346 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY 2.2. Synchronous Motor 2.2.1, Introduetion @ = Thesynchronous motor is the one type of 3-phase A.C. motors which operates ataconstant speed from no-load to full-load. It is similar in construction to 3-phase A.C. generator in. that it has a revolving field which must be separately excited from a D.C. source. By changing the D.C. field excitation current, the power factor of this type of motor can be varied over a wide range of lagging and leading values. @ This motor is used in many individual applications because of its fixed speed from no-load to full-load, its high efficiency and low initial cost, It is also used fo improve the power factor of 3-phase A.C. industrial cireuits, 2.2.2, Characteristic features, advantages and disadvantages Characteristic Features: ‘The following characteristic features of a synchronous motor are worth noting: 1. Itruns either at synchronous speed or nat at all, The speed can be changed by changing the frequency only (since N, = 120f!p). 2. It is not inherently self-starting. It has to be run up to synchronous or near synchronous speed by some means before it can be synchronized to the supply. 3. It can operate under a wide range of power factors both lagging and leading. 4, On no-load the motor draws very little current from the supply to meet the internal losses. With fixed excitation the input current increases with the increase in load. After the input current reaches maximum no further increase in load is possible. If the motor is further loaded, the motor will stop. Advantages. Synchronous motors entail the following advantages : 1. These motors can be used for power factor correction in addition to supplying torque to drive loads. 2. They are more efficient (when operated at unity power factor) than induction motors of corresponding output (kW) and voltages rating. 3. The field pole rotors of synchronous motors can permit the use of wider air-gaps than the squirrel-cage designs used on induction motors, requiring less bearing tolerance and permitting greater bearing wear. 4, They may be less costly for the same output, speed, and voltage ratings as compared to induction motors, 5. They give constant speed from no-load to full-load. 6. Electro-magnetic power varies linearly with the voltage. Disadvantages. The disadvantages of synchronous motors are : 1. They require D.C, excitation which must be supplied from external source. 2. They have a tendency to hunt. 3, They cannot be used for variable speed jobs as speed adjustment cannot be done. 4. They require collector rings and brushes. 6. They cannot be started under load. Their starting torque is zero. 6. They may fall out of synchronism and stop when overloaded. 2.2.3. Applications The synchronous motors have the following fields of application : 1. Power houses and sub-stations. Used in power houses and sub-stations in parallel to the bus-bars to improve the power factor.ROTATING MACHINES 347 2. Factories. Used in factories having large number of induction motors or other power apparatus, operating at dagging power factor, to improve the power factor. 3. Mills-industries ete. Used in textile mills, rubber mills, mining and other big industries. cement factories for power applications. 4. Constant speed equipments. Used to drive continuously operating and constant speed equipment such as : @ Fans. Blowers. Centrifugal pumps. ‘Motor gencrator sets. Ammonia and air compressors ete. 2.2.4. Construction A three-phase synchronous motor consists of the following essential parts : 1, Laminated stator core with three-phase armature winding. 2. Revolving field complete with amortisseur winding and slip rings. 3. Brushes and brush holders. 4. Two end shields to house the bearings that support the shaft. © The stator core and windings of a synchronous motor are similar to those of a 3-phase -squirrel-cage induction motor or a wound-rotor induction motor. The leads for the stator winding, marked T), T2 and Ts, terminate in a terminal box usually mounted on the side of the motor frame. @ The rotor is generally a salient pole rotor. The number of rotor field poles must equal the number of stator field poles. In order to eliminate hunting and to develop the necessary starting torque when A.C. voltage is applied to the stator, the rotor poles contain pole-faee conductors which are short-circuited at their ends as shown in Fig. 63. This amortisseur or damper winding consists of solid copper bars embedded at the surface of the pole face and short-circuited at each end by means of a shorting strip as shown in Fig. 64, © The field cireuit leads are brought out to two slip rings mounted on the rotor shaft. Carbon brushes mounted in brush holders make contact with the two slip rings. The terminals of the field circuit are brought out from the brush holders toa second terminal box mounted on the motor frame. The two leads for the field circuit are marked F and F. y-Roter vars — Shorting stripe Pole core NK il Fig. 63, Pole of an AC. Fig. 64, Damper winding. synchronous motor. 2e hela winding Fig. 65 showsa typical arrangement of synchronous motor, with overhungexciter for providing the D.C. supply to the rotor of the machine.ROTATING MACHINES, 349. to bring the motor upto synchronism, the D.C. generator is operated as motor, and the A.C. synchronous dynamo is synchronized to the A.C. supply as an alternator. Once in parallol with the supply, the synchronous dynamo is operated as a motor. The D.C. ‘motor’ will now act as a generator if its field current is increased so. that its generated e.m.f. exceeds the D.C. bus. 2. Using the field excited generator as a D.C. motor. This method is the same as the first, except that the exeiter (D.C. shunt generator) is operated as a motor, and the A.C. synchronous dynamo is synchronized to the A.C. supply. 3. A emall induction motor of at least one pair of poles less than the synchronous motor. This method involves the same synchronizing procedure for A.C. synchronous motor as an alternator. At least one pair of poles fewer is required on the induction motor to compensate for the loss in induction motor speed due to slip. In the above three methods the following conditions should be met wit! @ = There should be fittle or na-doad on the synchronous motor. @ = Thecapacity of the starting motor (D.C. or A.C.) should be between 5 and 10% of the rating of the synchronous motor coupled to it. 4. Using the damper windings as a squirrel-cage induction motor. Note. It is practically impossible to start a synchronous motor with its D.C. field energized. Even when loft de-onergized, the rapidly rotating magnetic field of the stator will induce extremely high voltages in the many turns of the field winding. It is customary, therefore, to short-cireuit the DC. field winding during the starting ‘period : whatever voltage and. current aro induced in it may then aid in producing induction motor action. In very large synchronous motors, field sectionalising or field-splitting switches are used which short-circuit individual field windings to prevent cumulative addition of induced voltages from pole to pote 2.2.7. Effect of load on a synchronous motor When mechanical load on a D.C. motor or an A.C. motor is increasod, the speed decreases. This, is turn, decreases the back or counter e.m.f.(E}) sothat the source is able to supply mare current to meet the increased load demands, However, this action cannot take place in tie synchronaus motor for the rotor must turn at synchronous speed at alt loads. Fig. 67 (a) shows the relative position of a stator and rotor pole at no-lartd, poles centres ace directly in fine with each other. joroue angle Rotation of Stotor tive (c) Torque angle at no loae (bt Torave ongle at rated lood Fig. 67. Kelative positions of stator and rotor putes350 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY Fig. 67 () represents the relative position of the stator and the rotor pales after mechanieal load has been added to the motor. Now there has been a s/uf? of the rotor pale in a direction opposite to that af the stator field flux and the direetion of the rotor. It may be kept in mind that there has been no change in speed as the rotor will continue to rotate at synchronous speed. There is only an angular displacement between the centres of the stator and rotor field poles. The angular displacement. shown in Fig. 67 (0) is called the ‘torque angle’. ‘No-load condition-vector dingrams. Fig. 68 shows the conditions when the motor (properly synchronised to the supply) is running on no-load and is having no losses. Et is seen that V = Ei, hence their vector cifference is zero and sois the armature current. Motor intake is zero, as there is neither load nor losses to be met by it. In other words, the motor just floats. » ° v Fig. 68. No-load (no losses). Fig. 69 shows the vector diagram when the motor is on no-load but has losses, The veetor for E, falls back by a certain angle dg, so that a resultant voltage £, and hence current Ip is brought into existence which supplies losses Fig, 69. No-load (with losses). Load condition-vector diagram. When the motor is loaded, it slows down momentarily to adjust itself to the change in load condition, so the rotor pole falls back a little more relative to the stator pole, as shown in Fig. 70. Hence the torque angle increases with the incroase in load. Due to increase in load oF torque angle @, the resultant voltage E, across the armature (or stator) circuit increases, and, therefore, current drawn from the supply mains increases. Thus a motor is able to. supply increased mechanical load, not by reduction in speed, but by shift in relative positions of the rotor and rotating magnetic field (or stator flux), From Fig, 66 it is obvious that for increasing load with a constant value of buck emf. E,, the phase angle 9 Increases in lagging direction. Fig. 70. Synchronous motor no-load vector diagram.ROTATING MACHINES 351 Ifthe angle between stator and rotor pole centres become too great, due to a serious over-load then the rotor will pull out of synchronism and operate as an induetion motor with the aid of the amortisseurwinding. The maximum value of torque which a synchronous motor ean develop without dropping out of synchronism is called the ‘pull-out torque’. jn most synchronous motors this is 150 to 200 per cent of rated torque output. 2.2.8. Torque developed by the motor Refer Fig. 71. Fig. 71 OL = supply voltage/phase J = armature current LM = back e.m-f, at a load angle of « OM = resultant voltage, E, = /Z, (or LX, if R,, is negligible) © Tlage/leads V by an angle @ and lags behind £, by an angle 0 (internal angle) tan ® Line NS is drawn at angle 4 to LM. @ LN and QS are perpendicular to NS (hence to LQ also). Mechanical power developed per phase in the rotor, Prweh = Bp L608 wv A200352 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY In AOMS, MS = IZ, cosy Now, MS = NS - NM =LQ-NM a IZ, cos w= V cos (6 -a)-E, cos 8 ‘ Teos y= ¥ cos (0-0) 22 cos 8 z 2 Putting this value in (20), we get Pret phase = Ey, Foos @-a)~F cose 2 or Pree/phase = = cos (9 - a) -*- cos 8 (21) Zs a This is the expression for the mechanical power developed in terms of load angle (a) and the internal angle (6) of the motor for a constant voltage V and Ey (or excitation because Ey depends on excitation only). Maximum power developed. Condition for maximum power developed can be found by differentiating the above expression (eqn. 21) with respect to load angle and then equating it to zero. . aPrech __ EsV . i @-e) = a “da =—Z, sin @-a) 0 or sin(@-a)=0 “ 6=a *. Value of maximum power, 2 Consens EV Ey? or a Zz, om (22) © This shows that the maximum power and hence torque (-. speed is constant) depends on Vand Ey ie,, excitation. © Maximum value of 8 and hence a is 90°. For all values of V and Ey, this limiting value of Gis the same but maximum torque will be proportional to the maximum power developed as given in eqn. (22). @ In Fig. 72 eqn. (21) is plotted. © IfR, is neglected, then Z,=X, and 0= 90° a cos 8=0 Power = cas (90° ~ 0 [from eq. (201 ie, Peas Sprain ABB) This gives the value of mechanical power developed in terms of a—the basic variable of a synchronous machine. EV s Pore nes =H {from eqn. (22)] This corresponds to the ‘pull-out’ torque.ROTATING MACHINES 353 Torque Coupling angle & ——= Fig. 72 ‘The above value can be obtained by putting « = 90° in eqn. (23). ®@ To determine the value of excitation or induced e.m4f. E, to give maximum power developed possible, differentiate eqn. (22) with respect to Ei, and equate to zero dPmech)max V_ 2B 9 v Ee Ze OHO or Ear SG Substituting Ey = ve Feog in ean. (22), we get (Pusci)wax * 57, 6580” AZ, 0080 eat - bs Z cos 0= Ry) where R, = effective resistance of the motor. Hence (Prrectaac = ie (2A) Torques of a synchronous motor: ‘The various torques associated with a synchronous motor are described below : 1, Starting torque: @ Itindicates the ability of the motor to accelerate the load. It is also sometimes called “break away torque”.384 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY ® It may be as low as 10 percont in case of centrifugal pumps, and as high as 200 or 250 percent of full-load torque, as in case of loaded reciprocating two-eylinder compressors. © Although the synchronous motor possesses no self-starting torque yet in modern synchronous motors, by making proper changes in the design of damper windings, almost any reasonable torque ean be developed. 2. Running torque: @ Running torque is the torque developed by the motor under running conditions. © It is determined by the output power and speed of the driven machine. © Peak output power determines the maximum torque that would be required by the driven machine. The breakdown or maximum running torque of a motor must be greater than this value in order to avoid stalling of the machine. 3. Pullin torque: @ It pertains t0 the ability of the motor to pull-into synchronism when changing from induction to synchronous motor operation. 4, Pull-out torqu © It is the maximum torque which the motor will develop without pulling out of step or synchronism. @ Its value varies from 1.25 to 8.5 times the full-load torque. 3. POLYPHASE INDUCTION MOTOR 3.1. General Aspects Introduction. An induction motor is simply an efectric transformer whose magnetic circuit is separated by an air gap into two relatively movable portions, one carrying the primary and the other the secondary winding. Alternating current supplied to the primary winding from an electric power system induces an opposing current in the secondary winding, when latter is short-circuited or closed through an external impedance. Relative motion between the primary and secondary structures is produced by the eleetromagnetie forces corresponding to the power thus transferred across the air gap by induetion. The essential feature which distinguishes the induction machine from other types of electric motors is that the secondary currents are created solely by induction, as in a transformer instead of being supplied by a D.C. exciter or other external power source, as in synchronous and D.C. machines. Advantages, Three-phase induction motor is the most commonly used motor in industrial applications because of the advantages listed below : 1. Simple design 2. Rugged construction 3. Reliable operation 4. Low initial cost 5. Easy operation and simple maintenance _ 6. High efficiency 7. Simple control gear for starting and speed control. Applications: loads Induction motors are available with torque characteristics suitable for a wide variety of loads : (@) The standard motor has a starting torque of about 120 to 160 per cent of full-load torque. Such motors are suitable for most applications.