powder (70 microns)
Fig. 10. SEM images from mortar polished samples after 28 days soaked in 1 N NaOH.
 K. Afshinnia, P.R. Rangaraju / Construction and Building Materials 81 (2015) 257–267
specimens over a period of 28 days. In addition, the percent reduc-
tion in mortar bar expansions at 14 days for both glass powder
sizes is given in Fig. 9b.
As shown in Fig. 8, specimens containing glass powder at 10%
aggregate replacement level had similar level of expansion for each
of the two glass powder sizes. The mortar bar expansions of speci-
mens containing glass powder at 20% and 30% aggregate replace-
ment levels with either 17- or 70-microns glass powder were
less than 0.10% at 14 days – the threshold expansion value for
characterizing innocuous behavior of aggregate in ASTM C33
[27]. Also, it is clear that at 20% and 30% aggregate replacement
levels with 17-micron glass powder, a reduction in mortar bar
expansions of 45% and 44% respectively were realized, compared
to the expansion of the mortar bars containing 70-micron glass
powder at the age of 28 days. Fig. 9a and b show the percent reduc-
tion in 14-day expansions of mortar bars containing 17- and 70-
micron glass powder at 10%, 20% and 30% replacement levels in
mixtures with crushed glass aggregate and argillite aggregate,
respectively. From this data it is evident that that regardless of
the glass powder size or the type of aggregate, glass powder dosage
levels of 20% and 30% offer a significant advantage in reducing the
mortar bar expansions.
3.7. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the energy dispersive
X-ray (EDX)
Microstructural examination of polished sections from mortar
bars subjected to ASTM C1260 tests, containing crushed glass
aggregate with and without glass powders was conducted to iden-
tify the location and chemical composition of ASR gel after 28 days
immersion in 1 N NaOH soak solution. Simultaneously, polished
sections of mortar bar prepared with 17-micron glass powder at
30% aggregate replacement level and control samples were exam-
ined at 7, 14 and 28 days of age to track the formation of ASR gel
and changes in its chemical composition.
100% Glass aggregate
7 days 14 days
70% Glass aggregate with 30% glass powder (17 microns)
7 days
Fig. 11. SEM images from mortar samples at different ages.
265
Fig. 10a shows the backscatter SEM image from a polished mor-
tar section containing 100% glass aggregate (with no glass powder)
after 28 days immersion in 1 N NaOH solution. It can be observed
from Fig. 10a that a significant number of cracks exist within the
matrix, particularly in the glass aggregate particles, filled with
ASR gel. This distress manifests itself in the form of extensive
cracking on the surface of the mortar bars. These findings are in
agreement with the observations made in visual inspection of mor-
tar bars at the end of the test, which showed extensive cracking on
the surface of the test specimen. Previous research studies have
shown that crushed glass particles contain significant number of
internal cracks, which are created during the fracturing process
[28]. Also, in these studies it was observed that when these glass
particles are annealed (heat-treated), the internal cracks within
glass particles heal, and when such particles are used in cementi-
tious mixtures the ASR gel preferentially forms only on the surface
of the glass particles and not within the glass aggregate particles
[28]. The internal cracks within the glass particles likely provide
suitable pathways for the alkali and hydroxyl ions to penetrate
the glass aggregate particles and facilitate the alkali–silica reaction
to proceed and the resultant formation of ASR gel.
Fig. 10b and c show the SEM images from a polished mortar sec-
tion containing 17-micron and 70-micron glass powders as glass
aggregate replacement, respectively, at 30% replacement level.
Compared to specimens with no glass powder (Fig. 10a), it can
be seen in Fig. 10b that when 30% glass powder is employed there
is significantly less ASR reaction and gel inside the crushed glass
aggregate particles. However, some ASR gel is evident at the
periphery of the glass aggregate particle, but this amount does
not appear to be sufficient to induce any significant cracking with-
in the matrix. Similar findings were observed in test specimens
containing 70-micron glass powder particles.
Fig. 11a and b show the back-scatter SEM images from a pol-
ished mortar section containing 100% glass aggregate (with no
glass powder) and 70% glass aggregate (with 30% glass powder
with an average particle size of 17 microns) at 7, 14 and 28 days
28 days
14 days 28 days
266 K. Afshinnia, P.R. Rangaraju / Construction and Building Materials 81 (2015) 257–267

Table 5 in the initial few days. Eventually, at longer durations of exposure

Chemical composition of ASR gel and aggregates indicated in Fig. 10. such as beyond 14 days, the alkali level in the entire matrix is suf-
Spectrums Control 30% Glass powder ficiently high enough (due to migration of the external 1 N NaOH
Glass ASR gel ASR gel ASR gel soak solution) that even larger glass particles react vigorously
aggregate (Point 2) in 17-micron in 70-micron and the test specimens show a sudden and a rapid increase in
(Point 1) (Point 3) (Point 4) expansion. The onset of this rapid rise in expansion appears to be
Sodium (%) 11.6 16.1 14.8 11.1 delayed with increasing level of glass powder in the mixture. A sac-
Potassium (%) 0.2 0.7 2.4 4.3 rificial line of defense offered by the fine glass particles to protect
Sodium Equiv. (%) 11.7 16.5 16.4 13.9 the larger glass aggregate particles appears to be the principal
Magnesium (%) 1.4 1.8 0.3 1.0
mechanism by which glass powders appear to mitigate ASR associ-
Calcium (%) 13.3 14.1 10.5 14.9
Silicon (%) 71.8 65.8 70.1 66.2 ated with coarser reactive aggregate particles. Clearly, prolonged
Aluminum (%) 1.2 1.3 1.4 2.0 exposure of the test specimens to 1 N NaOH solution (i.e. beyond
Ca/Si 0.18 0.21 0.15 0.17 14 days) will render any level of glass powder ineffective and
Na/Si 0.16 0.25 0.24 0.23
therefore prudence should be shown in interpreting the results
Na/K 58 23 6.2 2.6
K/Si 0.002 0.01 .034 0.064
from these tests.
Na2Oeq/Si 0.16 0.25 0.23 0.21

4. Conclusions

The following conclusions are drawn based on the research con-

of age. As shown in Fig. 11a (control specimen), it is evident that
ducted in this investigation on the use of glass powder with differ-
the ASR gel forms inside the glass aggregate particles at the early
ent glass powder particle sizes and dosage levels, both as a cement
ages (7 days) and extends to the other parts within the glass aggre-
replacement material and as an aggregate replacement material, to
gate structure at later ages of 14 and 28 days. Moreover, no ASR gel
mitigate distress due to alkali–silica reaction in mortar specimens:
was observed at the interface of glass aggregate and the cement
paste in the control specimens. Conversely, in specimens with glass
 Mortars containing glass powder as a cement replacement
powder only a minor amount of ASR gel can be observed in the
material (at all dosage levels) showed significantly better flow
specimen, and this gel forms mostly at the interface of glass aggre-
characteristics compared to mortar without glass powder. The
gate and cement paste or in cracks that are very close to the inter-
flow behavior of mortars improved with using the coarser glass
face of the glass particles and the cement paste. Also, no ASR gel
powder particle size. However, for both glass powder sizes, the
was observed in these samples at early ages.
flow behavior of mortars improved with increasing the glass
Chemical composition of the glass aggregate particles was deter-
powder dosage.
mined and that of the ASR gel at locations as indicated by points 1
 The particle size of the glass powder is an important parameter
through 4 in Fig. 10 are given in Table 5. In this study, the 28-day old
in characterizing its pozzolanic reactivity. Glass powder with
specimens were used. Considering that glass has little potassium in
smaller average particle size exhibited better pozzolanic behav-
its composition, the primary source of potassium in ASR gels ana-
ior and therefore yielded better compressive strengths in mor-
lyzed in this study is from Portland cement. It can be observed that
tar cubes than control mixture under ambient curing
the nature of the ASR gel, as indicated by the Na/K ratio and K/Si
conditions. In the present study, the pozzolanic behavior of
ratio, is significantly different in specimens with and without the
glass powders with an average particle size of 17-microns was
fine glass powders. A comparison of the Na/K and K/Si ratios of
found to be better than that with an average particle size of
the ASR gels shows that in specimens with glass powders the Na/
70-microns.
K ratio is significantly lower and the K/Si ratio is significantly higher
 The use of glass powder as an aggregate replacement material
than in specimens without glass powder. However, the total alkali-
showed significantly better performance in mitigating expan-
to-silica ratio (i.e. (Na + 0.658 K)/Si ratio) of ASR gels is almost the
sions due to alkali–silica reaction, compared to when glass pow-
same in specimens with and without the glass powder. These
der was used as a cement replacement material. This is
results suggest that the potassium in the ASR gel is primarily
particularly true in the case of 17-micron glass particles, at all
originating from Portland cement, and also that the potassium con-
ages at which the expansions were evaluated in this study.
tent of the ASR gel in mortars with glass powders is the pre-
 The use of glass powder appears to significantly alter the nature
dominant alkali entering into the reaction product (i.e. ASR gel).
of the ASR reaction and the location of the cracks within the
Note that the glass aggregate used in this study has an inherently
reactive aggregate particles. The fine glass powders appear to
high Na content and therefore the Na level of the ASR gel is to be
act as sacrificial particles that react with the alkaline pore solu-
expected to remain at a high level. These results along with the
tion in the matrix and consume the available alkalis, preferen-
microscopic evidence of reacted glass powder particles (shown in
tially over the coarser glass aggregate particles. This process
Fig. 10b and c as well as in Fig. 11b as dark spots caused by partial
appears to reduce the available alkalis for the coarser aggregate
dissolution of glass powder particles in alkaline pore solutions leav-
particles to react with, thus rendering them less vulnerable to
ing behind a void or a highly degraded matrix) suggest that the
ASR distress. This appears to be the principal mitigation
alkali–silica reaction occurs very early in mortars with glass pow-
mechanism by which fine glass powders appear to mitigate
ders, even without the need of external alkali solution to promote
ASR associated with coarser reactive aggregate particles.
the ASR (i.e. the 1 N NaOH soak solution used in AMBT).
Considering all of the data presented in this study, the use of
glass powder appears to significantly alter the nature of the ASR 5. Recommendations
reaction that occurs in the reactive crushed glass aggregate parti-
cles. The fine glass powders appear to act as sacrificial particles Although the fine glass powders were found to be effective in
that react with the alkaline pore solution in the matrix at early ages mitigating ASR distress when used as aggregate replacement mate-
and consume the available alkalis in the vicinity. This process rial, the fate of the alkalis present within the structure of the glass
appears to reduce the available alkalis for the coarser aggregate particles has not been investigated in the present study. Long-term
particles to react with, thus rendering them less vulnerable, at least exposure tests have to be conducted to study whether the mitiga-
 K. Afshinnia, P.R. Rangaraju / Construction and Building Materials 81 (2015) 257–267
tion offered by the glass powders in the lab tests conducted in this
investigation translates to extended ASR mitigation in field
structures.
Acknowledgements
This research study was possible through support provided by
South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control,
Clemson University and the project materials provided by ARGOS
USA and Solid Waste Authority of Horry County, South Carolina.
References
[1] Harish KV, Rangaraju PR. Effectiveness of lithium nitrate in mitigating alkali–
silica reaction in the presence of fly ashes of varying chemical compositions. J
Mater Civ Eng 2014;26(7):04014021.
[2] Harish KV, Rangaraju PR. Decoupling the effects of chemical composition and
fineness of fly ash in mitigating alkali–silica reaction. Cement Concr Compos
2013;43:54–68.
[3] Sebastia M, Fernández Olmo I, Irabien A. Neural network prediction of
unconfined compressive strength of coal fly ash–cement mixtures. Cem
Concr Res 2003;33(8):1137–46.
[4] Nehdi M, Duquette J, El Damatty A. Performance of rice husk ash produced
using a new technology as a mineral admixture in concrete. Cem Concr Res
2003;33(8):1203–10.
[5] Environmental Protection Agency, <http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/
conserve/materials/glass.htm>, 2014.
[6] Shi C, Wu Y, Riefler C, Wang H. Characteristics and pozzolanic reactivity of
glass powders. Cem Concr Res 2005;35(5):987–93.
[7] Shayan A, Xu A. Performance of glass powder as a pozzolanic material in
concrete: a field trial on concrete slabs. Cem Concr Res 2006;36(3):457–68.
[8] Carsana M, Frassoni M, Bertolini L. Comparison of ground waste glass with
other supplementary cementitious materials. Cement Concr Compos
2014;45:39–45.
[9] Nwaubani SO, Poutos KI. The influence of waste glass powder fineness on the
properties of cement mortars. Int J Appl Innovation Eng Manage
2013;2(2):110–6.
[10] Nassar RUD, Soroushian P. Strength and durability of recycled aggregate
concrete containing milled glass as partial replacement for cement. Constr
Build Mater 2012;29:368–77.
267
[11] Neithalath N, Schwarz N. Properties of cast-in-place concrete and precast
concrete blocks incorporating waste glass powder. Open Constr Build Technol J
2009;3:42–51.
[12] Matos AM, Sousa-Coutinho J. Durability of mortar using waste glass powder as
cement replacement. Constr Build Mater 2012;36:205–15.
[13] Liu M. Incorporating ground glass in self-compacting concrete. Constr Build
Mater 2011;25(2):919–25.
[14] Taha B, Nounu G. Properties of concrete contains mixed color waste recycled
glass as sand and cement replacement. Constr Build Mater
2008;22(5):713–20.
[15] Dhir RK, Dyer TD, Tang MC. Alkali–silica reaction in concrete containing glass.
Mater Struct 2009;42(10):1451–62.
[16] Saccani A, Bignozzi MC. ASR expansion behavior of recycled glass fine
aggregates in concrete. Cem Concr Res 2010;40(4):531–6.
[17] Idir R, Cyr M, Tagnit-Hamou A. Use of fine glass as ASR inhibitor in glass
aggregate mortars. Constr Build Mater 2010;24(7):1309–12.
[18] Serpa D, Santos Silva A, de Brito J, Pontes J, Soares D. ASR of mortars containing
glass. Constr Build Mater 2013;47:489–95.
[19] Lee G, Ling TC, Wong YL, Poon CS. Effects of crushed glass cullet sizes, casting
methods and pozzolanic materials on ASR of concrete blocks. Constr Build
Mater 2011;25(5):2611–8.
[20] Wang HY, Huang WL. Durability of self-consolidating concrete using waste
LCD glass. Constr Build Mater 2010;24(6):1008–13.
[21] ASTM, C150. Standard specification for Portland cement. West Coshohocken,
PA: ASTM International; 2012.
[22] ASTM, C1437. Standard test method for flow of hydraulic cement mortar. West
Coshohocken, PA: ASTM International; 2013.
[23] ASTM, C311. Standard test methods for sampling and testing fly ash or natural
pozzolans for use in Portland-cement concrete. West Coshohocken, PA: ASTM
International; 2013.
[24] ASTM, C1567. Standard test method for determining the potential alkali–silica
reactivity of combinations of cementitious materials and aggregate
(accelerated Mortar-bar method). West Coshohocken, PA: ASTM
International; 2013.
[25] ASTM, C1260. Standard test method for potential alkali reactivity of aggregates
(Mortar bar method). West Coshohocken, PA: ASTM International; 2006.
[26] Poppe A, Schutter GD. Cement hydration in the presence of high filler contents.
Cem Concr Res 2005;35(12):2290–9.
[27] ASTM, C33. Standard test method for potential alkali reactivity of aggregates
(Mortar bar method). West Coshohocken, PA: ASTM International; 2006.
[28] Maraghechi H, Shafaatian SMH, Fischer G, Rajabipour F. The role of residual
cracks on alkali silica reactivity of recycled glass aggregates. Cement Concr
Compos 2012;34(1):41–7.