(1)Explain, and give examples of, the transfer of heat by conduction, convection and

radiation

 Heat or thermal energy is a form of energy and describes the total energy of all
particles in an object. Metals are particularly good at transferring heat energy.
 Metals consist of atoms lined in rows and columns in a lattice structure.
 When the metal is hot, its atoms vibrate faster than when it is cold.
 Heat energy increases the kinetic energy of the atoms.
 As the atoms vibrate faster, they begin to take up more space and thus results in
the expansion of heated metals.
 Conduction:
o An initial source of heat produces thermal energy
o The heated molecules begin to move quickly and bump into other molecules
that are vibrating slower.
o Energy passed to the slowly vibrating atoms in the rod, causing them to
vibrate faster.
o The quickly vibrating atoms in the rod bumps into nearby metal atoms,
transferring energy to them and making them vibrate faster.
o During heat conduction, it is the vibrations and therefore the energy of the
individual atoms that are passed on
 Convection:
o Thermal energy in liquids and gases move by convection
o Tiny currents called convection currents carry the thermal energy.
o Convection currents are the movement of hotter or colder particles within a
liquid or gas.
o E.g: Energy is transferred by conduction from a hot saucepan to the water
molecules
o The water molecules in contact with the saucepan are moving faster than the
water above.
o Since they are moving faster, the spaces between the molecules expand and
become less dense, thus rising above and the cooler water sink to take their
place.
o The heated water molecules take the thermal energy with them as they move.
 Radiation:
o Heat transfer through radiation does not rely upon any contact between the
heat source and the heated object but rather through electromagnetic waves.
o All objects radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic waves, with the
hotter the object, the more it radiates.
o The energy radiated from an object is usually a collection or range of
wavelengths which is usually referred to as an emission spectrum.
o Hotter objects tend to emit shorter wavelengths, higher frequency radiation
o No mass is exchanged and no medium is required in the process of radiation.
o The electromagnetic radiation emitted carries energy away from the source to
surrounding or distance objects.
 Thermal conductor is any material that allows thermal energy to pass easily from
one particle to the next. All metals are conductors, albeit some are better.
 Thermal insulator is any material that sl ows down the transfer of thermal
energy. Their molecules inhibit the flow of energy to pass from one molecule to
the next. Insulation can hold heat in or keep it out
(2) Explain the transmission of sound as a longitudinal wave requiring a propagating
medium

 E.g Drums:
o A drum skin vibrates when hit
o The vibrations push the surrounding air particles closer together in one place
and forces them further apart in others.
o This causes the air particles around the drum to vibrate which in turn causes
the surrounding air particles to vibrate as well.
o A chain of vibrations continue until it reaches your eardrum and you hear the
sound.
o The air with the particles forced close together is referred to as compression
o The air with the particles spaced quite far apart is called a rarefaction
o Sound waves travel as a longitudinal wave- the vibrations of the air particles
are parallel to the direction of travel of the wave.
o The air particles move back and forth as the vibration passes through the air.
A sound wave moves in all directions from the place where the vibration
began.
o As the waves move further away from their source, the air particles slowly
reverts back to their original energy and the sound fades out.
 Sound needs a medium to travel through, something containing particles that can be
vibrated to create sound waves.
 In solids, the particles are very close together, so any vibrations causes by sounds are
quickly transferred to other particles.
 In outer space, there are so few particles of gas which are so far apart, they are unable
to vibrate.
 A lower temperature causes the particles to be closer together and as a result sound
travels faster.
(3)Describe examples where waves are used to transfer energy

 Electromagnetic waves - Energy transferred through vibrations of electric and

magnetic fields
 Sound waves – Energy transferred through vibration of air particles or particles of
a solid through which sound travels
 Water waves – Energy transferred through the vibration of water particles
(4) Define a transverse wave and give examples

 Transverse waves are at right angles to the direction of travel of the wave
 Examples:
o Light waves
o Vibrations in string
o Ripples on water
(5) Describe waves in terms of crest, trough, amplitude, wavelength, frequency and speed

 The distance between two adjacent

crests (peak) on a transverse wave is
called the wavelength. The distance
between the troughs are also the same
 At a different wavelength, the nature
of the electromagnetic wave changes
and in visible light, this is seen as a
change of colours.
 The height of the wave from the
midline to the top of a crest, or
bottom of trough is called the
amplitude.
 The amplitude of an electromagnetic
wave determines the intensity or brightness of the light.
Identify visible light as part of the electromagnetic spectrum

 Light moves similarly to how a wave moves across water but does not require a
medium nor does it disturbance a substance as water waves do.
 Light is not necessarily absorbed when it meets a substance- it may be reflected or
transmitted.
 Visible light can be separated into an infinite range of different colours and shades,
but there are generally considered to be seven basic colours:
o Red Blue Orange Yellow Blue Indigo Violet- This range of colours is called
the visible spectrum.
o The splitting of white light into these colours is called dispersion.
o Each colour of light has a unique range of wavelengths.

Relate the properties of different radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum to their

everyday uses
  Microwaves:
o Very short-wave wavelength radio waves are also known as microwaves.
o Water molecules in food vibrate at the same frequency as microwaves.
o The microwaves are converted into heat by the water molecules which then cook
food .
o Microwaves are also used in
 Satellite communications systems
 Radar
 Mobile Phone networks
 Your phone sends a microwave signal out in all directions and the closest
mobile phone tower receives the signal and sends one back
 Radio waves:
o Short-wavelength radio waves are used by television and radio stations which rely
on unobstructed path from the transmitter to the receiver
o Radio waves have very long wavelengths but their frequency and energy are low
 Infrared radiation:
o Infrared radiation has a frequency just below the visible spectrum’s red end.
o Infrared waves are released when atoms vibrate so all objects release infrared
waves.
o Atoms that are hotter release more infrared radiation.
o Infrared radiation is used as a communications method for many remote controls
for devices such as televisions, DVD players and air conditioners. ‘
o Infrared cameras can detect body heat.
 Gamma Rays:
o Gammy rays have the highest frequency and therefore the highest energy making
it the most harmful electromagnetic waves.
o However they have the shortest wavelength.
o Gamma rays can cause cancer but are used in radiotherapy to shrink or kill cancer
cells when directed at tumours.
 Ultraviolet radiation:
o Ultraviolet radiation is close to visible light and is needed by our bodies to
produce Vitamin D. However too much can cause skin cancer/sunburn.
o Ultraviolet radiation can kill bacteria and is used for sterilising equipment.
 X-rays:
o X-rays can penetrate softer parts of the human body and are used to make images
of bones.
o Computed tomography scans involve X-rays and are useful in cancer diagnosis
and treatment.
Identify the characteristics all electromagnetic waves have in common

 All electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light (3oo,000,000 million metres
per second) .
 Light waves can also travel through other mediums such as air, water and glass even
though they slow down slightly. Their transmission does not necessarily need a
medium.
Define reflection, absorption and refraction of light

 Looking through a transparent object such as a glass window, most of the light is
transmitted but a small amount is also reflected.
 Opaque objects does not allow any light to pass through them- the light is absorbed
or reflected.
 Reflection is the bouncing of light off a solid material.
 If an opaque material is shiny enough or has a shiny outing, it will reflect light in an
ordered way and see a clear image.
o Example: A plane mirror
o Light behaves in a predictable way when it reflects from a flat opaque surface
o Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r)
o These two angles are measured from an imaginary line called the normal which
is always perpendicular to the surface.
o The colour of a material depends on the light it reflects.

 Reflection off curved mirrors still obey the laws of reflection but are many more
angles that the incidence ray enters
o Convex Curve
 Convex mirrors diverge or spread out light which means you can generally
see more than you typically can.
o Concave Curve
 Concave mirrors converge light that is to focus light as well as other forms of
electromagnetic radiation.
 Refraction
o When light strikes a transparent material, it enters the material and may change
direction as it does so.
o Refraction is the bending of light as it passes through a transparent material
o The amount of refraction depends on the optical density of the object
(The amount of light an object transmit)
o The higher the optical density, the slower the light travels through it.
o Bent ray called the refracted ray and its angle to the normal is the angle of
refraction.
o Higher the optical density, greater the light bends.
 When a ray of light travels from a Less dense medium to More dense, the
light bends Closer to normal.
 As opposed to light that travels from a More dense medium to Less dense
medium, the bends Away to normal.
o In terms of optical density, solid>liquid>gas.
o Light bends because it changes speed .
 Lower the optical density, the faster light travels.
 The only time light doesn’t refract is when it enters a new medium directly
along the normal. It changes speed but there is no bending of light.
Identify optical instruments that use lenses

 Lenses are usually a curved piece of transparent material such as glass or plastic.
o Convex lenses are thicker in the centre than the edges
 The light rays converge or focus onto a focal point where the rays cross.
 The focal length is the distance from the focus to the middle of the lens.

o Concave lenses are thinner in the centre than the edges

 The light rays are diverging, or spreading.
 The focus becomes on the other side of the lens and the rays are extended
back until they cross where they appear to have come from.
 The focus can then be described as a virtual focus.

 Lenses are essential in nearly all optical instruments including spectacles, magnifying
glasses, binoculars, microscopes, telescopes and cameras.
Define Total Internal Reflection and describe applications of TIR

 As the angle of incidence increases, the refracted angle may be refracted so much that
it travels along the surface between the two mediums, known as the interface at an
angle of 90 degree to the normal.
 The angle of incidence at which this occurs is called the critical angle.
 Total Internal Reflection occurs when light attempts to travel from a dense
medium to a less dense medium at angles greater than the critical angle.
 The light has nowhere to go and is reflected from the interface back into the more
dense medium.
o Jewellers cut diamonds so they can reflect light through internal reflection to
make them sparkle.
o Reflectors on the back of the bicycles use internal reflection to reflect a car’s
headlights
Optic Fibres

 Optic fibre is a very thin cable of glass or plastic that carries light.
 By sending the information as controlled pulses of light, a single fibre has the
capability to carry thousands of landline telephone calls at once.
 The advantages over copper wires are less signal loss, greater carrying capacity and
immunity to electromagnetic interference.
 Optic fibres work on the basis that light that passes through the fibres is totally
internally reflected within the core of the fibre with the information transferring at
the speed of light.
Draw and label simple circuit diagrams

 Electrically charged particles move around an electric

circuit, carrying electrical energy from an energy source
to a device that uses energy.
 This movement of negatively charged particles results in
an electric current.
 Simple circuits can be constructed with two pieces of
wire, a resistor and a power supply.
 All circuit diagrams must include at least:
o A power source
o A component that consumes energy
o Connecting wires
o A completed circuit without breaks
o A switch (That breaks the circuit when open and
stops the flow of electrons and controls the
circuit)
Define voltage, current and resistance and state their respective SI units.

 Voltage
o The measure of the potential energy that electrons have.
o E.g. In a 1.5V battery, each unit of electrical charge gets 1.5 joules of energy as
it passes through the battery.
o It is otherwise known as the potential difference
o Otherwise known as volt ( Symbol V), measured using a voltmeter.
o Voltmeters are set in parallel across two points in a circuit to measure the
potential difference.
o Potential energy is similar to the gravitational potential energy skiers gain
when moving up in altitude.
o This potential energy is used up in the circuit by a resistor.
 Current
o Electric current, flow of charge, is a measure of the amount of charge at a
certain point in the circuit
o One coulomb = 6.241*1018 – One coulomb passing a given point in 1 second is
known as an ampere ( symbol A)
o Also measured in milliampere ( 1000mA = 1A)
o An ammeter is a meter that measures the current travelling through a
particular point in an electric current.
 Resistance
o The electrical resistance of a material is a measure of how easily electrons
move through it. Resistance is measured in the unit ohm ( Symbol Ω)
o The electrical potential energy must be balanced with the energy that is loss
across the resistance of an object connected in the circuit, otherwise the
circuit will not work.
o As the electric current moves through the wires of the electric circuit. The
electrons collides with the atoms in the wires and some of their electrical
energy is converted into heat. This is why many connecting wires are thick
and made from good conductor.
o Resistors in circuits control or reduce the size of the current by changing the
excess electric energy into other forms of energy.
o Different types of resistors:
 Thermistor- Dependent on temperature
 Potentiometer- Manually adjustable variable resistor
Draw circuit diagrams to show resistors in series and parallel circuits

 Series circuit:
o The globes are connected side by side so the current goes through one globe
then the other
o All the electrons flow through the whole circuit, so the current passing each
component is the same while the voltage through the circuit is the sum of the
voltages across each component.
 Parallel circuit:
o Has two or more branches and the current splits between the branches and
comes back together afterwards.
o The voltage across each of the components is the same as each individual
component is supplied with the same voltage
o The total current in a parallel circuit is the sum of the current through each
branch of the circuit.
State Ohm’s law in both words and symbols

 The Ohm’s law states that the current is increased as the voltage increases when the
resistance stays the same. Likewise, when the voltage is decreased, the current is also
decreased.
 V=IxR
 V = voltage (volts) I = current (amps) R= resistance (ohms)
Sketch a graph to demonstrate the relationship between V, I and R for ah ohmic resistor.
Propose reasons why lights in a home are wired in a parallel circuit

 Lights in a home are wired in a parallel circuit to allow electrical appliances to

continue to function even when one appliance does fail. However, if the lights were
wired in a series circuit, a fault in a preceding appliance would cause complete failure
in the entire chain of appliances after it.
Describe how energy transfers and transformations are not 100% efficient

 Energy efficiency is a measure of how much input energy is converted into useful
output energy.
 The greater proportion of useful output energy, the greater the energy efficiency of
the device.
 In most energy transfers and transformations, some of the initial energy is converted
into other forms of energy that isn’t intended such as heat, sound