You are on page 1of 272

Theory Manual Volume 2

LUSAS Version 15.2 : Issue 1


LUSAS
Forge House, 66 High Street, Kingston upon Thames,
Surrey, KT1 1HN, United Kingdom

Tel: +44 (0)20 8541 1999


Fax +44 (0)20 8549 9399
Email: info@lusas.com
http://www.lusas.com

Distributors Worldwide

Copyright ©1982-2016 LUSAS


All Rights Reserved.
Table of Contents

Table of Contents
1 Element Formulations ................................................................................... 1
1.1 Bar Elements ............................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 BAR2, BAR3, BRS2, BRS3 ................................................................ 1
1.2 Beam Elements ......................................................................................... 7
1.2.1 2-D Straight Beam (BEAM) .............................................................. 10
1.2.2 2-D Straight Grillage (GRIL) ............................................................. 12
1.2.3 3-D Straight Beam (BMS3) ............................................................... 14
1.2.4 2-D Curved Thin Beam (BM3, BMX3) .............................................. 18
1.2.5 3-D Curved Thin Beam (BS3, BS4, BSX4)....................................... 26
1.2.6 Semiloof Thin Beam (BSL3, BSL4, BXL4) ....................................... 34
1.2.7 3-D Straight Beam (BTS3) ................................................................ 41
1.2.8 3-D Isoparametric Thick Beam (BMI21/BMX21, BMI31/BMX31,
BMI22/BMX22, BMI33/BMX33) ................................................................. 51
1.3 Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements .................................................. 59
1.3.1 Standard Isoparametric Elements .................................................... 59
1.3.2 2D Crack Tip Elements (QPK8, TPK6, QNK8, TNK6, QXK8, TXK6)
................................................................................................................... 70
1.3.3 Enhanced Strain Elements (QPM4M, QPN4M, QAX4M) ................. 71
1.3.4 Incompatible Plane Membrane Element (PMI4) ............................... 78
1.3.5 2D Explicit Dynamics Elements ........................................................ 81
1.3.6 Two Phase Plane Strain and Axisymmetric Continuum Elements
(TPN6P, QPN8P, TAX6P and QAX8P) ..................................................... 92
1.3.7 Large-strain Mixed-type Elements (QPN4L, QAX4L) ....................... 95
1.4 Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements ............................................. 100
1.4.1 Standard Isoparametric Elements (HX8, HX16, HX20, PN6, PN12,
PN15, TH4, TH10) ................................................................................... 100
1.4.2 3D Crack Tip Elements (TH10K, PN15K, HX20K) ......................... 106
1.4.3 Enhanced Strain Element (HX8M) ................................................. 110
1.4.4 3D Explicit Dynamics Elements (HX8E, PN6E, TH4E) .................. 114
1.4.5 Composite Solid Elements – Tetrahedral (TH4S, TH10S) ............. 121
1.4.6 Composite Solid Elements - Pentahedral and Hexahedral
(HX8L,HX16L,PN6L PN12L) ................................................................... 128
1.4.7 Two Phase 3D Continuum Elements (TH10P, PN12P, PN15P,
HX16P and HX20P) ................................................................................. 133
1.5 Space Membrane Elements .................................................................. 136
1.5.1 Axisymmetric Membrane (BXM2, BXM3) ....................................... 136
1.5.2 3-D Space Membrane (SMI4, TSM3) ............................................. 141
1.6 Plate Elements ...................................................................................... 143
1.6.1 Isoflex Thin Plate (QF4, QF8, TF3, TF6) ........................................ 143
1.6.2 Isoflex Thick Plate (QSC4) ............................................................. 150
1.6.3 Isoparametric Thick Mindlin Plate (QTF8, TTF6) ........................... 153
1.7 Shell Elements ...................................................................................... 158

i
Table of Contents

1.7.1 Axisymmetric Thin Shell (BXS3) .....................................................158


1.7.2 Flat Thin Shell (QSI4, TS3) .............................................................164
1.7.3 Semiloof Thin Shell (QSL8, TSL6) ..................................................169
1.7.4 Thick Shells (TTS3, TTS6, QTS4, QTS8) .......................................182
1.8 Field Elements .......................................................................................195
1.8.1 Thermal Bar (BFD2, BFD3) ............................................................195
1.8.2 Thermal Axisymmetric Bar (BFX2, BFX3) ......................................197
1.8.3 Thermal Link (LFD2, LFS2, LFX2) ..................................................198
1.8.4 Plane Field (QFD4, QFD8, TFD3, TFD6) .......................................200
1.8.5 Axisymmetric Field (QXF4, QXF8, TXF3, TXF6) ............................203
1.8.6 Solid Field (HF8, HF16, HF20, PF6, PF12, PF15, TF4, TF10) ......205
1.8.7 Solid Composite Field – Tetrahedral (TF4S, TF10S) .....................208
1.8.8 Solid Composite Field - Pentahedral and Hexahedral (HF8C, HF16C,
PF6C, PF12C)..........................................................................................211
1.9 Joint Elements .......................................................................................216
1.9.1 Joints (JNT3, JPH3, JF3, JNT4, JL43, JSH4, JL46, JSL4, JAX3,
JXS3) .......................................................................................................216
1.9.2 Use of Joints With Higher Order Elements .....................................219
1.10 Fourier Element Formulation ...............................................................223
1.10.1 Axisymmetric Solid Elements (TAX3F, QAX4F, TAX6F, QAX8F) 223
1.11 Interface Elements ...............................................................................234
1.11.1 Interface elements (IPN4, IAX4, IPN6, IAX6, IS6, IS8, IS12, IS16)
.................................................................................................................234
1.12 Hygro-Thermal Elements .....................................................................236
1.12.1 Plane (QHT4, QHT8, THT3, THT6) ..............................................236
1.12.2 Axisymetric (QXHT4, QXHT8, TXHT3, TXHT6) ...........................236
1.12.3 Solid (HHT20, HHT16, HHT8, PHT15, PHT12, THT10, THT4)....236
Appendix A ....................................................................................................241
Quadrature Rules ........................................................................................241
Appendix B ....................................................................................................251
Restrictions On Element Topology ..............................................................251
Mid-Length and Mid-Side Nodes .............................................................251
Warping of Flat Elements .........................................................................251
Appendix C ....................................................................................................253
Section Property Calculation for Tapered Sections .....................................253
Interpolation options .................................................................................253
Enhanced section property calculation ....................................................253
Linear section property calculation ..........................................................253
Usage of Values .......................................................................................254
2 References ..................................................................................................255

ii
Notation

Notation
Standard matrix notation is used whenever possible throughout this manual and the
expressions are defined as follows:
Basic Expressions

Vector

Matrix or second order tensor

Fourth order tensor


: Matrix scalar product

| |
Determinant of a matrix

|| ||
Norm of a vector

bg
tr Trace of a matrix

bg T
Transpose of a vector of matrix

bg 1
Inverse of a matrix

db g Variation

b g Virtual variation

ch 
Rate

b g Increment

b g Summation

diag , Diagonal matrix with terms given

iii
Notation

, Orthogonality condition

ch 
Variables defined in local axes

... Quantity defined per unit volume of porous medium

Subscripts
cr Critical value
g Ground displacements, velocities and accelerations
g Gasous mixture (air+water vapour)
h Hydration
i Component i
max Maximum value
n Normal component in slideline analyses
o Initial components (initial strains)
t Thermal components (thermal strains)
T Temperature, thermal
v Water vapour
w Liquid water
x Tangential component in slideline analyses
x,y,z Components in the local x,y,z Cartesian system
X,Y,Z Components in the global X,Y,Z Cartesian system
Z Zienkiewicz constants
,x Differentiation with respect to x (or other variable)
Superscripts
i Iteration I
l Local quantities (co-rotational for continuum elements)
t Values at time t

t  t Values at time t+t

iv
Notation

Scalars
aR Rayleigh damping coefficient (multiplies mass matrix M)

B Bulk modulus

bR Rayleigh damping coefficient (multiplies stiffness matrix K)

C0 neo-Hookean constant

C1 , C2 Mooney-Rivlin constants
c Cohesion in friction based material models
c Wave speed

Da Maximum distance between two adjacent contact nodes

Dva Water vapour diffusion through air coefficient

E Young’s Modulus

fi Slideline interface force on contact node i

F Yield surface
g Initial gap for nonlinear joint models
G Shear Modulus

Gf Fracture energy in concrete model

h Transfer coefficient in field analysis


H Latent heat of evaporation
I1 First stress invariant
I1,I2,I3 Strain invariants

I 1, I 2 Modified strain invariants

J Volume ratio (det F)


J2 Second deviatoric stress invariant
J3 Third deviatoric stress invariant
k Interface stiffness coefficient

v
Notation

k Bulk modulus
kT Thermal conductivity
K Thermal conductivity

Kc Spring stiffness when in contact for nonlinear joint models

K1 Spring stiffness after liftoff for nonlinear joint models

KI Intrinsic permeability
Kw Relative water permeability
l Length of local contact segment

lo Initial chord length of beam element

ln Current chord length of beam element

m Water mass
M Moment
n Porosity
N Stress resultant
p Number of required eigenvalues
P Participation factor in spectral response analysis
P Axial force
P Pressure; Partial pressure for a gas component
Pc Capillary pressure
Psat Water saturation pressure
q Field variable flux in field analysis
q Number of starting iteration vectors for subspace iteration
Q Rate of internal heat generation in field analysis

Qhg Hourglass constant

Qh Heat of hydration
Q1,Q2 Constants for shock wave smoothing

vi
Notation

rz Contact zone radius

Rv Gas constant of water


S Saturation
Sd Spectral displacement in special response analysis
Sv Spectral velocity in spectral response analysis
Sa Spectral acceleration in spectral response analysis
t Thickness of local contact segment
t Time
T Period of oscillation for transient and dynamic analysis
T Temperature
T Torque

u Axial stretch
V Element volume
w Crack width in concrete model
W Work
X Normal penetration distance

 Radial overlap constant

 Coefficient of thermal expansion

 Softening Parameter in concrete model

 Constant used in dynamic recurrence algorithms

 Constant used in dynamic recurrence algorithms

 Shear retention factor in concrete model

 Constant used in dynamic recurrence algorithms

d Displacement norm used for convergence

 Residual norm used for convergence

vii
Notation

w Work norm used for convergence

 1
Root mean square of residuals convergence criterion

 2
Maximum absolute residual convergence criterion

 Degree of hydration

i Error estimate in subspace iteration

 Step length multiplier for line search

e Lode’s Angle
e Angle between old and new displacement vector in arch-length
method
e Angle of orthotropy
e Angle defining crack directions in concrete model

e Local slope at a node


 Strain hardening parameter

 Load factor

 Plastic strain rate multiplier

i Eigenvalue (ith)

i Principal stretches

 Eigenvalue shift in subspace iteraction

 Friction coefficient

w Viscosity of water

 p , p Ogden constants
 Poisson’s ratio

 Modal Damping ratio

 Model coefficient for CQC combination in spectral response analysis

viii
Notation

 Mass density

C Total volumetric heat capacity of porous medium

 Effective stress

 Interface stiffness scale factor

 Friction angle in friction based models

 Structural damping in harmonic response analysis

 Field variable in field analysis

 Potential energy

 Circular frequency in transient and dynamic analysis

 Circular frequency of load in harmonic response analysis

1 Local spin at the centroid

Vectors
a Nodal displacement vector

ei Unit vectors forming the co-rotated base axes

E Green-Lagrange strain vector

f Vector of master slideline surface forces

f Vector of nodal body forces

g , g , g Covariant base vectors

g Gravity acceleration

J Flux

Mm Vector of master slideline surface mass

n Vector of unit segment normal

P Global internal force vector

ix
Notation

P Local internal force vector

q~ Euler parameters

R External force vector

ri Unit vectors defining the beam cross section at a gauss point

s Deviatoric Cauchy stress

S Second Piola-Kirchhoff stress vector

t Vector of surface tractions

t i , qi Unit vectors defining the beam cross section at a node

v velocity

x Vector of unit segment tangent

Y Generalised displacement vector in spectral response analysis

 Logarithmic strain vector

 Displacement gradient vector (geometric nonlinearity)

 Unscaled pseudovector (co-rotational formulation - section 3.5.1)

 Pseudovector of rotation

 Lagrangian multiplier vector

i Incompatible modes for enhanced elements

 Cauchy stress vector

d J Jaumann variation of Cauchy stress

i ,i Eigenvector

 Residual force vector

x
Notation

1 Local spin at the centroid


T
  
 differential operator  x y z 
 
Matrices/Tensors
A Matrix of slopes

B Strain-displacement matrix

B0 Linear strain-displacement matrix

B1 Displacement dependent strain-displacement matrix

C Damping matrix in dynamic analysis

C Matrix of constrain constants

C Green deformation tensor

C Compliance matrix of material moduli

D Rate of deformation tensor

D Material modulus matrix

F Deformation gradient matrix

G Matrix of shape functions

K Stiffness matrix

KT Tangent stiffness matrix

K Stress stiffness matrix

M Mass matrix

N Shape function array

xi
Notation

Ni Principal directions of the Lagragian triad

Q Vector of constraint constants

R Rotation tensor

S bg Skew symmetric matrix of the vector 

S Matrix containing Second Piola-Kirchoff stresses

T Transformation matrix for co-rotational formulation

U Right stretch tensor

 Angular acceleration tensor

 Matrix of eigenvalues

 Local engineering strain tensor

 Density matrix

 Matrix containing Cauchy stresses

 Matrix containing Cauchy stresses

 Biot stress tensor

 Matrix of eigenvectors

 Kirchhoff stress tensor

 Angular velocity tensor

xii
Notation

xiii
Bar Elements

1 Element
Formulations
This section of the Theory Manual covers the basic theoretical assumptions made for
each element formulation. Appropriate references are included when full details of the
element derivation are not provided.

1.1 Bar Elements


1.1.1 BAR2, BAR3, BRS2, BRS3
1.1.1.1 Formulation
The bar elements are 2-node and 3-node isoparametric elements that can only transmit
longitudinal force (fig.7.1-1).
The nodal variables are:-
 BAR2 and BAR3 U and V
 BRS2 and BRS3 U, V and W
The element strain-displacement relationship and thermal strain vector are defined in
the local Cartesian system as
u
x 
x
and b g  T
o t

The elastic constitutive relationship is defined as


x  E x

A complete description of the element stiffness formulation is given in [B1].


The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in
(section 2.7).

1
Element Formulations

1.1.1.2 Evaluation and Output of Stresses/Forces


The element output can be obtained at both the element nodes and Gauss points and
consists of

Fx - the axial force, (tension +ve)

x - the axial strain. (tension +ve)

The forces and strains are output in the local element coordinate system defined by
BAR2 and BAR3 elements
The element local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the
element nodes are specified (fig.7.1-3). The local y and z axes form a right-hand set
with the x-axis such that the y-axis lies in the global XY-plane and the z-axis is parallel
to the global Z-axis (up out of page).
BRS2 and BRS3 elements
The local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes
are specified (for a curved element it is tangent to the curve at the point concerned).
For a curved element the local xy-plane is defined by the element nodes (fig.7.1-4).
Local y is perpendicular to local x and +ve on the convex side of the element.
For a straight element parallel to the global x-axis, the local z-axis is defined by the
unit vector z = j x x where j is a unit vector defining the Global Y-axis and x is a unit
vector defining the local x-axis (fig.7.1-4).
For a straight element not parallel to the global x-axis, the local z-axis is defined by
the unit vector z = i x x where i is a unit vector defining the global X-axis (fig.7.1-4).
The local y-axis forms a right-hand set with the local x and z-axes for all three cases.

1.1.1.3 Nonlinear Formulation


The bar elements can be employed in
 Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1]
(section 4.2).
 Geometrically nonlinear analysis.
 Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material
laws specified in 1.
 Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
 Linear eigen-buckling analysis.
Note. The geometric nonlinearity is a Total Lagrangian formulation which accounts
for large displacements but small strains. The nonlinear strain-displacement
relationship is defined by

2
Bar Elements

BAR2 and BAR3

x 
LM OP
u 1 u

2

LM OP
1 v
2

N Q
x 2 x N Q
2 x

BRS2 and BRS3

x 
LM OP
u 1 u

2

LM OP
1 v
2

LM OP
1 w
2

N Q
x 2 x N Q
2 x N Q
2 x

with reference to the local x-axis.


The forces and strains output with the geometrically nonlinear analysis will be the 2nd
Piola-Kirchhoff forces and Green-Lagrange strains respectively, referred to the
undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative.

3
Element Formulations

V
Y
V
BAR2 2
U U
V
3
V
U
U 2
1
V BAR3
1 U
X

(a) 2-D Bar Elements

Y V
U
BRS2 2 V
W
V
V 3 U
U
W
1
2 U BRS3
W V
W
U X
1
W
Z

(b) 3-D Bar Elements

Fig.7.1-1 Nodal Freedoms For BAR Elements

4
Bar Elements

Struts represented with


BAR2 elements
Pressure

Continuum elements

2-D Roof Truss Excavation Supports

Fig.7.1-2 Examples Illustrating Use Of BAR Elements

2
Y y
x
y
x
y x 3
1
2
x
y
1 X

Fig 7.1-3 Local Cartesian System For BAR2 And BAR3 Elements

5
Element Formulations

Y
x-y plane

y
y x x
3
z
x z 2
y
1
z X

Z
(a) Curved Element

z
z
x x
1 2
y
y

(b) Straight Element Parrallel With Global X-axis

Y y
x

2
z
y
x
1
z X

(c) Arbitrarily Orientated Straight Element

Fig. 7.1-4 Local Cartesian System For BRS2 And BRS3 Elements

6
Beam Elements

1.2 Beam Elements


The family of explicit straight beams are derived by restraining various degrees-of-
freedom of the full 3D beam. The stiffness and mass matrices of these reduced
elements may be obtained by deleting the appropriate rows and columns of the full
stiffness and mass matrices.
The nodal forces/moments and degrees of freedom (in local coordinates) for the 3D
beam are

FT  Px1, Py1, Pz1, Mx1, My1, Mz1, Px2, Py2, Pz2, Mx2, My2, Mz2

aT  u1, v1, w1, x1, y1, z1, u2, v2, w2, x2, y2, z2

The corresponding stiffness and mass matrices are


Element stiffness matrix

K
LMK 11
K
21
OP
MNK12
K
22 PQ
where submatrices are defined:

LM EA OP
Symmetric
MM L0 12EIz PP
MM d
L3 1  y i PP
MM 0 12EI y
PP
M
0
b
L 1  z
3
g PP
K
11 MM 0 0 0
GJ
PP
MM 0 6EI y
L
b4   gEI
z y
PP
b g Lb1   g
0 0
MM L 1  z
2

d4   iEI PP
z

MM 0 6EIz y z

d i Ld1   i P
0 0 0
N L2 1  y y Q

7
Element Formulations

LM EA OP
Symmetric
MM L0 12EIz PP
MM L 1  y
3
d i PP
MM 0 12EIy
PP
M
0
b
L 1  z
3
g PP
K
22 MM 0 0 0
GJ
PP
MM 0 6EI y
L
b4   gEI
z y
PP
b g Lb1   g
0 0
MM L 1  z
2

d4   iEI PP
z

MM 0 6EIz y z

d i Ld1   i P
0 0 0
N L2 1  y
Q y

LM EA 0 0 0 0 OP 0
MM L0 12EI z 6EI PP z
MM L d1   i
0
3
y
0 0
L d1   i P
PP
2
y

MM 0 0
12EI
L b1   g 3
y
0
6EI
L b1   g
2
y
0
PP
M
z z
K  KT
12 21 MM 0 0 0
GJ
0 0 PP
MM 0 6EI y
L
b2   gEI
z y PP
b1   g Lb1   g
0 0 0
MM L 2
P
2   iEI P
z z

MM 0 6EI d P y z
Ld1   i P
z
L d1   i
0 0 0
N 2
y Q y

and where

12EIz 12EIy
y  and z 
GAsy L2 GAsz L2

Asy and Asz are the cross-sectional areas effective in shear about the respective
bending axis.
Element mass matrix

M  AL
LMM 11
M
21
OP
MNM 12
M
22 PQ
where submatrices are defined

8
Beam Elements

LM 1 SymmetricOP
MM 03 13

6Iz PP
MM 35 5AL2
13 6Iy
PP
M
M0 0 
35 5AL2 PP
M
11 MM 0 0 0
Jx
PP
MM 0 0 
11L

Iy
3A
0
L2 2I y

PP
MM 11L I
210 10AL 105 15A
L2
2I P
P
MN 0  z
210 10AL
0 0 0
105 15A PQ
 z

LM 1 SymmetricOP
MM 03 13

6Iz PP
MM 35 5AL2
13 6I y
PP
M
M0 0 
35 5AL2 PP
M
22 MM 0 0 0
Jx
PP
MM 0 0
11L

Iy
3A
0
L2 2I y

PP
MM 11L I
210 10AL 105 15A
L2
2I P
P
MN 0   z
210 10AL
0 0 0
105 15A PQ
 z

LM 1 0 0 0 0 OP
0
MM 60 9

6Iz 13L

I P
P z
MM 70 5AL2
0
6I y
0 0
Iy
420 10AL P
PP
M  MT
MM 0 0
9

70 5AL2
0 
13L

420 10AL
0
PP
21 12 MM 0 0 0
Jx
0 0
PP
MM 0 0
13L

Iy
6A
0 
L2

Iy
0 PP
MM 13L I
420 10AL 140 30A
L 2
I P
MN 0   z
420 10AL
0 0 0 
140 30A PQ
 z

The lumped mass matrix contains terms only the following terms,

a f
, 
M 11
AL
2
a f
M 2,2 
AL
2
a f
M 3,3 
AL
2
IyL
a f
M 4,4 
JxL
2
a f
M 5,5 
2
a f
M 6,6 
IzL
2

9
Element Formulations

1.2.1 2-D Straight Beam (BEAM)


1.2.1.1 Formulation
This element is a 2-D, 2-noded straight beam formulated by superimposing the
bending, shear and axial behaviour derived directly from the differential equations for
beam displacements, used in engineering beam theory.
The nodal degrees of freedom are (fig.7.2.1-1)
U, V and z at each node
The displacement variations along the length of the beam are linear axial, linear
rotation and cubic transverse displacements. The stress resultant variations are constant
axial force, linear moments and linear shear forces.
The nodal forces due to the thermal strains are assumed to be constant within each
element, and are evaluated explicitly using

RS F UV  R|S EAaLTTfO U|V


e
x e
TM W |TEI MN dy PQ |W
z zz

where (T)e and (T dz)e are average element values.

See [P1] for further element details.

1.2.1.2 Evaluation of stresses/forces


The element output obtained at the nodes consists of

Fx , Fy and Mz - +ve forces and moments are in the directions of the positive local
Cartesian system.
The forces are output in the local Cartesian system which is defined as having its local
x-axis along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are specified.
The local y and z-axes form a right-hand set with the x-axis, such that the y-axis lies in
the global XY plane, and the z-axis is parallel to the global Z-axis (up out of page)
(fig.7.2.1-3).
The nodal forces F are evaluated directly using

F  Ka

in the local Cartesian system.


The local Cartesian forces may also be output at eleven equally spaced points along the
beam. These values are evaluated by combining the nodal values with the local element
forces and moments calculated explicitly.

10
Beam Elements

1.2.1.3 Nonlinear formulation


The element does not possess any nonlinear capability, but may be utilised in a
nonlinear environment. The element cannot be employed for linear buckling analyses.

Y
V

z U
V 2
z
U
1

Fig.7.2.1-1 Nodal Freedoms For BEAM Element

Load

Load

Cantilever Beam Plane Frame

Fig.7.2.1-2 Examples Illustrating Use Of Beam Elements

y
x 2

Fig.7.2.1-3 Local Cartesian System For BEAM Element

11
Element Formulations

1.2.2 2-D Straight Grillage (GRIL)


1.2.2.1 Formulation
This element is a 2-D, 2-noded straight beam formulated by superimposing the
bending, shear, and torsional behaviour derived directly from the differential equations
for beam displacements used in engineering beam theory.
The nodal degrees of freedom are (fig.7.2.2-1)
W, x and y

The displacement variations along the length of the beam are linear axial, linear
rotation and cubic transverse displacements. The stress resultant variations are constant
axial, and linear moment and linear shear.
The nodal forces due to the thermal strains are assumed to be constant within each
element, and are evaluated explicitly using

My  EIyy LM T OP e

N dz Q
where (T dz)e is the average element value.

See [P1] for further element details.

1.2.2.2 Evaluation of stresses/forces


The element output obtained at the nodes consists of

Fz , Mx and M y +ve forces and moments are in the directions of the positive local
Cartesian system.
The forces are output in the local Cartesian system which is defined as having its local
x-axis along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are specified.
The local y and z-axes form a right-hand set with the x-axis, such that the y-axis lies in
the global XY plane, and the z-axis is parallel to the global Z-axis (up out of page)
(fig.7.2.2-3).
The nodal forces F are evaluated directly using

F  Ka

in the local Cartesian system.


The local Cartesian forces may also be output at eleven equally spaced points along the
bar. These values are evaluated by combining the nodal values with the local element
forces and moments calculated explicitly.

12
Beam Elements

1.2.2.3 Nonlinear formulation


The element does not possess any nonlinear capability, but may be utilised in a
nonlinear environment.
The element cannot be employed for linear buckling analyses.

y

y x
w

w 1
x X

Fig.7.2.2-1 Nodal Freedoms For GRIL Element

Z
Y
X
Point
Load

X
Problem Defintion Finite Element Mesh

Fig.7.2.2-2 Example Illustrating Use Of GRIL Elements

13
Element Formulations

y
x 2

Fig.7.2.2-3 Local Cartesian System For GRIL Element

1.2.3 3-D Straight Beam (BMS3)


1.2.3.1 Formulation
This element is a 3-D two noded straight beam formulated by superimposing the
bending, shear, torsional and axial behaviour derived directly from the differential
equations for beam displacements used in engineering beam theory.
The nodal degrees of freedom are (fig.7.2.3-1)

U, V, W, X, Y and Z at each node

The displacement variations along the length of the beam are linear axial, linear
rotation and cubic transverse displacements. The stress resultant variations are constant
axial, constant torsion, quadratic moment and linear shear.
The nodal forces due to the thermal strains are assumed to be constant within each
element, and are evaluated explicitly using

R| U|
R| F U| || EAaLTTfO ||
e
x e
S|M V|  S|EI MN dz PQ V|
y yy
TM W | L T O |
z e
||TEI MN dy PQ ||W
zz

where (T)e and (T dz)e are average element values.

See [P1] for further element details.

1.2.3.2 Evaluation of stresses/forces


The element output obtained at the nodes consists of

14
Beam Elements

Fx, Fy, Fz Forces in the local Cartesian system.

Mx, My, Mz Moments in the local Cartesian system.

The local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes
are specified. The local xy-plane is defined by the third element node and the element
x-axis. The local y and z-axes form a right-hand set with the local x-axis (fig.7.2.4-3).
The nodal forces F are evaluated directly using

F  Ka

in the local Cartesian system.


The local Cartesian forces may also be output at eleven equally spaced points along the
bar. These values are evaluated by combining the nodal values with the local element
forces and moments calculated explicitly.

1.2.3.3 Nonlinear formulation


The element does not possess any nonlinear capability, but may be utilised in a
nonlinear environment.
The element cannot be utilised for linear buckling analysis.

Y
Y

V
2
Y X
W Z
U
1 X
W Z
X

Fig.7.2.3-1 Nodal Freedoms For BMS3 Element

15
Element Formulations

3
Y
y
x 2

z 1

Fig.7.2.3-2 Local Cartesian System For BMS3 Element

16
Beam Elements

(a) 3-D Frame Structure

(a) 3-D Frame Structure

Fig.7.2.3-3 Examples Illustrating The Use Of BMS3 Elements

17
Element Formulations

1.2.4 2-D Curved Thin Beam (BM3, BMX3)


1.2.4.1 Formulation
The BM3 and BMX3 elements are thin, curved, non-conforming beam elements
formulated using the constraint technique.
The global displacements and rotations are initially quadratic and are interpolated
independently using linear Lagrangian shape functions for the end nodes and a
hierarchical quadratic function for the central node. Therefore, the initial degrees of
freedom are (fig.7.2.4-1)
U, V, j at the end nodes
u, v, j at the mid-length node.
The Kirchhoff condition of zero shear strain is applied at the two integration points, by
forcing
v u v
   z  0
x z x
and eliminating the local transverse translational and rotational degrees of freedom at
the central node. The final degrees of freedom for the element are (fig.7.2.4-1)

U, V, z at the end nodes,


u at the mid-length node
where u is the local axial relative (departure from linearity) displacement.
The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is defined in the local Cartesian
system as
u
x 
x

2v
z  
x2
The elastic rigidity (resultant modulus) and modulus matrices are defined as

Explicit
LM
  EA EIz OP
D
N
EIz EIzz Q
Numerically Integrated D z LMNh
Eb Eyb
Eyb Ey2b
OP
dy
Q
The thermal strain vector is defined as

18
Beam Elements

R| T U|
e j  |S| daTf |V
|T dy LMN  T ddT OPQ||W
0 t

A complete description of the element formulation is given in [M1,S1]. The consistent


and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in (section 2.7).

1.2.4.2 Evaluation of stresses/forces


The element output obtained at the nodes or Gauss points consists of

Fx - axial force (+ve tension)


Fy - shear force
Mz - moment
ex - axial strain
z - flexural strain
The forces and strains are output in the local x-axis which lies along the element axis in
the direction in which the element nodes are specified. The local y and z-axes form a
right-hand set with the x-axis, such that the y-axis lies in the global XY plane, and the
z-axis is parallel to the global Z-axis (up out of page) (fig.7.2.4-6).
Note. The moments are +ve for tension in the top fibre of the element (hogging). The
the fibre lies on the +ve local y side of the element.
Force and stress output may be obtained at either the nodes or element Gauss points.
Greatest accuracy is obtained at the Gauss points.
The element shear forces are computed directly from the Gauss point bending moments
via the relationship Fy  dMz / dL .

Three options for interpreting the forces and moments within an element are available
 The axial force and moment are computed at the two Gauss points using
numerical integration. The true nodal moments for a beam element between
supports is then obtained by adding the fixed end moments to the end node
values, and the sagging moment to the mid-node value (fig.7.2.4-7). This is the
default technique and must be used for nonlinear analyses.
 The axial force and moment are computed at the two end nodes by using
Fend  TT Ka

where T is the global-local transformation matrix. The values at the centre point
are then interpolated from these end values and the values at the Gauss points
assuming a cubic variation (fig.7.2.4-7). This method can only be used for linear
analyses and is invoked via OPTION 136.

19
Element Formulations

 This method is similar to (b) except that the stress resultants at the centre node
are also computed by considering equilibrium and is invoked via OPTION 137.

1.2.4.3 Nonlinear formulation


The beam elements can be employed in
 Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1]
(section 4.2).
 Geometrically nonlinear analysis.
 Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material
laws specified in 1.
 Nonlinear dynamics utilizing the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
 Linear eigen-buckling analysis.
Notes
 BM3 and BMX3 may be used in conjunction with the stress resultant plasticity
model (section 4.2). BMX3 may be used with the concrete model and
continuum-based plasticity models (section 4.2).
The geometric nonlinearity may be either:
 A Total Lagrangian formulation which accounts for large displacements but
small strains. The nonlinear strain-displacement relationship is defined by

x 
LM OP
u 1 u

2

LM OP
1 v
2

N Q
x 2 x N Q
2 x

2v u 2v v 2u


z    
x2 x x2 x x2
with reference to the local element x-axis.
 The force and strain output with the geometrically nonlinear analysis will be the
2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stress resultants and Green-Lagrange strains respectively,
referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative.
 An Updated Lagrangian formulation takes account of large displacements and
large rotations but small strains, provided that the rotations are small within a
load increment. The output approximates to the true Cauchy stress resultants
and logarithmic strains. The loading approximates to being non-conservative.
 The initial assumptions used in deriving the BM3 and BMX3 elements limit the
rotations to one radian in a Total Lagrangian analysis and rotation increments
of one radian in an Updated Lagrangian analysis (section 3.5).
 The BMX3 elements are valid for rotations (TL) or rotation increments (UL)
greater than one radian. As rotations become large, u / x may no longer be
interpreted as axial strain.
 The axial force distribution from a simple problem is given in fig.7.2.4-8.

20
Beam Elements

V V

Z Z
U U
3 3
V
U

 Z
U
2 2

V Y V
Y
Z Z
U U
1 1

X X

Initial Variables Final Variables

Fig.7.2.4-1 Nodal Freedoms For BM3 And BMX3 Elements

Quadrature Points

Quadrature points
coincide with
frame joints

Fig.7.2.4-2 Portal Frame Showing Locations Of Quadrature Points With A 3-Point


Newton-Cotes Rule

21
Element Formulations

2 3

1 4

Fig.7.2.4-3 Local Cartesian Axes For Cross-Section

Element 1 or
2 3
Quadrilateral 1

1 2 3 4

Element 2 or Z
Quadrilateral 2

2 1 4 3
Element 3 or
Quadrilateral 3
1 4

Fig.7.2.4-4 Cross-Section Of I-Beam Represented By Superimposing Three BMX3


Elements Or By Defining Three Quadrilaterals

22
Beam Elements

Y Y

Z Z

3-Point Newton-Coates 5-Point Newton-Coates

Fig.7.2.4-5 Quadrature Rules For Cross-Section Integration

Y
y
x
y x
3

2
x
y

Fig.7.2.4-6 Local Cartesian System For BM3 And BMX3 Elements

23
Element Formulations

UDL

Support

True moment distribution


LUSAS + fixed end moments wl/24 wl/12

wl/12 Values evaluated at


Gauss points and
extapolated to nodes

(a) Adding Fixed End Moments

Nodal values computed


directly fromF = K a

Gauss points values

(b) Cubic Fit Through Gauss and Nodal Values

Nodal values computed


directly fromF = K a

Mid-point moment
evaluated using
equilibrium

(c) Quadratic Fit Through Nodal and Mid-length Values

Fig.7.2.4-7 Interpretation Of Results Obtained Using BM3 And BMX3 Elements

24
Beam Elements

Load

(a) Problem Definition

BM3
Axial Force

(b) Axial Force Distribution

Fig.7.2.4-8 Axial Force Distributions Obtained For A Geometrically Nonlinear Analysis


Of A Cantilever Beam

25
Element Formulations

1.2.5 3-D Curved Thin Beam (BS3, BS4, BSX4)


1.2.5.1 Formulation
The BS3, BS4, and BSX4 elements are 3-D thin, curved, non-conforming beam
elements formulated using the constraint technique.
The global displacements and rotations are initially quadratic and are independently
interpolated using linear Lagrangian shape functions for the end nodes and a
hierarchical quadratic function for the central node. This provides C(0) continuity of
the in-plane displacement. The initial freedoms are (fig.7.2.5-1)

U, V, W, X, Y, Z at the end nodes


U, V, W, X, Y, Z at the mid-side node
The Kirchhoff condition of zero shear strain is applied at the two integration points, by
forcing
v u v
   z  0
x y x

w u w
   y  0
x z x
and eliminating the local transverse translational and bending rotational freedoms at the
central node. The final degrees of freedom for the element are (fig.7.2.5-1)

U, V, W, X, Y, Z at the end nodes


u and X at the mid-side node
where u and X are the local relative (departure from linearity) axial displacement
and torsional rotation of the central node.
The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is
u
x 
x

2u
y  
x2

2v
z  
x2
2w
 xy  
xy

26
Beam Elements

2w
xz  
xy

Note. xy  xz  z the total torsional strain

The elastic rigidity (resultant modulus) and modulus matrices are defined as
Explicit

LM EA EIy EIz 0 0 0 OP
MMEIEIy EIyy EIyz 0 0 0 PP
 M
D z EIyz EIzz 0 0 0
PP
MM 0 0 0 GIyy 0 0
PP
MMN 00 0
0
0
0
0
0
GIzz 0
0 GA PQ
Alternatively, if Kt has a non-zero value in the element geometric properties data
section, the resultant torsional moduli GIyy and GIzz are replaced with GKt / 2 where
Kt is a torsional constant (typically, for circular cross-sections Kt  J , the polar second
moment of area).
Numerically integrated

LM E Ey Ez 0 0 0 OP
MMEy Ey2 Eyz 0 0 0 PP

D zz h b
MMEz0
MM 0
Eyz Ez2
0
0
0
0 Gy
0
2
0
0
0
0
0 Gz2 0
dydz PP
PP
MN 0 0 0 0 0 G PQ
The thermal strain vector is defined as

R| daTf LT d OU|


|| dz MN  T dT PQ||
e j  S| dadyTf LMN  T ddT OPQV|
0 t
|| 0 ||
|T 0 |W
A description of the element formulation is given in [M2].
The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in
(section 2.7).

27
Element Formulations

1.2.5.2 Evaluation of stresses/forces


The element output obtained at the nodes or Gauss points consists of

Fx axial force
Fy, Fz shear forces
My, Mz moments
Ty, Tz torques

x axial strain
y, z flexural strain
xy, xz torsional strain

The forces and strains are output in the local Cartesian system which is defined by

 BS3 For a curved element the local xy-plane is defined by the three element
nodes. Local y is perpendicular to local x and +ve on the convex side of the
element. The local y and z-axis form a right-hand set with the local x-axis
(Fig.7.2.5-7a).
 For a straight element parallel to the global X-axis, the local z-axis is given by
the unit vector z = j x x (j is a unit vector along the global Y-axis) (fig.7.2.5-7b)
 For a straight element not parallel to the global X-axis, the local z-axis is given
the unit vector z = i x x (i is a unit vector along the global X-axis) (fig.7.2.5-7c)
 The local y-axis forms a right-hand set with the local x and z axes.
 BS4, BSX4 The local xy-plane is defined by all four element nodes which
are assumed to be coplanar. The local y-axis is perpendicular to the local x-axis
and +ve on the side of the element where the fourth node lies. The local y and z-
axis form a right-hand set with the local x-axis (fig.7.2.5-6)
Note. The torques are +ve for anti-clockwise rotations at first node and clockwise
rotations at third node.
Force and stress output may be obtained at either the nodes or element Gauss points.
Greatest accuracy is obtained at the Gauss points.
The element shear forces are computed directly from the Gauss point bending moments
via the relationship Fy  dM z / dL and Fz  dM y / dL

1.2.5.3 Nonlinear formulation


The beam elements can be employed in
 Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elasto-plastic constitutive laws [O1]
(section 4.2).
 Geometrically nonlinear analysis.

28
Beam Elements

 Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material


laws specified in 1.
 Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
 Linear eigen-buckling analysis.
Notes
 BS3, BS4 and BSX4 may be used in conjunction with the stress resultant
plasticity model (section 4.2). BSX4 may be used with the concrete model and
continuum based plasticity models (section 4.2).
 All continuum based nonlinear material models do not consider nonlinear
torsional effects.
 The geometric nonlinearity utilises a Total Lagrangian formulation which
accounts for large displacements but small strains. The nonlinear strain-
displacement relationship is defined by

x 
u 1 u

LM OP2

LM OP
1 v
2

x 2 x N Q N Q
2 x

2w u 2w w 2u w 2v


y     
x2 x x2 x x2 y x2

2v u 2v v 2u w 2w


z     
x2 x x2 x x2 y x2

2w u 2w w 2v


xz    
xy x xy x x2

2w u 2w v 2v


xy    
xy x xy x x2

v w
 yz  
x x
 with reference to the local element x-axis.
 The force and strain output for a geometrically nonlinear analysis will be 2nd
Piola-Kirchhoff stress resultants and Green-Lagrange strains respectively,
referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative.
 The initial assumptions in deriving the BS3, BS4 and BSX4 elements limit the
rotations to one radian in a Total Lagrangian (TL) analysis, and rotation
increments of one radian in an Updated Lagrangian (UL) analysis (Section 3.5).

29
Element Formulations

V V
Y Y

U U
W 3 X W 3 X
Z Z

V
 Y u

U
2 2  X
W  Z  X

V V
Y Y

Y U Y U
1 1
X X
Z Z
W W
X X

Z Z

Initial Variables Final Variables

Fig.7.2.5-1 Nodal Freedoms For BS3, BS4 And BSX4 Elements

Quadrature Points

Quadrature points
coincide with
frame joints

Fig.7.2.5-2 Portal Frame Showing Locations Of Quadrature Points With A 3-Point


Newton-Cotes Rule

30
Beam Elements

2 3

1 4

Fig.7.2.5-3 Local Cartesian Axes For Cross-Section

Element 1 or
2 3
Quadrilateral 1

1 2 3 4

Element 2 or Z
Quadrilateral 2

2 1 4 3
Element 3 or
Quadrilateral 3
1 4

Fig.7.2.5-4 Cross-Section Of An I-Beam Represented By Superimposing Three BSX4


Elements Or By Defining Three Quadrilaterals

31
Element Formulations

3*3 Newton-Cotes 5*5 Newton-Cotes

Fig.7.2.5-5 Quadrature Rules For Cross-Section Integration

Y 3 x
z
x y
2
y
x
1 4

y
X

Fig.7.2.5-6 Local Cartesian System For BS4 And BSX4 Elements

32
Beam Elements

Y
x-y plane

y
y x x
3
x 2 z
y
1
z X

Z
(a) Curved Element

z
z
x x
1 2 3
y
y

(b) Straight Element Parrallel With Global X-axis

Y y
x

3
z
y 2
x
1
z X

(c) Arbitrarily Orientated Straight Element

Fig.7.2.5-7 Local Cartesian System For The BS3 Element

33
Element Formulations

1.2.6 Semiloof Thin Beam (BSL3, BSL4, BXL4)


1.2.6.1 Formulation
The BSL3,BSL4 and BXL4 elements are 3-D thin, curved beam elements based on the
Kirchhoff constraint technique. Their formulation and nodal configuration has been
specifically designed to provide an element compatible with the Semiloof shell element
QSL8. Initially, the displacements and rotations are interpolated using quadratic and
cubic shape functions respectively, where the cubic variation is provided by the
rotational degrees of freedoms of the 'loof' nodes, which are located at the quadrature
points of the 2 point Gauss rule (fig.7.2.6-1).
Unlike the thick beam formulation presented by Irons [I1], the present formulation
utilises Kirchhoff constraints of zero shear strain applied at the 2-point Gauss
quadrature locations, by forcing
v u v
   z  0
x y x

w u w
   y  0
x z x
which provides four constraint equations and permits elimination of the two flexural
degrees of freedoms at these positions. The final degrees of freedom for the element are
(fig.7.2.6-1)

U, V, W, X, y, z at nodes 1 and 3


U, V, W at node 2
and

X at nodes 4 and 5
Note. The rotations at the 'loof' nodes are local, but are not relative rotations
(departures from linearity) as with the other LUSAS beam elements based on Kirchhoff
constraints.
The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is
u
x 
x

2w
y  
x2

2v
z  
x2

34
Beam Elements

2w
 xy  
xy

2w
xz  
xy

Note. xy  xz  z the total torsional strain The elastic rigidity (resultant modulus)
and modulus matrices are defined as

 Explicit
LM
EA EI y EIz 0 0OP 0
MM
EI y EI yy EI yz 0 0 PP 0

 
D
0
MM
EIz EI yz EIzz
0
0
0 G I yy  Ae2z e j 0
0
0 P
P 0

MM 0 0 0 0 GeI  Ae j 0 P
P2
MN 0 0 0 0 0
zz
GAPQ
y

 Alternatively if Kt has a non-zero value in the element geometric properties


data section, the resultant torsional moduli
GI yy and GIzz are replaced with
GKt / 2 where Kt is a torsional constant (typically, for circular cross-sections
Kt  J , the polar second moment of area).
 Numerically integrated
E Ez E y LM
0 0 0 OP
Ez Ez2 Eyz 0 MM 0 0 PP
D zz
Ey Eyz Ey
h b 0
0
0
0
2
0
0 Gz2
0
MM0
0
MM
0
0
0 Gy2 0
dydz PP
PP
0 0 0 0 MN
0 G PQ
 The thermal strain vector is defined by
LM a
d T
T
d fL OPOPP
MM   T M
f NL QP
dz dT
e j MM a
  d T   T d
0 t MN OPP
QPP
MM
dy
0
dT
PPQ
MN 0

A more detailed description of the element formulation is given in [A1,I1,M1].

35
Element Formulations

The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in
(section 2.7).

1.2.6.2 Evaluation of stresses/forces


The element output obtained at the nodes or Gauss points consists of

Fx axial force
Fy, Fz shear forces
My, Mz moments
Ty, Tz torques
x axial strain
y, z flexural strain
xy, xz torsional strain

The forces and strains are output in the local Cartesian system which is defined by

BSL3
For a curved element the local xy-plane is defined by the three element nodes. Local y
is perpendicular to local x and +ve on the convex side of the element. The local y and
z-axis form a right-hand set with the local x-axis (fig.7.2.6-6a).
For a straight element parallel to the global X-axis, the local z-axis is given by the unit
vector z  jx (j is a unit vector along the global Y-axis) (fig.7.2.6-6b).

For a straight element not parallel to the global X-axis, the local z-axis is given the unit
vector z  ix (i is a unit vector along the global X-axis) (fig.7.2.6-6c).

The local y-axis forms a right-hand set with the local x and z axes.

BSL4, BXL4
The local xy-plane is defined by all four element nodes which are assumed to be
coplanar. The local y-axis is perpendicular to the local x-axis and +ve on the side of the
element where the fourth node lies. The local y and z-axis form a right-hand set with
the local x-axis (fig.7.2.6-7)
Note. The torques are +ve for anti-clockwise rotations at the first node and clockwise
rotations at the third node.
Force and stress output may be obtained at either the nodes or element Gauss points.
Greatest accuracy is obtained at the Gauss points.
The element shear forces are computed directly from the Gauss point bending moments
via the relationship Fy  dM z / dL and Fz  dM y / dL

36
Beam Elements

1.2.6.3 Nonlinear formulation


The beam elements can be employed in
 Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1]
(section 4.2).
 Geometrically nonlinear analysis.
 Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material
laws specified in 1.
 Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
 Linear eigen-buckling analysis.
Notes
 BSL3, BSL4 and BXL4 may be used in conjunction with the stress resultant
plasticity model (section 4.2). BXL4 may be used with the concrete model and
continuum based plasticity models (section 4.2).
 All continuum based nonlinear material models ignore nonlinear torsional
effects.
 The geometric nonlinearity utilises a Total Lagrangian formulation which
accounts for large displacements but small strains. The nonlinear strain-
displacement relationship is defined by

x 
u 1 u

LM OP2

LM OP
1 v
2

x 2 x N Q N Q
2 x

2w u 2w w 2u w 2v


y     
x2 x x2 x x2 y x2

2v u 2v v 2u w 2w


z     
x2 x x2 x x2 y x2

2w u 2w w 2v


xz    
xy x xy x x2

2w u 2w v 2v


xy    
xy x xy x x2
v w
 yz  
x x
 with reference to the local element x-axis.
 The force and strain output with the geometrically nonlinear analysis will be the
2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stress resultants and Green- Lagrange strains respectively,
referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative.

37
Element Formulations

V V
Y Y
Y
U U
W Z 3 X W Z 3 X
5 5 X
X
Z
V V

U U
W 2 W 2

Y

V V X
Y 4
X Y 4
Z
Y U Y U
1 1
X X
Z Z
W W
X X

Z Z

Initial Variables Final Variables

Fig.7.2.6-1 Nodal Freedoms For BSL3, BSL4 And BXL4 Elements

QSL8 elements

BSL3 elements

Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh

Fig.7.2.6-2 Stiffened Shell Illustrating Use Of BSL3 Element

38
Beam Elements

2 3

1 4

Fig.7.2.6-3 Local Cartesian Axes For Cross-Section

Element 1 or
2 3
Quadrilateral 1

1 2 3 4

Element 2 or Z
Quadrilateral 2

2 1 4 3
Element 3 or
Quadrilateral 3
1 4

Fig.7.2.6-4 Cross-Section of an I-Beam Represented by Superimposing Three BSL4


Elements or by Defining Three Quadrilaterals

3*3 Newton-Cotes 5*5 Newton-Cotes

Fig.7.2.6-5 Quadrature Rules For Cross-Section Integration

39
Element Formulations

Y
x-y plane

y
y x x
3
x 2 z
y
1
z X

Z
(a) Curved Element

z
z
x x
1 2 3
y
y

(b) Straight Element Parrallel With Global X-axis

Y y
x

3
z
y 2
x
1
z X

(c) Arbitrarily Orientated Straight Element

Fig.7.2.6-6 Local Cartesian System For BSL3 Element

40
Beam Elements

Y 3 x
z
x y
2
y
x
1 4

y
X

Fig.7.2.6-7 Local Cartesian System For BSL4 And BXL4 Elements

1.2.7 3-D Straight Beam (BTS3)


1.2.7.1 Formulation
This element is a 3-D, two noded, straight beam formulated using Timoshenko beam
theory so that shear deformations are accounted for. In essence, this element is
formulated in a very straight forward manner, using linear shape functions and standard
degrees of freedom. The complexities in this formulation arise in the consistent
derivation of the geometric tangent stiffness and in the treatment of the rotational
degrees of freedom. The nodal degrees of freedom for BTS3 are identical to those of
the BMS3 element, (fig.7.2.7-1). End releases may be applied to all the nodal
freedoms, see section 7.2.8.4.
The nodal degrees of freedom are

U, V, W, X , Y , Z at each node.

All displacement and rotation variations along the length of the element are linear
while all internal forces and moments are constant.
Consistent and lumped mass matrices are available which are evaluated using the
procedures defined in section 2.7.1.

1.2.7.2 Evaluation of stresses/forces


The element output consists of

41
Element Formulations

Fx, Fy, Fz - Forces in the local Cartesian system

Mx, My, Mz - Moments in the local Cartesian system

Element strains and curvatures are also available but nodal values are not output. The
local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are
specified. The local xy-plane is defined by the third element node and the element x-
axis. The local y and z-axes form a right-hand set with the local x-axis. These axes are
consistent with those of the BMS3 element (fig.7.2.7-2).
The formulation is such that engineering strain measures are used in both linear and
geometrically nonlinear applications. These strains always relate to a local Cartesian
system.
The internal forces are computed using:

P  D

Where P are the local internal forces,  are the local strains and curvatures and D is
the modulus matrix given by (terms not shown are zero)

 EA EAez EAey 
 GAsy GAsy ez 
 
 GAsz GAsz ey 
 
D 
GAsy ez GAsz ey G J xx  Asy ez2  Asz ey2  
 
 EAez 
E I yy  Aez2  E  I yz  Aey ez 
 
 EAey EI yz  Ae e 
y z  
E I zz  Aey2 

1.2.7.3 Nonlinear formulation


This element can be employed in
 Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the stress resultant plasticity model
(section 4.2).
 Geometrically nonlinear analysis.
 Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material
laws specified in 1.
 Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
 Linear eigen-buckling analysis.
Geometric nonlinearity is accounted for using a co-rotational formulation. In this
approach local strains are computed in a local Cartesian frame which is 'fixed' to the
element and follows the element as it rotates in 3-D space. Total local strains are
computed using the current configuration and local frame. In other words, the strains

42
Beam Elements

computed at the end of one increment do not depend on the strains computed at the end
of a previous increment. Solutions obtained using this element will not be load step size
dependant. The local strains for the element are given by

o
 x ,  y,  z , Xx , Xy, Xz t
T

where:
x  u / lo

e i
 y   2  5 2

  e   i 2
z 3 6

X  e   i 10
x 4 1

X  e   i 10
y 2 5

X  e   i 10
z 3 6

Where, lo is the initial element length, u is the axial stretch measured in the co-rotated
frame, and i , i=1,6 are the local gradients at the nodes or 'curvature producing'
rotations relative to the co-rotated frame, (fig. 7.2.7-3).
The current local gradients at the nodes are computed from

21  t2T e3  t3T e2

22  t1T e2  t2T e1

23  t1T e3  t3T e1

24  q T e3  q T e2
2 3

25  q T e2  q T e1
1 2

26  q T e3  q T e1
1 3

Where ei are unit vectors defining the co-rotated base frame and t i , q , i=1,3 are the
i
cartesian sets at nodes 1 and 2 respectively defining the orientation of the beam cross-
section. These expressions may be thought of as being a means of computing an
'average' value for a local gradient at a node. This is easily visualised in two
dimensions where, for example, t1T e2  t2T e1.This is not true for the three
dimensional case and a stricter derivation of the expressions for local gradients would

43
Element Formulations

involve the polar decomposition theorem. The approach then taken is to decompose the
total rotation into a rigid body component and a local gradient. The expressions
described above are the result of applying these principles. The variation of these
expressions is used in the virtual work equation to relate variations in local strains to
variations in global nodal displacements.
The local frame ei , i=1,3 is easily established for a two dimensional problem. In three
dimensions defining the local frame is more difficult. The approach described by
Crisfield [C7] has been used for this purpose. The following expressions are used for
defining e 2 and e3 .

r2T e1
e2  r2 
2
ne1  r1 s
r3T e1
e3  r3 
2
n s
e1  r1

The local frame is established at the centre of the element and the vectors ri , i=1,3
represent the 'average' of the nodal cartesian sets, t i and q . These expressions are
i
approximations to the exact expressions for defining the 'smallest' rotation between
vectors r1 and e1 . These expressions have been used with a view to obtaining less
costly derivatives in a consistent derivation of the tangent stiffness. This lack of
orthogonality has been shown to be 0.25 degrees for a local gradient of 15 degrees and
1.9 degrees for a gradient of 30 degrees [C7]. As these values actually represent the
'curvature producing' rotations in a single element the deformation would need to be
very severe to reach these values.
The axial stretch may be taken as
u  ln lo
where ln is taken as the current element length (or chord length). By defining the
vectors
x21  x2  x1

d21  d2  d1

and then by rearranging Pythagoras's theorem this may be expressed as

u
2 RS1
x  d UV dT

T
ln lo 21 2 21 W 21

The vector x defines the nodes in the initial configuration while d21 is the 'net'
translational displacement vector, (fig. 7.2.7-4). The variation of this expression
reduces to

44
Beam Elements

u  e1Td21

Differentiation of the above equations relating to axial stretch and local gradients
allows virtual variations of local strains to be related to virtual variations in global
nodal displacements via a strain displacement matrix B

 B a

where a are the global nodal displacements. Using this expression in the virtual work
equation allows global internal forces at the nodes to be expressed in terms of local
internal forces as

P  BT P

The out of balance force vector is then given by

  BT P  R

where R is the applied nodal loading.

The variation of this equation gives the tangent stiffness matrix. Assuming
conservative loading this gives

d  BTdP  dBT P

d  BT DBda  dBT P

The first term on the right hand side of this equation may be recognised as the material
or standard linear stiffness matrix. The second term gives rise to the geometric
stiffness.

Notes
 This geometrically nonlinear formulation is consistently formulated and
displays a quadratic rate of convergence in the limit. A consequence of this
consistency is the ability of the element to cope with larger load increments.
 The total strains are computed from the current configuration and local frame
only. Therefore, results obtained using this element are not load step size
dependant.
 This element incorporates rotational degrees of freedom. As explained in section
3.5, large rotations in three dimensions are non-vectorial in nature and therefore
may not be summed as vectors. To overcome this problem the rotation variables
are never added to establish the current orientation of the element. A set of
Cartesian axes are established at each node to define the orientation of the beam
cross section. These axes, which are used in the computation of internal forces
and the stiffness matrix, are updated correctly using the iterative increments in
nodal rotations, section 3.5. The procedure for this operation is outlined as

45
Element Formulations

 Extract the Euler parameters from the initial nodal Cartesian set.
 Form an incremental Euler parameter from the iterative rotation increment.
 Update the Euler parameter by manipulating the previous and incremental
parameter using quarternion algebra.
 Form the updated Cartesian set from the updated Euler parameter.
 In view of the non-vectorial nature of these rotations it should be noted that the
nodal rotation output represents approximate values which should be treated
with caution. However, the translational displacements and internal force
output will be correct for problems involving arbitrary large nodal rotations.
 A nonsymmetric stiffness matrix will result if a follower load is specified. This
arises as additional terms are added to the stiffness matrix to account for the
variation in the load direction between iterations. Full details of the derivation
of these additional terms are given in [C6].
 A more detailed derivation of this element formulation may be found in [C6]
and [C8].

1.2.7.4 End releases


Many structures which are modelled with three-dimensional beam elements require
joints at the nodes which follow the axes of the rotating system. Examples include
deployable space structures, robots and rotating machinery.
Prismatic (sliding), revolute (hinges), spherical and cylindrical joints can be modelled
by releasing the appropriate degrees of freedom at a node. These freedoms relate to the
local beam axes and a master-slave procedure has been adopted to model the release
[J2]. At present, this facility is restricted to static analyses.
Consider a node which is initially shared by a number of elements, one of which is not
fully connected to the others. In the deformed configuration the node is no longer
completely shared and from (fig.7.2.7-5) the following relationships can be established:
d  dm  

Q  Q* Q
m

where dm and Q define the displacement vector and rotation matrix of the master
m
node, and d and Q define the displacement vector and rotation matrix of the
disconnected (at least partially) slave node. It should be noted that, following
conventional beam theory assumptions, the origins of the vectors dm and d coincide,
with the gap in (fig.7.2.7-5) drawn for illustrative purposes only.
The columns of the rotation matrices Q and Q consist of orthonormal base vectors
m
q ,q ,q and q , q , q (fig.7.2.7-5):
m1 m2 m3 1 2 3

46
Beam Elements

Q  q ,q ,q
m m1 m2 m3

Q q , q , q
1 2 3

The rotation matrix Q* is the matrix that defines the rotation of the master triad Q , on
m
to the slave triad Q.
When modelling different types of joints, the master variables, dm and Q , are
m
generally not entirely independent from the slave variables, d and Q . Depending on the
type of joint, some of the components of the displacement vectors, dm and d , and/or
parameters of the rotation matrices Q and Q , can be the same. Different types of
m
joints are defined by releasing displacements and/or rotations around chosen axes. In a
geometrically nonlinear analysis these axes rotate together with the structure. For
translational joints, the 'difference vector',  (with local components), between the
master and slave variables is, when transformed into coordinates defined by the master
triad, equal to the vector of released displacements (fig.7.2.7-6):

s  QT 
m

where the vector of released displacements, s , has zero components in non-released


directions. In a similar manner, if the rotational pseudovector * , is extracted from the
'rotation difference matrix', Q* and it is transformed to the master triad, the rotational
pseudovector of released rotations is obtained (fig.7.2.7-7):

  QT *
m

Using these equations a relationship can be established between the variations of the
master, slave and released freedoms. This relationship can then be used to derive a
modified stiffness matrix and internal force vector which accounts for any released
freedoms. Full details of this derivation can be found in [J2] while (fig.7.2.7-6) and
(fig.7.2.7-7) illustrate a prismatic (sliding) and revolute (hinge) release.

47
Element Formulations

Y
Y

V
2
Y X
W Z
U
1 X
W Z
X

Fig.7.2.7-1 Nodal Freedoms For BTS3 Element

3
Y
y
x 2

z 1

Fig.7.2.7-2 Local Cartesian System For BTS3 Element

48
Beam Elements

q2
6 4
q1

q3
e2 5

e1
e3
t1
1
t2

t3
Y 3 2

Fig.7.2.7-3 Local Gradients BTS3 Element

Final Configuration ln
d2

lo

d1
x21
Y x2 Initial Configuration
x1

X
Z

Fig.7.2.7-4 Axial Stretch BTS3 Element

49
Element Formulations

e3

e2

e1 q3
d
q2
dm
q1
qm3 

qm2

qm1

Fig.7.2.7-5 General Displacements At A Node With Released Freedoms

e3

e2

e1

qm3

qm2
qm1

Fig.7.2.7-6 Prismatic (Sliding) Release

50
Beam Elements

e3
e2 qm3
q3

q2
e1
qm2

qm3= q1

Fig.7.2.7-7 Revolute (Hinged) Release

1.2.8 3-D Isoparametric Thick Beam (BMI21/BMX21,


BMI31/BMX31, BMI22/BMX22, BMI33/BMX33)
1.2.8.1 Formulation
The two noded, straight elements BMI21/BMX21 and BMI22/BMX22, and three
noded curved elements BMI31/BMX31 and BMI33/BMX33 are 3-D isoparametric
degenerate beam elements formulated from the so-called degenerate continuum
concept. This involves enforcing the modified Timoshenko hypothesis for thick beams
to continuum theory while ignoring warping effects in torsion. Plane cross-sections
initially normal to the beam axis remain plane and undistorted (the shape of the cross-
section remains unchanged) under deformation, but do not necessarily remain normal
to the beam axis; the three in-plane stress components in the cross-section can thus be
ignored. Shearing deformations are included. The geometric properties or cross
sections may vary along the element length. BMI22/BMX22 and BMI33/BMX33
elements can consider initial twisting. The elements are formulated in a straight
forward manner, using linear shape functions for straight BMI21/BMX21 and
BMI22/BMX22 elements, and quadratic shape functions for curved BMI31/BMX31
and BMI33/BMX33 elements. Standard nodal degrees of freedom are used (Fig.7.2.8-
1), identical to those of the BMS3 and BTS3 elements. To be free from locking,
reduced integration is used to evaluate the element stiffness matrix, which does not
contain any spurious zero energy mode. End releases may be applied to all the nodal
freedoms, see section 7.2.8.4.
For BMX21, BMX31, BMX22 and BMX33 elements with quadrilateral cross-sections,
definition of the cross-section is shown in Fig.7.2.8-2; and quadrature rules are shown
in Fig.7.2.8-3.
The nodal degrees of freedom are

51
Element Formulations

U, V, W, X , Y , Z at each node.

In BMI21/BMX21 and BMI22/BMX22 elements, all displacement and rotation


variations along the length of the element are linear; the axial and shear forces,
moments and torque are constant. In BMI31/BMX31 and BMI33/BMX33 elements, all
displacement and rotation variations along the length of the element are quardratic; the
axial and shear forces, moments and torque vary linearly along the length of the beam.
The local displacements , , at any point (x, y, z) in the
beam in terms of the displacements , , and rotations , ,
at point (x, 0, 0) on the beam reference line (signified by subscript b) are given
by

where the rotations on the beam reference line in local coordinate system

The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is

52
Beam Elements

The elastic rigidity (resultant modulus) and modulus matrices are defined as

 Explicit

where the first moments of area

torsion constant

second and product moments of area

, , and are the second moments of area and torsion constant with
respect to its central line. Note that the shear areas Asz and Asy are used in , and .

 Numerically integrated

For the BMI21element, the residual bending flexibility (RBF) correction can be
introduced by modifying the shear areas as

53
Element Formulations

and correspondingly the first moments of area and torsion constant as

The resulting element will be indentical to BMS3.


The thermal strain vector is defined as

The consistent and lumped mass matrices are available which are evaluated using the
procedures defined in section 2.7.1. Beam inertia matrix for the mass matrix is

where the second polar moment of area

Note that only the total area is used in all terms in the beam inertia matrix.

1.2.8.2 Evaluation of stresses/forces


The element output obtained at the nodes or Gauss points consists of

54
Beam Elements

axial force
, shear forces

torque

, moments

axial strain
, shear strains

torsional strain

, flexural strains (curvatures)

The forces and strains are output in the local Cartesian system which is defined by

 BMI21, BMX21 The local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in
which the element nodes are specified. The local xy-plane is defined by the third
element node and the element x-axis. The local y-axis is perpendicular to the local
x-axis and +ve on the side of the element where the third node lies. The local z-axis
forms a right-hand set with the local x and y axes. These axes are consistent with
those of the BMS3 and BTS3 elements (fig.7.2.8-4a).
 BMI31, BMX31 The local x-axis at each node lies along the tangential in the
direction in which the element nodes are specified. The local xy-plane is defined by
the fourth element node and the local x-axis. The local y and z axes form a right-
hand set with the local x-axis (fig.7.2.8-4b).
 BMI22, BMX22 The local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in
which the element nodes are specified. The local xy-planes at the 1st and 2nd end
nodes are defined by the 3rd and 4th element nodes respectively, and the element x-
axis.The local y and z axes form a right-hand set with the local x-axis (fig.7.2.8-4c).
 BMI33, BMX33 The local x-axis at each node lies along the tangential in the
direction in which the element nodes are specified. The local xy-planes at the 1st,
2nd and 3rd nodes are defined by the 4th, 5th and 6th orientation nodes respectively,
and the local x-axis. The local y and z axes form a right-hand set with the local x-
axis (fig.7.2.8-4d).

Note. The torques are +ve for anti-clockwise rotations at the first node and clockwise
rotations at the last node.
Force and stress output may be obtained at either the nodes or element Gauss points.
Greatest accuracy is obtained at the Gauss points.

55
Element Formulations

1.2.8.3 Nonlinear formulation


The beam elements can be employed in
 Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elasto-plastic constitutive laws [O1]
(section 4.2).
 Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.

Notes
 BMI21, BMI31, BMI22 and BMI33 may be used in conjunction with the stress
resultant plasticity model (section 4.2). BMX21, BMX31, BMX22 and BMX33
may be used with the continuum based plasticity models (section 4.2).
 All continuum based nonlinear material models do not consider nonlinear
torsional effects.

1.2.8.4 End releases


Many structures which are modelled with three-dimensional beam elements require
joints at the nodes which follow the axes of the rotating system. Examples include
deployable space structures, robots and rotating machinery.
Prismatic (sliding), revolute (hinges), spherical and cylindrical joints can be modelled
by releasing the appropriate degrees of freedom at a node. These freedoms relate to the
local beam axes and a master-slave procedure has been adopted to model the release
[J2], as the BTS3 element (section 1.2.7.4).

V
Y

Z U
V X
2
Y
Y W

Z U
1 X
W

Z
(a) BMI21/BMX21 and BMI22/BMX22 elements

56
Beam Elements

V
V Y
Y
Z U
V 3 X
U
YZ 2
Y X W
W
Z U
1 X
W

Z
(b) BMI31/BMX31 and BMI33/BMX33 Elements

Fig.7.2.8-1 Nodal Freedoms For (a) BMI21/BMX21 And BMI22/BMX22, And (b)
BMI31/BMX31 And BMI33/BMX33 Elements

2 3

1 4

Fig.7.2.8-2 Local Cartesian Axes For Cross-Section

57
Element Formulations

3*3 Newton-Cotes 5*5 Newton-Cotes

Fig.7.2.8-3 Quadrature Rules For Cross-Section Integration

y
x
2 3 z
3
y 4 2
x x
y
1
z 1 z

(a) BMI21/BMX21 (b) BMI31/BMX31

4 6
y y
x
x
5 x 3
2 z y z
3
y 4 2 z
Y x
x y
1 z
z 1
(c) BMI22/BMX22 (d) BMI33/BMX33

Z
Fig.7.2.8-4 Local Cartesian System For (a) BMI21/BMX21, (b) BMI31/BMX31, (c)
BMI22/BMX22, And (d) BMI33/BMX33 Elements

58
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

1.3 Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements


1.3.1 Standard Isoparametric Elements
Isoparametric finite elements utilise the same shape functions to interpolate both the
displacements and geometry, i.e.
n
displacement U Ni b, gUi
i 1

n
geometry X Ni b, gXi
i 1

b g
where Ni ,  is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of nodes.
Fig.7.3.1-1 shows the nodal configurations available within LUSAS.
The nodal degrees of freedom are U and V.
All the isoparametric elements described in this section must be defined using only X
and Y coordinates. For 3-D plane membrane elements see section 7.5 on space
membrane elements A complete description of their formulation is given in [H1,B2].
The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in
(section 2.7).

1.3.1.1 Plane stress (QPM4, QPM8, TPM3, TPM6)


The plane stress elements are formulated by assuming that the variation of out of plane
direct stress and shear stresses is zero, i.e.
z  0, xz  0, yz  0

The plane stress elements are suitable for analysing structures which are thin in the out
of plane direction, e.g. thin plates subject to in-plane loading (fig.7.3.1-2).
Note. The thickness of the material is defined at each node and may vary over the
element.
The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is defined as
U
X 
X
V
Y 
Y
U V
 XY  
Y X

59
Element Formulations

The isotropic and orthotropic elastic modulus matrices are

LM1  0
OP
Isotropic D
E M P
e1   j MM0 a f PP
1 0
2
1 
N 0
2 Q
LM 1 / E x xy / Ex 0 OP 1

Orthotropic D  M / E 1 / Ey 0 PP
MN 0 xy x
0 1 / Gxy Q
where yx has been set to xyEy / Ex to maintain symmetry.

Note. To obtain a valid material

d
xy  Ex / Ey i
1/ 2


z  
E
d
 x  y i for isotropic materials

xz yz
z   x  y for orthotropic materials
Ex Ey

The thermal strain is defined by

LM(1  )  0
OP
isotropic D
E
(1  )(1  2) M
M  (1  ) 0 PP
MN 0 0
(1  2)
2
PQ
T
Orthotropic (0 )t  T x , y, xy

1.3.1.2 Plane strain (QPN4, QPN8, TPN3, TPN6)


The plane strain elements are formulated by assuming that the variation of out of plane
direct strain and shear strains is zero, i.e.
Z  0, YZ  0, XZ  0

The plane strain elements are suitable for analysing structures which are thick in the out
of plane direction, e.g. dams or thick cylinders (fig.7.3.1-3). The infinitesimal strain-
displacement relationship is defined as
U
X 
X

60
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

V
Y 
Y
U V
 XY  
Y X
The isotropic and orthotropic elastic modulus matrices are

LM(1  )  0
OP
Isotropic D
E
(1  )(1  2) M
M  (1  ) 0 PP
MN 0 0
(1  2)
2
PQ
LM E   E z
2
xz x xyEz  xz yzEy
0
OP 1

MM E E x z E y Ez PP
DM PP
 E    E Ez  2yzEy
Orthotropic xy z yz xz x
MM E E x z E y Ez
0
PP
MM 0 0
1
PQ
N Gxy

where for symmetry

d i d
Ey xyEz  yzxzEx  Ex xyEz  xzyzEy i
Note. To obtain a valid material

d
xy  Ex / Ey i1/ 2
b
xz  Ex / Ez g
1/ 2
d
yz  Ey / Ez i 1/ 2

z  b X  Y g for isotropic materials

Ez E
z  xz  yz z for orthotropic materials
EX Ey

The thermal strain is defined by

Isotropic d i  (1  )T , , 0
0 t
T

LM E     ,
z OP T

d i  TMM E PP
xz z x
x
Orthotropic 0 t
MN E
E
  + , 
z
y
yz z y xy PQ

61
Element Formulations

1.3.1.3 Axisymmetric (QAX4, QAX8, TAX3, TAX6)


The axisymmetric elements are formulated by assuming that the variation of out of
plane shear stresses is negligible, i.e.
XZ  0, YZ  0

and the out of plane direct strain is defined as


U
Z 
R

where R is the distance from the axis of symmetry.


The axisymmetric elements are suitable for analysing solid structures which exhibit
geometric symmetry about a given axis, e.g. thick cylinders or circular plates (fig.7.3.1-
4).
The elements are defined in the XY-plane and symmetry can be specified about either
the X or Y axes. The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is defined as:
U
X 
X
V
Y 
Y
U V
 XY  
Y X
U
Z  symmetry about the Y axis
R
V
or Z  symmetry about the X axis
R

The isotropic and orthotropic linear elastic modulus matrices are defined as

LM(1  )  0  OP
Isotropic D
E M 
(1  )(1  2) M 0
(1  ) 0
(1  2) / 2
 PP
MN  0
 0
0
(1  )
PQ
LM 1 / E  / E
x yx y 0 zx / Ez OP 1

DM PP
 / E 1/ E 0 zy / Ez
MM 0
xy x y
Orthotropic

MN  
xz / E x  
0
/E
yz y
1 / Gxy
0
0
1 / Ez
PPQ
where yx, zx and zy are defined by

62
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

yx  xyEy / Ex zx = xzEz / Ex zy  yzEz / Ey

to maintain symmetry.
Note. To obtain a valid material

d
xy  Ex / Ey i
1/2
b
xz < Ex / Ez g
1/2
d
yz  Ey / Ezy i
1/ 2

The thermal strain vector is defined as

Isotropic d i  T , , 0, 
0 t
T

Orthotropic d i  T  ,  ,  , 
0 t x y xy z
T

1.3.1.4 Evaluation of stresses


The element output obtained at the element nodes and Gauss points consists of
 Stress Output
X, Y, XY, Z the direct and shear stresses
max , min the maximum and minimum principal stresses
 the angle between the maximum principal stress and the
positive X-axis
S the maximum shear stress
V von Mises equivalent stress
 Strain Output
X, Y,  XY, z the direct and shear strains
max , min the maximum and minimum principal strains
 the angle between the maximum principal strain and the
positive X-axis
S the maximum shear strain
V von Mises equivalent strain
Stress resultant output, which accounts for the thickness of the element, is available as
an alternative to stress output for the plane stress elements, i.e
 Stress Resultant Output
NX, NY, NXY, Nz the direct and shear stress resultants/unit length
Nmax , Nmin the maximum and minimum principal stress
resultants/unit length
 the angle between the maximum principal stress resultant
and the positive X-axis
NS the maximum shear stress resultant/unit length
NV von Mises equivalent stress resultant/unit length

63
Element Formulations

The sign convention for stress, stress resultants and strain output is shown in fig.7.3.1-
6.
The Gauss point stresses are usually more accurate than the nodal values. The nodal
values of stress and strain are obtained using the extrapolation procedures detailed in
section 6.1.

1.3.1.5 Nonlinear formulation


The 2-D isoparametric elements can be employed in:-
 (Materially nonlinear analysis, utilising the elasto-plastic constitutive laws [O1]
(section 4.2) and the concrete model (section.4.3)
 Geometrically nonlinear analysis.
 Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material
laws specified in 1.
 Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
 Linear eigen-buckling analysis.
Notes
 The plane stress elements can be used with the nonlinear concrete model
(section 4.3).
 The plane stress and plane strain elements may be used with the nonlinear
interface model (section 4.2).
 The geometric nonlinearity may utilize:
 A Total Lagrangian formulation which accounts for large displacements but
small strains. The nonlinear strain-displacement relationship is defined by
Plane stress
X 
LM OP
U 1 U

2

LM OP
1 V
2

N Q
X 2 X N Q
2 X

V 1 L U O 1 L V O
2 2

X 2 MN Y PQ
    M P
2 N Y Q
Y

U V U U V V
 XY    
Y X X Y X Y
Plane Strain
X 
LM OP
U 1 U

2

LM OP
1 V
2

N Q
X 2 X N Q
2 X

V 1 L U O 1 L V O
2 2

X 2 MN Y PQ
    M P
2 N Y Q
Y

U V U U V V
 XY    
Y X X Y X Y

64
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

Axisymmetric
X 
LM OP
U 1 U

2

LM OP
1 V
2

N Q
X 2 X N Q
2 X

V 1 L U O 1 L V O
2 2

X 2 MN Y PQ
    M P
2 N Y Q
Y

U V U U V V
 XY    
Y X X Y X Y

Z  LM OP
U 1 U

2
symmetry about the Y axis
N Q
R 2 R

   LM OP
2
V 1 V
or symmetry about the X axis
R 2 NRQ
Z

The output is now in terms of the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and Green-Lagrange
strains referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative.
 An Updated Lagrangian formulation, which takes account of large
displacements and moderately large strains provided that the strain increments
are small. The output is now in terms of the true Cauchy stresses and the strains
approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading approximates to being non-
conservative.
 An Eulerian formulation, which takes account of large displacements and large
strains. The output is in terms of true Cauchy stresses and the strains
approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading is non-conservative.

65
Element Formulations

3 5

6
4

1 1 2
2 3

3 node triangle 6 node triangle

3 6 5
4 7

4
8

2 2 3
1 1

4 node quadrilateral 8 node quadrilateral

Fig.7.3.1-1 Nodal Configuration For Standard 2-D Isoparametric

66
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh

(a) Plate subject to Inplane Loading

Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh

(b) Cantilever subject to a Point Loading

Fig.7.3.1-2 Examples Illustrating The Use Of Plane Stress Elements

67
Element Formulations

Problem Definition

QPN8 elements

TPN6 elements

Finite Element Mesh

(a) Embankment Dam

QPN4 elements

Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh

(b) Thick Cylinder

Fig.7.3.1-3 Examples Illustrating The Use Of Plane Strain

68
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

QAX4 elements

Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh

(a) Thick Cylinder

QAX8 elements

Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh

(b) Circular Plate

Fig.7.3.1-4 Examples Illustrating The Use Of Axisymmetric Solid Elements

69
Element Formulations

Fig.7.3.1-5 Deformed Mesh Illustrating Formation Of Spurious Mechanisms

X, Y +ve tension


Y XY +ve into XY quadrant
Y

XY
X X

XY

Y X

Fig.7.3.1-6 Sign Convention For Stress/Strain Output

1.3.2 2D Crack Tip Elements (QPK8, TPK6, QNK8, TNK6,


QXK8, TXK6)
1.3.2.1 Plane stress (QPK8, TPK6)
Plane strain (QNK8, TNK6)
Axisymmetric (QXK8, TXK6)
The general approach taken to formulate these elements is identical to that described
for the 2D standard isoparametric elements in section 7.3.1. The difference between
these 2D crack tip elements and the standard isoparametric 2D continuum elements is
that mid-side nodes are moved to the quarter point positions to create a singularity at
the crack tip.

70
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

1.3.2.2 Formulation
The formulation is identical to that described for the standard 3 crack tip elements in
section 7.4.2.

1.3.2.3 Evaluation of stresses


The evaluation of stresses is identical to that described for the standard 2D
isoparametric elements in section 7.3.1.

1.3.2.4 Nonlinear formulation


The nonlinear formulation is identical to that described for the standard 2D
isoparametric elements in section 7.3.1.

Notes
 Notes are identical to those listed in section 7.3.1.
5 6 5
7

4 4

6
8

3 3
1 2 1 2

TPK6, TNK6, TXK6, QPK8, QNK8, QXK8

Fig.7.3.2-1 Nodal Configuration For 2D Crack Tip Elements

1.3.3 Enhanced Strain Elements (QPM4M, QPN4M,


QAX4M)
The lower order enhanced strain elements exhibit improved accuracy in coarse meshes
when compared with their parent elements QPM4,QPN4 and QAX4, particularly if
bending predominates. In addition, these elements do not suffer from 'locking' in the
nearly incompressible limit. The elements are based on a three-field mixed formulation
[S8] in which stresses, strains and displacements are represented by three independent
functions in three separate vector spaces. The formulation is based on the inclusion of
an assumed 'enhanced' strain field which is related to internal degrees of freedom.
These internal degrees of freedom are eliminated at the element level before assembly
of the stiffness matrix for the structure. The formulation provides for the following
three conditions to be satisfied:
 Independence of the enhanced and standard strain interpolation functions.

71
Element Formulations

 L2 orthogonality of the stress and enhanced strains.


 Capability of the element to model a constant state of stress after enforcing the
orthogonality condition, i.e. requirement for passing the patch test.
In addition to ensuring that the element passes the patch test, these conditions also
allow the stress field to be eliminated from the formulation.

1.3.3.1 Formulation
The formulation requires that the total strain is expressed as the sum of a 'compatible'
strain and an 'enhanced' strain
 c  e

The compatible strain is directly related to the displacements of the element nodes in
the standard manner. The enhanced strain is related to internal degrees of freedom
which are eliminated using static condensation at the element level. The enhanced
strains are therefore discontinuous between elements. The weak form of the three field
variational equations for equilibrium, compatibility and constitutive relationship may
be expressed as

z
T
c  d  RTa  0

z
T
 e d  0

z
T LM
  
N
W

OP
d  0
Q
where R is the applied loading, W is the strain energy density, a are nodal
displacements and  is the stress vector.
By enforcing the so called L2 orthogonality condition between stress and enhanced
strain, terms involving T e will disappear. This allows the stress field to be
eliminated from the formulation.
The compatible and enhanced strains are computed from
c  Ba

e  Ge

where G operates on the assumed strain parameters e to provide the enhanced strains.

Substitution of these expressions into the two remaining field variational equations
yields

72
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

z
T
{ }
c D Bda  Gde  RTa d  z
T
{ }
e D Bda  Gde d  0

The following matrices are defined for use in discretising this equation

Kakf  z 
BT D B d ( nel * nel matrix)

Hk af z GT D G d ( mel * mel matrix)


k af z GT D B d ( mel * nel matrix)


n el is the dimension of the element displacement field, mel is the number element
enhanced strain modes. D is the modulus matrix at loadstep k.

The internal force vectors are given by

Pakf  z 
BakfT akf d

hk af z Ga kfT a kf d

where h(k) is the internal force vector relating to the incompatible modes which is
subsequently eliminated at the element level.
Using standard finite element techniques for assembling the system of equations gives

LMKa fk akfT OPR|aak1f U|  R|R  Pakf U|


MNa f a
H P| f STak1f V|W S|T 0  hakf V|W
k k
Q
This nonlinear system of equations is solved using a Newton-Raphson iteration
scheme. However, for the linear case, no iterations are necessary as h will be 0 and P
will not be considered.
Static condensation of this system of equations eliminates the equations included to
enforce the orthogonality condition. The element stiffness and internal forces used to
assemble the equations for the structure then become
a kf
K aak1f  akf

where

K
akf  Kakf  akfT Hakf 1akf

akf  R  P
a kf

73
Element Formulations

P
akf  Pakf  akfT Hakf 1hakf
In nonlinear analyses, the enhanced strain parameters are updated as

ak1f  akf  Hakf akfaakf  hakf


1

The actual implementation of this formulation requires the orthogonality condition to


be related to the isoparametric space. Transformations are therefore required to
assemble matrices and vectors that relate to covariant strains and contravariant stresses.
Standard transformations are applied and full details of this procedure are given in
[S8].
It is postulated that the covariant enhanced strain field is given by
e  Ee

where E is the equivalent of G in the isoparametric space.

1.3.3.2 Enhanced strain interpolation - plane elements (QPM4M,


QPN4M)
The incompatible displacement field is given by

bg
U  N1  1  N2  2 af
where

b g 12 e1   j,
N1   2
a f 12 e1   j
N2   2

and  i represent the incompatible modes

l q T
1  u1, v1 , 2  u2 , v2 l q T

The covariant base vectors associated with the isoparametric space are
R|x N, U|  |Rx a |U  |Rx h|U  g  g
T T T
g  S|y N, V| ST|y a VW| ST|y hVW|
 1 0

T WT

T
1
T 1

S
R|x N, U|V  R|Sx a U|V  R|Sx hU|V  g  g
T

T
2
T
0
T|y N, W| T|y a W| T|y hW|
g
 T

T T 2
2

where
N  a0  a1  a2  h

and

74
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

1 T
a0  1 1 1 1
4
1 T
a1  1 1 1 1
4
1 T
a2  1 1 1 1
4
1 T
h 1 1 1 1
4
T
x  x1 x2 x3 x4
T
y  y1 y2 y3 y4

The initial enhanced strain field in isoparametric space is then given by

R| eu, j g U| 
T

i S
| du, i g |V T

||  
|
d|T u, i g  eu, j g ||W

T
 
T

R| g U|T
1
0

| g ||
1
T 0
LM 0 O|
2
 0 0 0  2

MM
 0  0 0 0 PPS
| g |V  E 
T
1
0
2 i i

 PQ|
||  g |||
e
 g T 0
N
0 0   2 2 2
T
1

|T  g |W
1
T
2

The stress field for the element is derived from the linear uncoupled stress field [P2]
R|  U| L1   OP
V|  MM
x
  S 1   P
|Txy
y

W MN 1  PQ

The introduction of four internal degrees of freedom allows four of the nine stress
parameters () to vanish. The remaining terms satisfy the equilibrium equations. By
basing the formulation on natural coordinates the element is less sensitive when
distorted and possesses no zero-energy deformation modes. Full details of the
elimination of the four stress parameters is described in [P2] for a hybrid element. The
final contravariant stress field using five  parameters is defined as

75
Element Formulations

R|  U| L1 0 0  0 OP
  S| 
V|  MM0 1 0 0  PP
|T 
|W MN0 0 1 0 0 Q
To satisfy the L2 orthogonality condition   ,  L2
zz1 1
1 1
r T dd  0
This condition is violated if the six initial enhanced strain parameters () are used.
However, the condition is satisfied if
5  6

Forcing this equality, and hence L2 orthogonality, gives the final enhanced strain
interpolation matrix as

LM
 0 0 0  OP
MM
E 0  0 0  PP
N
0 0   2  2 Q
This matrix is used in linear analyses but for nonlinear applications four enhanced
strain parameters are used with the final column of E deleted [S8]. The final
interpolation functions E also allow condition (III) to be satisfied. This is a
requirement for passing the patch test [S8] and is implied in the sense that:

zz1 1
1 1
E dd  0

1.3.3.3 Enhanced strain interpolation - axisymmetric element


(QAX4M)
The procedure for establishing the enhanced strain interpolation matrix for the
axisymmetric element is similar to that used for the plane elements. The initial matrix
is given by
LM 0 0 0 0 OP
E M PP
0  0 0 0
i
MM0 0   0
PQ
N0 0 0 0 

For the axisymmetric case, a factor r(,) will be included in the integrand for
enforcing orthogonality

76
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

zz1 1
1 1
r T dd  0
where
T
          ,     2  

r  rT N

z  zT N

r  r1, r2 , r3, r4

z  z1, z2 , z3, z4

Inclusion of the factor r( ,) means that the orthogonality condition is violated using
this interpolation matrix. Simo and Rifai [S8] have derived interpolation functions
which account for the factor r and satisfy this condition

E  Ei 
zz 1 1
1 1
1
r dd
zz
1 1
1 1
Ei r dd

LM   0 0 0 0 OP
 MM PP
0   0 0 0
MM 00 0      0
PP
N 0 0 0    Q
where

1 r T a1 1 rT a 1 rT h
 T ,   T 2 ,  = T
3 r a0 3 r a0 9 r a0

a 0 , a1 , a 2 and h vectors have been defined for the plane elements.

1.3.3.4 Evaluation of stresses


The evaluation of stresses is identical to that described in section 7.3.1.5.

1.3.3.5 Nonlinear formulation


The comments made in section 7.3.1.6 regarding the nonlinear capability of the
standard elements are also applicable to these elements. The nonlinear formulation for
the enhanced strain elements involves enforcing orthogonality between assumed
Green-Lagrange strains and 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses. The geometrically nonlinear
performance of these elements is much improved in comparison with the standard
elements.

77
Element Formulations

1.3.4 Incompatible Plane Membrane Element (PMI4)


1.3.4.1 Formulation
This element is a high performance, non-conforming, 4-noded, plane membrane
element. It is formed by adding two non-conforming modes to the standard
isoparametric formulation presented for QPM4, i.e.
n
U Ni b, gUi
i 1

is replaced with
n 2
U Ni b, gUi  Pi b, gai
i 1 i 1

where

b g
P1 ,   1  2 and b g
P2 ,   1  2

and a i are nodeless degrees of freedom which are condensed out before element i
assembly. The nodal configuration and non-conforming shape functions are shown in
fig.7.3.3-1.
The element passes the patch test (ensuring convergence as the mesh is refined) and the
displacement field is approximately an order higher than the QPM4 element (i.e.
quadratic displacement accuracy).
The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is the same as QPM4, i.e.
U
X 
X
V
Y 
Y
U V
 XY  
Y X
The isotropic and orthotropic elastic modulus matrices are defined as

LM1  0
OP
Isotropic D
E M P
e1   j MM0 a f PP
1 0
2
1 
N 0
2 Q

78
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

L 1 yx / Ey OP 1

D  MM / E
0
Orthotropic
MN 0
xy x 1 / Ey 0 PP
0 1 / Gxy Q
where yx is set to xyEx / Ey to maintain symmetry.

d
Note. For a valid material xy  Ex / Ey i
1/ 2

The thermal strain is defined by

Isotropic d i  T , , 0
0 t
T

Orthotropic d i  T  ,  , 
0 t x y xy
T

Full details of the formulation are presented in [T2,W2].


Only a lumped mass matrix is evaluated using the procedure defined in (section 2.7).

1.3.4.2 Evaluation of stresses


The element output obtained at the element nodes consists of
 Stress Resultant Output
Nx, Ny, Nxy the direct and shear stress resultants/unit length
Nmax , Nmin the maximum and minimum principal stress resultants/unit
length
  the angle between the maximum principal stress resultant
and the positive X-axis
NS the maximum shear stress resultant/unit length
NV Von Mises equivalent stress resultant/unit length.
 Strain Output
X, Y,  XY the direct and shear strains
max , min the maximum and minimum principal strains
 the angle between the maximum principal strain and the
positive X-axis
S the maximum shear strain
V Von Mises equivalent strain

The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.3.3-4. The
stress resultants are evaluated directly at the nodes.

79
Element Formulations

1.3.4.3 Nonlinear formulation


The element has no nonlinear capability, but may be utilised in a nonlinear
environment.
The element cannot be used for linear buckling analyses.
Y,V

3
4

2
1 P1 = 1-2 P2 = 1-2
X,U

(a) Nodal Configuration (b) Non-conforming shape functions

Fig.7.3.3-1 Nodal Configuration And Non-Conforming Shape Functions For The PMI4
Element

Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh

(a) Plate subject to Inplane Loading

Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh

(b) Cantilever Plate subject to Point Loading

Fig.7.3.3-2 Examples Illustrating The Use Of PMI4 Elements

80
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

Y
4
2
y
x
1

FIG.7.3.3-3 LOCAL CARTESIAN SYSTEM FOR THE PMI4 ELEMENT

X, Y +ve tension


Y XY +ve into XY quadrant
Y

XY
X X

XY

Y X

Fig.7.3.3-4 Sign Convention For Stress/Strain Output

1.3.5 2D Explicit Dynamics Elements


Explicit time integration schemes have used simple linear elements rather than those of
a higher order by virtue of their computational efficiency. A number of further
advantages may also be obtained in explicit dynamic analyses
 The use of higher order shape functions creates difficulties at the contact
interface in the form of uncontrolled overlap.
 It has been shown that higher order continuum elements require a time step
reduced from that of linear elements because of the greater mass associated with
the interior nodes.

81
Element Formulations

 The mass lumping formulations for higher order elements are currently
impractical for modelling shock wave propagation since the resulting numerical
noise pollutes or destroys the solution.
 The combination of mass lumping with linear elements, when applied in
conjunction with the central difference operator, increases accuracy in solutions
by virtue of their respective compensatory spectral errors.
The linear explicit dynamics elements have been implemented to take advantage of
these benefits. They are for use only with the explicit central difference time integration
scheme.
The explicit dynamics elements are based upon the isoparametric approach in which
the same shape functions are used to interpolate both the displacements and the
geometry, i.e.
n
displacement U Ni b, gUi
i 1

n
geometry X Ni b, gXi
i 1

b g
where Ni ,  is the element shape function for node and n is the number of nodes.
Fig.7.3.1-1 shows the nodal configurations available within LUSAS. The nodal degrees
of freedom are U and V. All the explicit dynamics elements described in this section
must be defined using only X and Y coordinates.

1.3.5.1 Plane stress (QPM4E, TPM3E)


The plane stress elements are formulated by assuming that the variation of the out of
plane direct stress and shear stresses is negligible, i.e.
Z  0, XZ  0, YZ  0

The plane stress elements are suitable for analysing structures which are thin in the out
of plane direction, e.g. thin plates subject to in-plane loading (fig.7.3.4-2).
Note that the thickness of the material is defined at each node and may vary over the
element.
A rate relationship is used to define the strain-displacement characteristics as

t U
t x 
X
t


t V
t y 
Y
t

82
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

 t V
t U 
t  XY  t  t
Y X

t z  
LM  U   V OP
t t

MN  X  Y PQ
t t

The isotropic and orthotropic elastic modulus matrices are

LM1  0
OP
Isotropic D
E M P
j MM0 a f PP
1 0
e
1  2 1 
N 0
2 Q
LM 1 yx / Ey 0 OP 1

Orthotropic D  M / E 1 / Ey 0 PP
MN 0
xy x
0 1 / Gxy Q
where yx is set to xyEy / Ex to maintain symmetry.

Note. To obtain a valid material xy  Ex / Ey d i1/ 2

The initial thermal strain is defined by

Isotropic d i  T , , 0
0 t
T

Orthotropic d i  T  ,  , 
0 t x y xy
T

1.3.5.2 Plane strain (QPN4E, TPN3E)


The plane strain elements are formulated by assuming that the variation of the out of
plane direct strain and shear strains is negligible, i.e.
Z  0, YZ  0, XZ  0

The plane strain elements are suitable for analysing structures which are thick in the out
of plane direction, e.g. dams or thick cylinders (fig.7.3.4-3).
A rate relationship is used to define the strain-displacement characteristics as

t U
X 
t
X
t


t V
Y 
t
Y
t

83
Element Formulations

t
 t V
t U 
 XY  t  t
Y X
Y  0
t

The isotropic and orthotropic elastic modulus matrices are


Isotropic

LM(1  )  0 P
O
D
E MM  (1  ) 0 PP
a f
1   (1  2)
MM 0 0 a1 22f PP
N Q
LM E   E
z
2
xz x  E   
xy z xz yz Ey
0
OP 1

MM E E x z E E y z PP
DM PP
 E    E E  E 2
Orthotropic xy z yz xz x z yz y
MM E Ex z E E y z
0
PP
MM 0 0
1
PQ
N Gxy

where for symmetry

d i d
Ey xyEz  yzxzEx  Ex xyEz  xzyzEy i
The initial thermal strain is defined by

Isotropic d i  a1  fT  ,  , 0
0 t x y
T

Orthotropic d i  a1  fT  ,  , 
0 t x y xy
T

1.3.5.3 Axisymmetric (QAX4E, TAX3E)


The axisymmetric elements are formulated by assuming that the variation of out of
plane shear stresses is negligible, i.e.
XZ  0, YZ  0

and the out of plane direct strain rate is defined as



U

Z
R
where R is the distance from the axis of symmetry.

84
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

The axisymmetric elements are suitable for analysing solid structures which exhibit
geometric symmetry about a given axis, e.g. thick cylinders or circular plates (fig.7.3.4-
4).
The elements are defined in the XY-plane and symmetry can be specified about either
the X or Y axes.
Standard axisymmetric isoparametric elements are formulated with the Galerkin
weighted residual method, in which the governing differential equation is utilised
directly to form a weighted residual statement, where the weighting functions are
generally the element shape functions. For large strain axisymmetric analyses, the use
of elements based on the Galerkin method leads to computational difficulties near the
axis of symmetry. These difficulties may be overcome by formulating the elements
with the Petrov-Galerkin method [G2]. This method is also a weighted residual
method, however, the weighting functions are taken to be the product of the element
shape functions and the inverse of the radius, i.e. eliminating the radial weighting in the
governing equations.
The use of this particular formulation produces a time dependent mass matrix and as
such must be computed each time.
A rate relationship is used to define the strain-displacement characteristics as

t U
X 
t
X
t


t V
Y 
t
Y
t

 t V
t U 
XY 
t
t  t
Y X
t
U
Z 
t
(symmetry about the Y axis)
R
t
V
or Z 
t
(symmetry about the X axis)
R
The isotropic and orthotropic linear elastic modulus matrices are defined as
Isotropic

LM(1  )  0  OP
D
E
(1  )(1  2)
MM 0 (1  ) 0
(1  2) / 2
 PP
MN  0
 0
0
(1  )
PQ
Orthotropic

85
Element Formulations

LM 1 / E x yx / Ey 0 zx / Ez OP 1

DM PP
 / E 1 / Ey 0 zy / Ez
MM 0
xy x

MN / E xz x
0
yz / Ey
1 / Gxy
0
0
1 / Ez
PPQ
in which symmetry is maintained by defining
yx  xyEy / Ex zx = xzEz / Ex zy  yzEz / Ey

Note. To obtain a valid material

d
xy  Ex / Ey i 1/2
b
xz < Ex / Ez g yz  Ey / Ezy d i
1/ 2

The initial thermal strain vector is defined as

Isotropic d i  T  ,  , 0, 
0 t x y z
T

Orthotropic d i  T  ,  ,  , 
0 t x y xy z
T

1.3.5.4 Integration rule for the elements


A one point quadrature integration rule is utilised. This provides elements that are
efficient, do not lock when incompressible behaviour is being modelled, e.g. plastic
straining with von Mises plasticity, and integrate the stresses at the most accurate
location.
The location of the integration point is given in Appendix A.

1.3.5.5 Element stabilisation


The utilisation of one point Gauss quadrature has a limitation in that zero energy
deformation or hourglass modes are generated (see fig.7.3.4-5). The effects of such
modes are minimised by the viscous damping technique [H7].
The technique provides a damping force capable of preventing the formation of
spurious modes but which has negligible influence on the true structural modes. This is
possible since the spurious modes are orthogonal to the real deformations.
The rate of diagonal drifting is defined by the velocity at which the mid-points of the
element are separating. This is utilised as the basis for hourglass detection, giving the
hourglass velocities as
4
hij  x ik jk ai = 1,2f
j1

The viscous hourglassing forces are

86
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

4
fik  1 / 4 Qhg  A1/2 c dhij jk i
j1

in which A is the current element area, Qhg is a constant which is modified via the
SYSTEM command and is usually set to a value between 0.05 and 0.15, and x ik is the
nodal velocity of the kth node in the ith direction.  is the current element density, while
c, the material sound speed is defined from

c2 
a f
E 1 
a fa f
 1   1  2

The hourglass base vectors for the four node quadrilateral are defined as:-

i  1 -1 1 -1 T

these viscous forces are included directly into the element force vector.

1.3.5.6 Shock wave smoothing


The shock discontinuities that occur in impact problems may promote numerical
instabilities which must be smoothed out. This is achieved using an artificial bulk
viscosity method. The salient characteristic of the method is the augmentation of
element pressure with an artificial viscous term (q) prior to the evaluation of the
element internal force. This is zero in expanding elements and non-zero in contracting
elements. The algorithm has the effect of spreading the shock front over a small
number of elements.
The exact form of artificial viscosity is somewhat arbitrary and the method used is
based on the formulation originally proposed in [V1]

q   Lc Dkk Q1 Lc Dkk  Q2 c

where Q1 and Q2 are dimensionless constants which default to 1.5 and 0.06
respectively, and may be modified as necessary via the SYSTEM command. Dkk is
the trace of the velocity strain tensor and Lc is the characteristic length of the element
which is related to the smallest element diagonal as

2A
Lc 
LD

where

e 2 2 2
LD  MAX 1 / 2y24  1 / 2x42 , 1 / 2y31  1 / 2x13
2
j
in which the distance between any two nodal points i,j is given as

87
Element Formulations

xij  xi  xj

The quadratic term in strain rate is chosen to be small except in regions of very large
gradients. The linear term, however, is included to control the small spurious
oscillations following the shock waves in which the gradients are insufficient to make
the quadratic term effective. Care should be taken with the linear term since there is a
danger of distorting the solution.
In converging geometries, the centred strain rate term is negative and the q term is then
non-zero. This occurs even though no shocks are generated and results in a non-
physical generation of pressure. In view of the abundance of excellent results, however,
it is generally agreed that the effect is negligible.

1.3.5.7 Force calculations


The direct stresses at time t+t are modified by the addition of the artificial viscosity
pressure q as follows
x  x  q and y  y  q

The contribution to the force vector due to the element stresses is evaluated from the
equilibrium equations of Timoshenko as

b
Fx  x / x  xy / y  r   / r  0 g
Fy  y / y  xy / x  xy / r  0

Note that the terms r r and xy r from these two equations are not typically included
in static analyses and occur as a result of the inertial effects. The hourglass forces are
included to give the final force vector. The mass matrix is computed as each node i as

e j
t Mx  1 / 4t t A  1 / 4o t A t v/ ov
i

t My  1 / 4  A  1 / 4  Ae v/ vj
t t o t t o
i

where t v is the current volume and o v is the initial volume of an element.

1.3.5.8 Evaluation of stresses


The element output obtained at the element nodes and Gauss points consists of
 Stress Output
X, Y, XY, Z the direct and shear stresses
max , min the maximum and minimum principal stresses
  the angle between the maximum principal stress and the
positive X-axis
 S the maximum shear stress

88
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

 V von Mises equivalent stress


 Strain Output
X, Y,  XY, Z the direct and shear strains
max , min the maximum and minimum principal strains
 the angle between the maximum principal strain and the
positive X-axis
S the maximum shear strain
V von Mises equivalent strain
Stress resultant output which accounts for the thickness of the element is available as
an alternative to stress output for the plane stress elements, i.e.
 Stress Resultant Output
NX, NY, NXY, NZ the direct and shear stress resultants/unit length
Nmax , Nmin the maximum and minimum principal stress max min
resultants/unit length
 the angle between the maximum principal stress resultant
and the positive X-axis
NS the maximum shear stress resultant/unit length
NV von Mises equivalent stress resultant/unit length.
The sign convention for stress, stress resultants and strain output is shown in fig.7.3.4-
5. The Gauss point stress is usually more accurate than the nodal values. The nodal
values of stress and strain are obtained using the extrapolation procedures detailed in
section 6.1.

1.3.5.9 Nonlinear formulation


The 2-D explicit dynamics elements can be employed in
 Materially nonlinear dynamic analysis utilising the elasto-plastic constitutive
laws [O2] (section 4.2).
 Geometrically nonlinear dynamic analysis.
 Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material
laws specified in 1.
Notes
 The plane stress elements may not be used with nonlinear material model 75.
Plain strain and axisymmetry are, however, supported.
 All explicit dynamics elements may be used with nonlinear material models 61,
64, 72.
 Eulerian geometric nonlinearity is always invoked with the use of the explicit
elements in which the velocity strain measure is utilised. The Green-Naghdi
stress rate formulation is used to refer the constitutive variables to an unrotated
configuration prior to the stress integration. The output is in terms of true

89
Element Formulations

Cauchy stresses and the strains approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading
is non-conservative.

3
3 4

2
2 1
1

Fig.7.3.4-1 Nodal Configuration For 2d Explicit Dynamics Elements

Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh

Plate subject to Inplane Loading

Fig.7.3.4-2 Example Illustrating The Use Of Plane Stress Elements

90
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh

Thick Cylinder

Fig.7.3.4-3 Example Illustrating The Use Of Plane Strain

Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh

Thick Cylinder

Fig.7.3.4-4 Example Illustrating The Use Of Axisymmetric Solid Elements

91
Element Formulations

Fig.7.3.4-5 Deformed Mesh Illustrating Formation Of Spurious Mechanisms

X, Y +ve tension


Y XY +ve into XY quadrant
Y

XY
X X

XY

Y X

Fig.7.3.4-6 Sign Convention For Stress/Strain Output

1.3.6 Two Phase Plane Strain and Axisymmetric


Continuum Elements (TPN6P, QPN8P, TAX6P and QAX8P)
1.3.6.1 Formulation
These isoparametric finite elements utilise the same shape functions to interpolate the
displacements and geometry, i.e.
n
displacements U Ni b, gUi
i 1

n
geometry X Ni b, gXi
i 1

92
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

b g
where Ni ,  is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of nodes.
However, for consideration of stability, the pressures are only interpolated using the
corner nodes

 N b, gP
ncorner
pressures P i i
i 1

where ncorner is the number of corner nodes. Fig.7.3.5-1 shows the nodal configurations
available within LUSAS.
The nodal degrees of freedom are U, V and P at the corner nodes and U and V at the
midside nodes.
The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in
(section 2.7).
The assumptions and details of elastic modulus matrices applicable for plane strain and
axisymmetric elements are described in section 1.3.1.2 and 1.3.1.3, respectively.
These elements are used to model the behaviour of a two phase medium such as soil. In
this instance the two phases comprise the soil skeleton and the pore water fluid.
Separate equations are derived for each phase, coupled by the interaction of the pore
pressure and the soil deformation. The soil skeleton is analysed in terms of effective
stress (total stress minus pore water pressure), taking into account the loading due to
the pore pressure; whilst the pore fluid analysis takes account of the volumetric strain
due to the soil skeleton deformation.
The finite element method is used to solve the coupled equations in terms of nodal
displacements and pore pressures. Triangular and quadrilateral plane strain (TPN6P
and QPN8P) and axisymmtric (TAX6P and QAX8P) elements based on a mixed
displacement-pressure formulation are available in LUSAS to solve these problems.

1.3.6.2 Undrained/fully drained conditions


In this type of analysis no consolidation is assumed to take place and the coupled
governing equations for static undrained conditions can be expressed as:

LMK LOPRSUUV  R|S F  F U|V


ext int

MNL S PQTP W |TL U  SP|W


T T

where the matrices K, L and S are defined as:

K z
v
BT D' B dv

z
L  - BT mN dv
v

93
Element Formulations

S - z
v
1 T
Ke
N N dv

 K is the tangent stiffness matrix


 L is the coupling matrix
 S is the compressibility matrix, where Ke is the equivalent bulk modulus of the
soil (see section 7.2.5.4) and D' the ‘effective’ soil modulus matrix.
ext int
 F and F are external and internal forces
Under static fully drained conditions the above coupled governing equations can be
further simplified as

LMK 0 UOPRS UV RS

ext
Fint F UV
N0 I P QT W T 0 W
where I is a unit matrix block.

1.3.6.3 Drainage/consolidation process


In the drainage/consolidation process, fluid flow in/out from the soil needs to be
considered. For linear transient consolidation the coupled governing equations can be
expressed as:

LMK L U OPRS UV 
LMK L OPRSUUV  RSF UV
MNL
T
TH P PQT Wt t MNL T
(1  )THPQTP W TQW
t

where:
 F is the incremental load
 Q the incremental flow
  the time stepping scheme parameter (set to1.0 for backward Euler scheme)
 H the permeability matrix

The permeability matrix H is defined in terms of the shape function derivatives and a
permeability matrix of the soil, K , as:
p

z
H  NT K N dv
v
p

For nonlinear consolidation process, the coupled governing equations can be written as

LM K L OPRS UV R|S
U k

Fext n1 Fint
n+1 k k
U|V
NLT
QT W |T c
tH P k t n Q  Q  tHn+1 P k  LT h c U  Uh|W
n 1 k n

94
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

where the superscript on the left/right hand side represents the increment/iteration
number.

1.3.6.4 Material assumptions


The bulk modulus of the soil particle Ks is very large compared to the bulk modulus of
the pore fluid Kf . Therefore the overall compressibility of the soil mass is
approximated to be that of the pore fluid.
1  (1  ) 
  
Ke Kf Ks Kf

where:
 Ke is the equivalent bulk modulus of the soil
 Kf the bulk modulus of the pore fluid
 Ks the bulk modulus of the solid soil particle
  the porosity of the soil
In practical geotechnical applications it is usually difficult to determine Ks so a large
value is usually assumed.

1.3.6.5 Nonlinear formulation


The two phase plane strain and axisymmetric continuum elements can be employed in:-
 Materially nonlinear drained/undrained/consolidation analysis utilising the
elasto-plastic constitutive laws [O1] (section 4.2).
 Geometrically nonlinear drained/undrained/consolidation analysis.
 Geometrically and materially nonlinear drained/undrained/consolidation
analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
 Geometrically and materially nonlinear dynamic drained/undrained analysis
utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.

1.3.7 Large-strain Mixed-type Elements (QPN4L, QAX4L)


1.3.7.1 Nonlinear formulation
These elements are based on a mixed displacement/pressure formulation, which
overcomes the problems of near-incompressibility and effective incompressibility in
standard plane-strain and axisymmetric elements. The formulation utilises a nonlinear
(spatial) Eulerian formulation, based on the logarithmic strain tensor, associated with
the polar decomposition of the deformation gradient F  VR , where V is the left stretch
tensor and R is the rotation of the axes of the stretches  i . The Kirchhoff (nominal)
stress tensor  is related to the (true) Cauchy stress  via   J , where
J  det F  123 .The deformation gradient is given as:

95
Element Formulations

x
F
X

where X and x denote the material and spatial position vector of a material particle.
The elements are currently available with Hencky and Ogden matrial models described

in section 4.10, so that the principal Kirchhoff stresses i  i [C16] are obtained
i
from the corresponding stored-energy function  as

i  2G ln i  kJ J  1 a f
for the Hencky material model, where G is the shear modulus, k is the bulk modulus
and i  i / 3 J are the “deviatoric” stretches, and as
N
i  p[i
p 1   
a f
 (1 p  2 p  3 p )]  kJ J  1
3
p1

for the Ogden material model, where N is the number of pairs of Ogden parameters p
and p , while k and  i have the same meaning as for the Hencky model. By
introducing the independent pressure variable as
a f
p  k J 1

and by transforming  i from the principal directions the Kirchhoff stress tensor  is
obtained as

  2Gn ln nT  pJ

for the Hencky material model, where  is the diagonal matrix of deviatoric stretches
and n  [n1, n2 , n3 ] is the Eulerian triad (spatial orientation of the principal directions)
and as
N
  p [
p 1 
n  tr( p )I]nT  pJ
p1
3

for the Ogden material model.

1.3.7.2 Element equilibrium (mixed formulation)


The element equilibrium equations are given as
gPR0

f  z LMNa
V0
f kp OPQdV  0
J 1  0

96
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

where the first equation is the conventional nodal equilibrium equation, where R is the
vector of applied loading and P is the vector of nodal internal forces, and the second
a f
equation follows from p  k J 1 . By expressing the stress tensor in the vector form,
the vector of nodal internal forces can be written as

P z
V0
T
bg
B x dV0

where, in line with the adopted spatial approach, x is the spatial and not the material
position vector. Note that the formulation is defined in terms of the Kirchhoff and not
the Cauchy stresses, hence integration is still performed over the initial rather than the
current volume.

1.3.7.3 Linearisation of the equilibrium - tangent stiffness matrix


By expanding the element equilibrium into a Taylor’s series, the following linearised
equilibrium is obtained

RSgUV  LMMK K OPPRSaUV  RSgUV


11 12
Tf W MNK K PQTpW Tf W
T
12 22

where a is the vector of nodal displacements, and the entries in the tangent stiffness
matrix are obtained by the consistent linearisation of the element equilibrium.
In order to derive the subvector K12 and (in particular) submatrix K it helps to regard
11
the vector of nodal internal forces P as coming from the internal virtual power via

a T P  z
V0
: dV0

da 1
where a  is the time rate of the nodal displacements, and   (L  LT ) is the
dt 2
strain-rate tensor with
u
L  d 
x

u
with L being the so-called velocity gradient and d  being only introduced for the
x
sake of convenience during the following derivation. Also :   tr(T  )   ijij , where
the repeated indices indicate summation over the dimension of the space. For
configuration-independent loads, a Tg is equal to a TP , hence

97
Element Formulations

11 z
a T (K a  K12p)  ( ijij   ij
V0
ij
 )dV 
kl kl 0 z
V0
 ij
ij
p
pdV0

ij
where, for both material models,  Jij so, by introducing standard FE
p
matrix/vector notation whereby   B(x)a , subvector K12 immediately follows as

z
K12   B (x)iJdV0
V0
T

R|1U| R|1U|
|1|
with i  S1V for the plane strain element QPN4L and i  S V for the axisymmetric
|T0|W ||0||
T1W
element QAX4L. By noting the relationship between Kirchhoff stress  and second
Piola-Kirchhoff stress S via   FSFT and bearing in mind that FF1  d we obtain
   F(E SE)FT  d  dT    d  dT , or in indicial notation
T

ij
 kl  T,ij  dik kj  ikd jk  Dijkl
tTK
kl  dik kj  ikd jk
 kl

where  is called the Truesdell rate of Kirchhoff stress (which is often used in rate-
T
dependent constitutive models; here it is introduced because it enables a
straightforward formation of the material part of the stiffness matrix) and Dijkl
tTK
is the
tangent constitutive matrix relating the strain-rate tensor to the Truesdell rate of
1
Kirchhoff stress. By using  ij  (d ij  d ji ) and noting the symmetry of the Kirchhoff
2
ij
stress tensor ij   ji , the product  ij kl can be written as
kl

ij
 ij  kl   ijDijkl
tTK
 kl  d ijdik kj  d jidik kj
 kl

By noting that the above-mentioned FF  1  d yields u  dF , the variation of which
X
gives
 uFG IJ   dF , and by noting that the variation of the material position
X  dF
X X H K
vector X is equal to zero, we obtain d  dFF1  dd , which finally gives

1 1
 ij  (d ij  d ji )   (d ikdkj  d jkd ki )
2 2

98
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

so that, after noting the symmetry of the Kirchhoff stress tensor, the product  ijij
reduces to

 ijij  d ikdkjij

The symmetry of the Kirchhoff stress tensor further implies


ij
 ij kl   ijij   ijDijkl
tTK
kl  d ijkjdik
kl

so that eventually the submatrix K follows from


11

a T K a 
11 z
V0
( ijDijkl
tTK
 kl  d ijkjdik )dV0

Following the standard FE notation, the submatrix K is then given as


11

K  [BT (x)D
11
V0
z tTK
B(x)  GT (x) G(x)]dV0

where the tangent constitutive matrix D , which relates the strain-rate to the
tTK
Truesdell rate of Kirchhoff stress can be defined in different ways. An easy way to
define it is by rotating the constitutive matrix D , which relates the strain-rate with
tTKE
the Truesdell rate of Kirchhoff stress, where both of these are given with components
in the Eulerian frame, via
tTK
Dijkl  nian jbnkcnldDabcd
tTKE

where nij denotes components of the Eulerian triad n . The components of the
constitutive matrix D follow from the stretches and the principal Kirchhoff
tTKE
stresses. By dropping the summation convention, the “normal” components are defined
as
i
tTKE
Diijj  j  2iij
 j

where  ij is the Kronecker symbol and

i 2
j     pJ  2ij
 j 3

for the Hencky model and

99
Element Formulations

i pp  p
N

1     
j  [3i ij  (1 p  2 p  3 p )  i p   j p ]  pJ
 j p1 3 3

for the Ogden model. The “shear” components are defined as ( i  j )

2ji  2i  j
tTKE
Dijij  Dijji
tTKE
 DtTKE
jiji  D jiij 
tTKE
2i  2j

unless i  j , in which case the shear components are given as

F
i i i I
tTKE
Dijij  Dijji
tTKE
 DtTKE
jiji  Djiij 
tTKE
GH
2 i  j
 i JK
N
pp  p
which returns the result   i for the Hencky model and    i for the
2 i
p1
Ogden model. Varying the second equilibrium equation gives

f  K12
T a  K p  
22 z LMN
V0
J 
p
k
OP
Q
dV0

where K12 has already been defined and

K22   z
V0
dV0
k

1.4 Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements


1.4.1 Standard Isoparametric Elements (HX8, HX16,
HX20, PN6, PN12, PN15, TH4, TH10)
Three dimensional isoparametric finite elements utilise the same shape functions to
interpolate both the displacements and geometry, i.e.
n
displacement U Ni b, gUi
i 1

n
geometry X Ni b, gXi
i 1

b g
where Ni ,  is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of i nodes.
Fig.7.4.1-1 shows the nodal configurations available within LUSAS. The nodal degrees
of freedom are

100
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

U, V and W at each node


The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is fully 3-D and is defined as
U
X 
X
V
Y 
Y
U
Z 
Z
U V
 XY  
Y X
V W
 YZ  
Z Y
U W
 XZ  
Z X
The isotropic and orthotropic elastic modulus matrices are
Isotropic

 
 (1  )   0 0 0 
 
  (1  )  0 0 0 
 
   (1  ) 0 0 0 
D
E  
(1  )(1  2 )  0 (1  2 ) 
 0 0
2
0 0 
 (1  2 ) 
 0 0 0 0 0 
 2 
 0 (1  2 ) 
 0 0 0 0
2 
Orthotropic

LM 1 / E x yxEy zxEz 0 0 0 OP 1

MM // EE
xy x 1 / Ey
yz / Ey
zy / Ez 0 0 0 PP
DM PP
xz x 1 / Ez 0 0 0
MM 0 0 0 1 / Gxy 0 0
PP
MM 00 0 0 0 1 / Gyz 0
PQ
N 0 0 0 0 1 / Gxz

101
Element Formulations

where yx, zx, and  zy are defined by

yx  xyEy / Ex zx = xzEz / Ex zy  yzEz / Ey

to maintain symmetry.
Note. To obtain a valid material

d
xy  Ex / Ey i
1/2
b
xz < Ex / Ez g
1/2
d
yz  Ey / Ezy i
1/ 2

The thermal strain is defined by

Isotropic d i  T , , , 0, 0, 0
0 t
T

Orthotropic d i  T  ,  ,  ,  , 
0 t x y z xy yz , xz
T

A complete description of their formulation is given in [H2,B1].


The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in
(section 2.7).

1.4.1.1 Evaluation of stresses


The element output can be obtained at both the element nodes and Gauss points and
consists of
 Stress Output
X, Y, Z, XY, YZ, XZ the direct and shear stresses

 Strain Output
X, Y, Z ,  XY,  YZ ,  XZ the direct and shear strains

Principal stresses and strains and the corresponding direction cosines may also be
output.
The sign convention for stress and strain output is shown in fig.7.4.1-3.
The Gauss point stresses are usually more accurate than the nodal values. The nodal
values of stress and strain are obtained using the extrapolation procedures detailed in
section 6.1.

1.4.1.2 Nonlinear formulation


The 3-D isoparametric elements can be employed in
 Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1]
(section 4.2).
 Geometrically nonlinear analysis.

102
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

 Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material


laws specified in 1.
 Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
 Linear eigen-buckling analysis.
Notes
 The nonlinear interface model (section 4.2) may be used with elements HX8,
HX16, HX20, PN6, PN12.
The geometric nonlinearity may utilise:

 A Total Lagrangian formulation which accounts for large displacements but


small strains. The nonlinear strain-displacement relationship is defined by

X 
LM OP  1 LM V OP  1 LM W OP
U 1 U

2 2 2

N Q 2 N X Q 2 N X Q
X 2 X

V 1 L U O 1 L V O 1 L W O
2 2 2

Y 2 MN Y PQ 2 MN Y PQ 2 MN Y PQ
 
Y   

W 1 L U O 1 L V O 1 L W O
2 2 2

Z 2 MN Z PQ 2 MN Z PQ 2 MN Z PQ

Z   

U V U U V V W W
 XY     
Y X X Y X Y X Y
V W U U V V W W
 YZ     
Z Y Y Z Y Z Y Z
U W U U V V W W
 XZ     
Z X X Z X Z X Z
The output is now in terms of the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and Green-
Lagrange strains referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is
conservative.
 An Updated Lagrangian formulation, which takes account of large
displacements and moderately large strains provided that the strain increments
are small. The output is now in terms of the true Cauchy stresses and the strains
approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading approximates to being non-
conservative.
 An Eulerian formulation, which takes account of large displacements and large
strains. The output is in terms of true Cauchy stresses and the strains
approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading is non-conservative.

103
Element Formulations

15
8 16
7 14 13
5
9 12
6 4 10
11
3 7
1 6
8
5
1 4
2 HX8 2 HX16
3
19 6
20
18
17 4
13 16
14 12
15 11 5 3
9 7
8 6
5 1
10 PN6
1 4
2
3
HX20
2

11 15 14
12 10 13
7 10 11 9
8 12
9 5 6 5
6 7
4 8 4
1 1
2 PN12
2 PN15

3 3
4
10 9

7 5
3 8 6
1 4
1 2
TH4 TH10

2 3

Fig.7.4.1-1 Nodal Configuration For Solid Elements

104
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

Fig.7.4.1-2 Tractor Brake Component

Y
Arrows indicate +ve
stress directions
XY
YZ
XY
Y

YZ
X
XZ
XZ
Z

Fig.7.4.1-3 Sign Convention For Stress/Strain Output

105
Element Formulations

1.4.2 3D Crack Tip Elements (TH10K, PN15K, HX20K)


The general approach taken to formulate these elements is identical to that described
for the 3D standard isoparametric elements in section 7.4.1. The difference between
these 3D crack tip elements and the standard isoparametric 3D continuum elements is
that mid-side nodes are moved to the quarter point positions to create a singularity at
the crack tip.

1.4.2.1 Formulation
The motivation for crack tip elements can be traced to work by Henshell and Shaw
[H16], where it was shown that a singularity occurs in an isoparametric finite element
if the mid-side nodes are moved sufficiently from their usual centre edge positions. By
positioning the mid-side nodes such that the singularity occurs exactly at the corner
node of an element it is possible to obtain quite accurate solutions when studying stress
intensity at the tip of a crack [H16]. The following derivations prove that a singularity
occurs at a corner node when the mid-side nodes are moved to the quarter point
positions. Consider a standard 20 node hexahedral isoparametric element in  space
with vertices at  = -1,0,+1. For a crack tip element it is of interest to study the
behaviour of the mid-side nodes as they are moved away from their normal centre edge
positions. In order to facilitate this it is only necessary to study a one dimensional
quadratic element, as shown in fig 7.4.2-1.

r=0 r=p r=1 r=2


u1 u2 u3

1 2 3
  

h h

Fig.7.4.2-1 One dimensional quadratic crack tip element

The position of the mid-side nodes can be defined in terms of  = -1, 0, +1, or
alternatively r = 0, p, 2 where r is simply the ratio x/h. Note that for a standard element,
with nodes at the mid-side, p will equal 1. For the general case assumptions for the
transformation and displacement can be expressed as;

r  a1  a2  a3 2

u  b1  b2  b3 2

106
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

where ai and bi are constants. Using the nodal values of r = 0, p, 2 and  = -1, 0, +1
leads to 3 simultaneous equations from which the values of ai emerge as;

a1  p ; a2  1 ; a3  1 p
The expression for r can therefore be rewritten as;

r  p    (1 p) 2
and solved for  to give;

1  1  4 p  4 p2  4(1  p)r

2 1  p 
Since a value of  is required in the range -1<=<=+1 the positive root of the above
equation is the correct solution. Taking the derivative of this root with respect to 
gives;

d
 1 4 p  4 p2  4(1 p)r  2
1

dr
The term inside the brackets vanishes or has a singularity when;

r
1 2 p
2

4( p 1)
At node 1 or the r 0 end of the element this singularity occurs when p 1 2 .
(Alternatively at node 3 or r 2 the singularity occurs when p  3 2 ). Using the
d
value of p  1 2 yields the following expressions for  and ;
dr
  1 2r
d 1
  2r  2

dr
Using the standard shape functions for the one dimensional quadratic element shown in
fig 7.4.2-1 and noting that the displacement at any position along the element can be
expressed in terms of the nodal displacements and the shape functions as;

107
Element Formulations

n
u   Naua
a 1

enables the following expression to be obtained for the displacement when p 1 2 ;

u
2  3 2r  2r  u  2r  2 2r u  2r  2 2r  u
1 2 3
2 2
It is the stresses that are of interest and these are proportional to strains. For the one
dimensional element the longitudinal strain is obtained by taking the derivative of the
above equation with respect to r to give;

du  3  
1
  
1
 1  
1
 1   2r  2  u1   2  2  2r  2  u2  1   2r  2  u3
dr  2     2 
1

This shows that the singularity is of the order r as required by the Westergaard
2

solutions, which suggests the following simple rule. When elements with one mid-side
node are used at a crack tip the mid-side nodes should be moved from their normal
position at the centre of each side to the ¼ position, an example of which is shown in
fig 7.4.2-2. It is important to note that these elements are not special in any way and a
completely standard isoparametric element formulation is used throughout the mesh.

Fig.7.4.2-2 Quarter point elements used at a crack tip

1.4.2.2 Evaluation of stresses


The evaluation of stresses is identical to that described for the standard 3D
isoparametric elements in section 7.4.1.

108
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

1.4.2.3 Nonlinear formulation


The nonlinear formulation is identical to that described for the standard 3D
isoparametric elements in section 7.4.1.

Notes
 Notes are identical to those listed in section 7.4.1.

10 12
14 13

11
15
9 8
8
9 10

3 3
5 4 5 4
7
7
2 2
6 6

1 1

TH10K PN15K

19

20 18
12
17
13
7
14 11
16
6
9 15
8 5
1
2 10
4

HX20K

Fig.7.4.2-3 Nodal Configuration For 3D Crack Tip Elements

109
Element Formulations

1.4.3 Enhanced Strain Element (HX8M)


The low order enhanced strain element HX8M exhibits improved accuracy in coarse
meshes when compared with the parent element HX8, particularly if bending
predominates. In addition, the element does not suffer from 'locking' in the nearly
incompressible limit. The element is based on a three-field mixed formulation [S8] in
which stresses, strains and displacements are represented by three independent
functions in three separate vector spaces. The formulation is based on the inclusion of
an assumed 'enhanced' strain field which is related to internal degrees of freedom.
These internal degrees of freedom are eliminated at the element level before assembly
of the stiffness matrix for the structure. The formulation provides for the following
three conditions to be satisfied
 Independence of the enhanced and standard strain interpolation functions.
 L orthogonality of the stress and enhanced strains.
 Capability of the element to model a constant state of stress after enforcing the
orthogonality condition, i.e. requirement for passing the patch test.
In addition to ensuring that the element passes the patch test, these conditions also
allow the stress field to be eliminated from the formulation.

1.4.3.1 Formulation
The general approach taken to formulate this element is identical to that described for
the 2-D continuum elements in section 7.3.2.

1.4.3.2 Enhanced strain interpolation


The incompatible displacement field is given by

bg bg
u  N1  1  N2  2  N3  3 bg
where

b g 12 e1   j, N af  12 e1   j, N bg  12 e1   j
N1   2
2
2
3
2

and  i , represent the incompatible modes

l q T
l qT
1  u1, v1 , 2  u2, v2 , 3  u3, v3 , l q
T

The covariant base vectors associated with the isoparametric space are

R|x a U| R|x h U| R|x h U| R|x kU|


T
1
T
1
T
3
T

g  Sy a V  Sy h V  Sy h V  Sy kV  g


T T T T 0  g1  g1  g

|Tz a |W |Tz h |W |Tz h |W |Tz k |W
T
1
1
T
1
1
T
3
3
T
1 1 3

110
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

R|x a U| R|x h U| R|x h U| R|x kU|


T
2
T
1
T
2
T

g  Sy a V  Sy h V  Sy h V  Sy kV  g  g  g  g


T T T T 0 1 1

T |Tz a |W |Tz h |W |Tz h |W |Tz k |W
2
2
T
1
1
T
2
2
T
2 1 2

R|x a U| R|x h U| R|x h U| R|x kU|


T
3
T
2
T
3
T

g  Sy a V  Sy h V  Sy h V  Sy kV  g  g  g  g


T T T T 0 1 1

|Tz a |W |Tz h |W |Tz h |W |Tz k |W
T
3
3
T
2
2
T
3
3
T
3 2 3

where
1 T
a1  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8
1 T
a2  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8
1 T
a3  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8
1 T
h1  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8
1 T
h2  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8
1 T
h3  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8
1 T
k 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8
T
x  x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8
T
y  y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6 y7 y8

T
z  z1 z2 z3 z4 z5 z6 z7 z8

The enhanced covariant strains are given by


T
    2  2  2 

The enhanced strain field in isoparametric space can initially be expressed using 21-
parameter interpolation functions as follows

111
Element Formulations

R|eu, j g

T U|
||du, i g
T

||
||
 
||
 S
|
 e
T
u, j g
|
||du, i g  eu, j g V||
i 
T T
   


||eu, j g  du, i g ||
T
 
T

||eu, j g  eu, j g ||
T T

T    W
LM 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  0 0  0 0 0 0 0  0 0 OP
MM00 0 0 00 00 00 00 00 0 0  0 0  0 0 0 0
0 0 0  0 0  0 0 0
0  0
0  i
PP
M PP
0
e
MM0 0 0  0 0  0 0  2
0 0 0 2
0   0   2 0
2

PP
MM00 00 00 00 0 0 00 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0   0 2 2
PQ
N  0 0 2 2 0 0  0  2  0 2 

 Ei ie

An element stress field with 12- parameters is considered:

LM1 0 0   0 0 0 0 0 0 OP
0
MM00 1 0 0 0   0

0

0 0 0PP
  MM0 PP
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 12
MM0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 PP
MN0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 PQ
where the contravariant stresses are defined as
T
             
This stress field is similar to the assumed five  stress field used by Pian [P2] for a
hybrid stress quadrilateral element. The field satisfies both equilibrium and symmetry
conditions.
The final enhanced strain interpolation matrix is assembled by enforcing the L2
orthogonality condition   ,  L2

112
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

zzz 1 1 1
1 1 1
T ddd  0
The final interpolation matrix involving eighteen  parameters is

LM 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  0  0 0 0  0 0 OP


MM00  0

0 0 0 0 0 0  

0

0 0 0 0  0
0 
PP
M PP
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
E
18
MM0 0 0  0 0  0 0  
2 2
0 0   0   2 0
2

PP
MM00     0   0 2 2
2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
N 0 0 0 0  0 0  0 0 2  2  0  2 0 2  PQ
A further enhanced strain interpolation matrix is also derived which is similar to an
interpolation field defined in [S8] for planar elements. This matrix is based on nine a
parameters and is also orthogonal to the twelve  stress field

LM 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 OP
MM00  0

0 0 0 0 0 0 PP
M PP
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
E
9
MM0 0 0   0 0 0 0
PP
MM00 0 0 0 0   0 0
PQ
N 0 0 0 0 0 0  

Both the final interpolation functions E and E also allow condition III to be
9 18
satisfied. This is a requirement for passing the patch test [S8] and is implied in the
sense that

zzz 1 1 1
1 1 1
E ddd  0

1.4.3.3 Evaluation of stresses


The evaluation of stresses is identical to that described in section 7.4.1.2.

1.4.3.4 Nonlinear formulation


The comments made in section 7.4.1.3 regarding the nonlinear capability of the
standard isoparametric element are also applicable to this element. The nonlinear
formulation for the enhanced strain element involves enforcing orthogonality between
assumed Green-Lagrange strains and 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses. The geometrically
nonlinear performance of this element is much improved in comparison with HX8.

113
Element Formulations

1.4.4 3D Explicit Dynamics Elements (HX8E, PN6E, TH4E)


Explicit time integration schemes have used simple linear elements rather than those of
a higher order by virtue of their computational efficiency. A number of further
advantages may also be obtained in explicit dynamic analyses
 The use of higher order shape functions creates difficulties at the contact
interface in the form of uncontrolled overlap.
 It has been shown that higher order continuum elements require a time step
reduced from that of linear elements.
 The mass lumping formulations for higher order elements are currently
impractical for modelling shock wave propagation since the resulting numerical
noise pollutes or destroys the solution.
 The combination of mass lumping with linear elements, when applied in
conjunction with the central difference operator, increases accuracy in solutions
by virtue of their respective compensatory spectral errors.
The linear explicit dynamics elements have been implemented to take advantage of
these benefits. They are for use only with the explicit central difference time integration
scheme.
The explicit dynamics elements are based upon the isoparametric approach in which
the same shape functions are used to interpolate both the displacements and geometry,
i.e.
n
displacement U Ni b, gUi
i 1

n
geometry X Ni b, gXi
i 1

b g
where Ni ,  is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of nodes.
Fig.7.4.3-1 shows the nodal configurations available within LUSAS. The nodal degrees
of freedom are U, V and W at each node.

1.4.4.1 Evaluation of current strain increments


The velocity strain rates e t+Dt/2are defined from the midpoint velocity ij gradients in
the global axis system. A rate relationship is used to define the strain-displacement
characteristics as

t U
t x 
X
t


t V
t y 
Y
t

114
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

t W
t z 
Zt

 t V
t U 
t  XY  t  t
Y X
 t W
t V 
t  YZ  t  t
Z Y
 t W
t U 
t  XZ  t  t
Z X

1.4.4.2 Evaluation of modulus matrices


The isotropic and orthotropic elastic modulus matrices are as follows
Isotropic

LMa1  f   0 0 0 P
O
MM P
 a1  f  0 P
MM 0 0
PP
E MM   a1  f 0 0 0 P
P
D
a1  fa1  2f M 0 0 0 a1  2f 0 0 P
MM PP
MM 0 0 0
2
0
a1  2f
0 P
MM 0 0 0
2
a1  2f P
P
N 2 PQ
0 0

Orthotropic

LM 1 / E x yxEy zxEz 0 0 0 OP 1

MM // EE
xy x 1 / Ey
yz / Ey
zy / Ez 0 0 0 PP
DM PP
xz x 1 / Ez 0 0 0
MM 0 0 0 1 / Gxy 0 0
PP
MM 00 0 0 0 1 / Gyz 0
PQ
N 0 0 0 0 1 / Gxz

to maintain symmetry the following relations are utilised


yx  xyEy / Ex zx = xzEz / Ex zy  yzEz / Ey

Note that a valid material is obtained only if

d
xy  Ex / Ey i 1/2
b
xz < Ex / Ez g
1/2
d
yz  Ey / Ezy i
1/ 2

115
Element Formulations

The initial thermal strain is defined by

Isotropic d i  T , , , 0, 0, 0
0 t
T

Orthotropic d i  T  ,  ,  ,  , 
0 t x y z xy yz , xz
T

The lumped mass matrix is computed as each node i as


t
Mxi 1 /8t t V
t
Myi 1 /8t t V

where t v is the current volume of an element.

1.4.4.3 Integration rule for the elements


A one point quadrature integration rule is utilised. This provides elements that are
efficient and do not lock when incompressible behaviour is being modelled, e.g. plastic
straining with von Mises plasticity. The stresses are integrated at the most accurate
location.
The location of the integration point is given in Appendix I.

1.4.4.4 Element stabilisation


The utilisation of one point Gauss quadrature has a limitation in that zero energy
deformation or hourglass modes are generated (see Fig.7.3.3-5). The effects of such
modes are minimised by the viscous damping technique [H7].
The technique provides a damping force capable of preventing the formation of
spurious modes but which has negligible influence on the true structural modes. This is
possible since the spurious modes are orthogonal to the real deformations.
The rate of diagonal drifting is defined by the velocity at which the mid-points of the
element are separating. This is utilised as the basis for hourglass detection, giving the
hourglass velocities as
4
hij  x ik jk ai = 1,3f
j1

The viscous hourglassing forces are

L O
dhij jk i MM1  100 Qhg dhij jk iPP
4 4
fik   Qhg  v2/3
e c/4
j1 N j1 Q
in which ve is the current element volume, Qhg is a constant which is modified via the
SYSTEM command and is usually set to a value between 0.05 and 0.15, and x ik is the

116
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

nodal velocity of the kth node in the ith direction.  is the current element density, while
c, the material sound speed is defined from

c2 
a f
E 1 
a fa f
 1   1  2

The hourglass base vectors ij for the 8 node solid elements are given as

LM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 OP T

M PP
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ij
MM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
PQ
N1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

these viscous forces are included directly into the element force vector.

1.4.4.5 Shock wave smoothing


The shock discontinuities that occur in impact problems may promote numerical
instabilities which must be smoothed out. This is achieved using an artificial bulk
viscosity method. The salient characteristic of the method is the augmentation of
element pressure with an artificial viscous term (q) prior to the evaluation of the
element internal force. This is zero in expanding elements and non-zero in contracting
elements. The algorithm has the effect of spreading the shock front over a small
number of elements.
The exact form of artificial viscosity is somewhat arbitrary and the method used is
based on the formulation originally proposed in [V1]

q   Lc Dkk Q1 Lc Dkk  Q2 c

where Q1 and Q2 are dimensionless constants which default to 1.5 and 0.06
respectively, and may be modified as necessary via the SYSTEM command. Dkk is
the trace of the velocity strain tensor and Lc is the characteristic length of the element
which is related to the smallest element diagonal as
V
Lc 
Af

where V is the current element volume and Af the current largest face area of the
element. The face area is evaluated by considering each face in turn and using

Af  4 J 0,0 a f
The surface Jacobian J may be evaluated from

a f
J 0,0 
x x
*
 

117
Element Formulations

in which the differentials are evaluated explicitly.


The quadratic term in strain rate is chosen to be small except in regions of very large
gradients. The linear term, however, is included to control the small spurious
oscillations following the shock waves in which the gradients are insufficient to make
the quadratic term effective. Care should be taken with the linear term since there is a
danger of distorting the solution.
In converging geometries the centred strain rate term is negative and the q term is then
non-zero. This occurs even though no shocks are generated and results in a non-
physical generation of pressure. In view of the abundance of excellent results, however,
it is generally agreed that the effect is negligible.

The direct stresses at time t+t are modified by the addition of the artificial viscosity
pressure q as follows
ii  ii  q

1.4.4.6 Nonlinear formulation


The 3-D explicit dynamics elements can be employed in
 Materially nonlinear dynamic analysis (see note 1.)
 Geometrically nonlinear dynamic analysis.
 Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material
laws specified in note I.
Notes
 The 3D explicit dynamics elements may be used with nonlinear material models
61 to 64, 72 and 75 (section 4.2).
 Eulerian geometric nonlinearity is always invoked with the use of the explicit
elements in which the velocity strain measure is utilised. The Jaumann stress
rate formulation is used to eliminate rigid motion prior to stress integration. The
output is in terms of true Cauchy stresses and the strains approximate to
logarithmic strains. The loading is non-conservative.

1.4.4.7 Evaluation of stresses


The element output can be obtained at both the element nodes and Gauss points and
consists of
 Stress Output
X, Y, Z, XY, YZ, XZ the direct and shear stresses

 Strain Output
X, Y, Z ,  XY,  YZ ,  XZ the direct and shear strains

118
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

Principal stresses and strains and the corresponding direction cosines may also be
output.
The sign convention for stress and strain output is shown in fig.7.4.3-3.
The Gauss point stress is usually more accurate than the nodal values.
The nodal values of stress and strain are obtained using the extrapolation procedures
detailed in section 6.1.
8
7
5

6 4
3
1

2
HX8E

5 3

2
PN6E

2
TH4E

Fig.7.4.3-1 Nodal Configuration For 3d Explicit Dynamics Elements

119
Element Formulations

HX8E Elements

PN6E Elements

Fig.7.4.3-2 Compact Tension Fracture Specimen

Y
Arrows indicate +ve
stress directions
XY
YZ
XY
Y

YZ
X
XZ
XZ
Z

Fig.7.4.3-3 Sign Convention For Stress/Strain Output

120
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

1.4.5 Composite Solid Elements – Tetrahedral (TH4S,


TH10S)
If tetrahedral elements are used for an analysis of composite structures the number of
degrees of freedom even for small laminate structures rapidly becomes very large
leading to prohibitively excessive computer costs. To overcome this difficulty layered
tetrahedral elements were developed where several laminae are included in a single
element. For these elements the three degrees of freedom per node are used to
interpolate a linear (TH4S) or quadratic (TH10S) displacement field. Each layer is
specified by an orthotropic material stiffness matrix.
These elements adopt an isoparametric formulation utilizing the same shape functions
to interpolate both displacement and geometry, i.e.
n
displacement u   Ni  L ui  Na
i 1

n
geometry x   Ni  L xi
i 1

where Ni( ) is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of nodes. L =
[L1, L2, L3, L4] represent volumetric coordinates. The nodal configuration (Fig.7.4.4-1)
is the same as the corresponding solid elements available within LUSAS. The nodal
degrees of freedom are
u, v and w at each node
The 3D infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is defined as

121
Element Formulations

 
 x 0 0
 
0 
0
x   y 
   
 y 0 
0
    z 
ε z   u  Ba
 xy    
0
 yz   y x 
    

 zx   0
 z y 
 
 0

 z x 
Each composite layer is assumed homogeneous, isotropic or orthotropic material. The
general linear elastic relationship between stresses  and strains  with initial stresses
0, initial strains 0, and thermal effects can be written as

σ  Dε  ε0  α   σ0
where D is the elasticity matrix,  vector of coefficient of thermal expansion, and  a
temperature rise. The isotropic elastic modulus matrix

1    0 0 0 
  1   0 0 0 
 
   1  0 0 0 
 
 0 1  2
D
E 0 0 0 0 
1 1  2   2 

1  2
 0 0 0 0 0 
 2 
 1  2 
 0 0 0 0 0 
 2 
and the orthotropic elastic modulus matrix in the principal coordinates of orthotropy

122
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

1
 1  21  31 
 E   0 0 0 
E2 E3
 1 
 12 1  32 
 E E2

E3
0 0 0 
 1 
 13  23 1 
  0 0 0 
E E2 E3
D  1
* 
 1 
 0 0 0 0 0 
 G12 
 1 
 0 0 0 0 0 
 G23 
 1 
 0 0 0 0 0 
 G13 

where 21, 31 and 32 are defined by


E2 E E
 21   12 ,  31   13 3 ,  32   23 3
E1 E1 E2
to maintain symmetry. To obtain a valid material, 12, 13 and 23 need to meet
constraints

12  E1 E2 1 2 , 13  E1 E3 1 2 ,  23  E2 E3 1 2


For an arbitrary orientation of the layer, the principle axes (1, 2, 3) will not coincide
with the reference axes (x, y, z) of the laminate. A rotational transformation of D* to the
reference axes is denoted as D.
The stiffness matrix of the element is calculated as
i
nply npartition
K   e BT DBdV    BT DiBdV
V j 
i
V
i 1 j 1

where Ve represents the whole element, nply is the number of plies in the element,
i  i 
npartition (=1 or 2) is the number of partitions for layer i, V j represents the jth partition
of layer i. The superscript (i) indicates layer i.

123
Element Formulations

Possible space figures (Fig.7.4.4-2) and corresponding integration rule


Space figure Nodes Default Fine integration
integration (Option 18)

tetrahedron sub-div1 tetrahedron 4 1* 1*


pyramid sub-div1 pentahedron 5 3 32

pentahedron sub-div1 pentahedron 3+3 3 32

wrick sub-div1 wrick 4+3 22 222

wrick sub-div1 wrick 3+4 22 222

hexahedron sub-div1 hexahedron 4+4 22 222

two sub-div1 pentahedron 3+3 3 32


pentahedra
sub-div2 pentahedron 3+3 3 32

pentahedron + sub-div1 pentahedron 3+3 3 32


wrick
sub-div2 wrick 3+4 22 222

wrick sub-div1 wrick 4+3 22 222


+ pentahedron
sub-div2 pentahedron 3+3 3 32

* If the whole tetrahedral element is embedded in a single lamina, a 4-point integration


rule will be used.
The elemental nodal force vector corresponding to distributed body forces b per unit
volume of material and distributed face loading t per unit area on boundary face A(e)
 e
fext   e NTbdV   e NT tdA,
V A

the elemental nodal force vector corresponding to initial stresses and initial strains
i
nply npartition
fssi   e B Dε0dV   e B σ0dV  
 e T T
 BT Di ε0dV   e BTσ0dV ,
V j 
i
V V V
i 1 j 1

and the elemental nodal force vector corresponding to a temperature rise e


i
nply npartition
ftmp   e B Dα dV  
 e T e
 BT Di αi  e dV
V j 
i
V
i 1 j 1

124
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

Note that the contribution from body and face loading, and initial stresses is not
necessary to be integrated in the layer-wise manner.
The consistent mass matrix of the element is calculated as
 i
nply npartition
M   e N  NdV 
T
 NT  i NdV
V j 
i
V
i 1 j 1

where  is the density. Rayleigh damping defines the damping matrix C as a linear
combination of the mass and stiffness matrixes. However, for the viscous damping
 i
nply npartition
C   e N cNdV 
T
 NTci NdV
V j 
i
V
i 1 j 1

where c is the viscosity parameter matrix.


The internal force vector can be computed by
 i
nply npartition
R   e BTσdV    BTσdV
V j 
i
V
i 1 j 1

Note that in the numerical integration of   dV


V j 
i sampling points defined on Vji
are used. While matrices N and B are defined using volumetric coordinates
corresponding to Ve. This may be handled as the following. For a sampling point ( L1 ,

L2 , L3 , L4 ) in Vj  , we can first find its global coordinates (x, y, z). Then its local
i

coordinates (L1, L2, L3, L4) used to define matrices N and B can be obtained by
inverting the following relationship between the Cartesian and volumetric coordinates,
which is true for linear tetrahedral elements]:

1   1 1 1 1   L1 
x  x x4  L2 
   1 x2 x3
   
 y   y1 y2 y3 y4   L3 
 z   z1 
z2 z3 z4  L4 
We can simplify slightly the above relation by using

L1  L2  L3  L4  1
and obtain

125
Element Formulations

 x  x4   x1  x4 x2  x4 x3  x4   L1 
    
 y  y4    y1  y4 y2  y4 y3  y4  L2 
z  z  z  z z2  z4 z3  z4   L3 
 4  1 4
For higher order tetrahedral elements, we can write the residual from
n
r  x   Ni  L xi
i 1

and calculate the corresponding local coordinates of a point with global Cartesian
coordinates x through the Newton-Raphson method. Note that

 r1 r1 r1   n Ni n


Ni n
Ni 
       xi  xi   x 
 i 1 
i
  i 1 i 1

r  r2 r2 r2   n Ni n
Ni n
Ni 

L     
    yi  yi  yi   JT
 i 1 i 1  i 1  
 r3 r3 r3   n Ni n
Ni n
Ni 
    zi  zi  zi 
     i 1  i 1  i 1  

where  = L1,  = L2,  = L3, the quadratic convergence can always be guaranteed,
unless the element is unreasonably shaped.

 L  JTr
In integration of element stiffness, mass and damping marices and load vectors, we
may not collect all the partitions for each layer and hence loop over layers. Instead, we
may give a label to each partition to identify the layer it belongs to, and loop over all
partitions directly for numerical integration.
The formulation above is only for infinitesimal deformation of linear elastic laminates.
Initial stresses/strains, shrinkage, thermal effects, geometric and material nonlinearities
can be taken into account in the same manner as the brick element.

1.4.5.1 Nonlinear formulation


The 3-D solid composite elements can be employed in
 Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1]
(section 4.2).
 Geometrically nonlinear analysis utilising the corotational formulation (section
3.5.2).

126
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

 Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material


laws specified in 1.
 Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
 Linear eigen-buckling analysis.

4
10 9

7 5
3 8 6
1 1 4
2

2 3

TH4S TH10S
Fig.7.4.4-1 Nodal Configuration For Tetrahedral Composite Solid Elements

Surfaces of
laminate ply

I I
I

a1 a1 c1
c1 a1
c1 b1
a2 c2 b1
J a2 J a2 J
c2 b1
K b2
K d2 b2
K
c2
b2 L L
L
Fig.7.4.4-2 Three possible configurations of the laminated tetrahedral element:
(a) Only one edge IK passes through all the layers; (b) Two edges IK and IL
pass through all the layers; (c) Three edges IJ, IK and IL pass through all the
layers, which are approximately parallel to the base JKL.

127
Element Formulations

1.4.6 Composite Solid Elements - Pentahedral and


Hexahedral (HX8L,HX16L,PN6L PN12L)
If brick elements are used for an analysis of composite structures the number of degrees
of freedom even for small laminate structures rapidly becomes very large leading to
prohibitively excessive computer costs. To overcome this difficulty layered brick
elements were developed where several laminae are included in a single element. For
these elements the three degrees of freedom per node are used to interpolate a
displacement field that varies linearly over the thickness and quadratically in-plane for
the higher order elements. Each layer is specified by an orthotropic material stiffness
matrix.
In order to speed up the computation, the elements are restricted to reasonably constant
layer thicknesses [H13]. This limitation requires the calculation of only a 2x2 Jacobian
matrix. For the integration of the element stiffness matrix, the material stiffnesses are
summed layerwise through the thickness, while the strain-displacement matrices by
default are integrated using a plane 2x2 (for HX8L and HX16L), or a single point (for
PN6L), or a 3 corner point quadratic (for PN12L) gauss integration scheme outside the
through thickness loop.
The shape functions for the top and bottom surfaces of the composite elements can be
considered to be single membrane element shape functions, see figure 7.4.4-1. The
shape functions Ni (top)  Ni (bot )  Ni , are defined in terms of natural coordinates  and
, for the HX16L element these are given by:

Ni 
1
4
b gb gb
1  i 1  i  i  i   1 g for corner nodes

Ni 
1
2
e jb
1  2i 2  2i  1  i  i  g for mid-side nodes

The PN12L, HX8L, and PN6L elements use the equivalent shape functions for 6, 4 and
3 noded membranes. To form the complete shape functions for the brick element Nbr ,
linear interpolation is used between the functions for the top and bottom surfaces:

NTbr 
1
2
b g b g
  1 NTiabot f ;   1 NTibtopg

The in-plane and through-thickness shape functions can then be separated to give:

NTbr  T  T

where
1 T T
T  N ;N
2 i i

128
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

1
T  NTi ; NTi
2

The displacement field, U, can now be interpolated as:


LM T   T 0T 0T OPR U|
PP|S|
u
UM 0 T   
T T 0 T v V|
MMN 0T 0T T   T w PQT W
U  Ha

with the displacement vectors in terms of the nodal degrees of freedom:

l
u  u1, u2 ,.............. unq T

v  lv , v ,.............. v q
T
1 2 n

w  lw , w ,........... w q
T
1 2 n

The three-dimensional strain vector  is defined as

T 
RSu , v , w , u  v , v  w , u  wUV
Tx y z y x z y z x W
The strain displacement relationship is given by:
 Ba

where B is the strain displacement matrix.

LM    
T T
0T 0T
OP
MM x x PP
T  T
MM 0 T
y

y
0 T PP
MM 2 PP

M 0 PP
T 0T T

B M
c
MM    
T T T

 T
0 T PP
MM y y x
2 T
x
 T  PP T

MM 0 T
c

y

y P
P
MM 2   T  P T

x PQ
T 0T 
N c x

B can be split into two matrices combining in-plane and through thickness terms:

129
Element Formulations

B  B  B
1 2

where

LM  T
0T 0T
OP LM  T
0T 0T
OP
MM x PP MM x PP
T  T
MM 0 T
y
0 P
P
T MM 0 T
y
0 P
T
PP
MM 2 PP MM
 0 P
M0 PP M0 PP
T 0T T T 0T T

B M M
c
B
1
MM  T T
0 P
P
T
2
MM  T  T
0 P
T
P
MM y x
2 T  PP T MM y x
 PPT

MM 0 T
c

y P
P MM 0
T 0T
y P
P
MM 2   P T
MM 0  P T

x PQ x PQ
T 0T T 0T
Nc N
The restriction of constant layer thicknesses provides an uncoupling between the in-
plane coordinates and the through-thickness coordinate. Consequently for the
transformation of the cartesian derivatives into the natural derivatives only a 2
dimensional Jacobian matrix is required.

R|  U| LM x y OPR|  U|
S|  V|  MM x  PPS x V
PQ||T y ||W
y
|T |W MN  

or inverted
 1  1 
 J11  J12
x  

 1  1 
 J21  J22
y  

and an integration constant for the thickness is computed from:


c  2 
z   .
2 z c 

where c is the depth of the element see figure 7.4.4-1. The differential of the volume is
given by
c
dV  J dd
2

130
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

where |J| is the Jacobian determinant.


The element stiffness matrix in basic form may be defined as

K z
V
BT DB dV

where D is the modulus matrix for an orthotropic material.

LM 1 / E x yxEy zxEz 0 0 0 OP1


MM // EE
xy x 1 / Ey
yz / Ey
zy / Ez 0 0 0 PP
DM PP
xz x 1 / Ez 0 0 0
MM 0 0 0 1 / Gxy 0 0
PP
MM 00 0 0 0 1 / Gyz 0
PQ
N 0 0 0 0 1 / Gxz

where yx, zx and zy are defined by

yx  xyEy / Ex zx = xzEz / Ex zy  yzEz / Ey

to maintain symmetry.

As the matrices B and B are independent of , only D varies from layer to layer.
1 2
Therefore the strain-displacement matrices can be left out of the integration through the
thickness:
F LM OP
LM O I
GG B M T
nlay

z PQ
MN 
D d B  BT D dPB
PQ
nlay

z JJ
K zz GG N
1
n 1
lay

L
n

O
1

L
1
n 1
lay n 2

O JJ 2c J dd
 
GG
H
B M 
T
MN
2
nlay

n 1 PQz
D dPB  B M 
layMN n 1
T
2
nlay

n 1
z
lay
 D dPB J
2
PQ JK
n 2

with B and B as:


1 2

131
Element Formulations

LMJ 1 
T
1
 J12
T
0T 0T
OP
MM 11
  PP
T T
MM 0T 1
J21

1
 J22

0T PP
MM 2 T PP

B M
M 0T 0T
c PP
1
MMJ 1 
21
T
1
 J22
T 1
J11
T 1
 J12
T
0T PP
   
MM 2 T 1 T 1  PPT

MM 0T
c
 J21

 J22
 P
P
MM 2 T  T  P T

 PQ
1 1
 0T  J12
N c
J11


LMJ 1 
T
1
 J12
 T
0T 0T
OP
MM 11
  PP
 T  T
MM 0T 1
J21

1
 J22

0T PP
MM PP
B M
M 0T 0T 0T
PP
2
MMJ 1 
21
T
1
 J22
 T 1
J11
 T 1
 J12
T
0T PP
   
MM 1  T 1  PP T

MM 0T 0T J21

 J22
 P
P
MM  T  P T

 PQ
1 1
0T 0T  J12
N J11


The through thickness dependency is condensed in the integration of the material


modulus matrix which makes the assembly of the element stiffness matrix more
efficient. The strain displacement matrices only have to be computed in-plane. This is
possible by restricting the element to a reasonably uniform thickness for a single layer.

1.4.6.1 Nonlinear formulation


The 3-D solid composite elements can be employed in
 Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1]
(section 4.2).
 Geometrically nonlinear analysis utilising the corotational formulation (section
3.5.2).
 Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material
laws specified in 1.
 Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.

132
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

 Linear eigen-buckling analysis.

Fig.7.4.4-1 Topology Of 3-D Layered Isoparametric Bricks

1.4.7 Two Phase 3D Continuum Elements (TH10P, PN12P,


PN15P, HX16P and HX20P)
1.4.7.1 Formulation
These isoparametric finite elements utilise the same shape functions to interpolate the
displacements and geometry, i.e.
n
displacements U Ni b, gUi
i 1

n
geometry X Ni b, gXi
i 1

133
Element Formulations

b g
where Ni ,  is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of nodes.
However, for consideration of stability, the pressures are only interpolated using the
corner nodes

 N b, gP
ncorner
pressures P i i
i 1

where ncorner is the number of corner nodes. Fig.7.4.5-1 shows the nodal configurations
available within LUSAS.
The nodal degrees of freedom are U, V, W and P at the corner nodes and U, V and W
at the midside nodes.
The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in
(section 2.7).
The details of elastic modulus matrices applicable for these elements are described in
section 7.3.1.
These elements are used to model the behaviour of a two phase medium such as soil. In
this instance the two phases comprise the soil skeleton and the pore water fluid.
Separate equations are derived for each phase, coupled by the interaction of the pore
pressure and the soil deformation. The soil skeleton is analysed in terms of effective
stress (total stress minus pore water pressure), taking into account the loading due to
the pore pressure; whilst the pore fluid analysis takes account of the volumetric strain
due to the soil skeleton deformation.
The finite element method is used to solve the coupled equations in terms of nodal
displacements and pore pressures. Five 3D elements TH10P, PN12P, PN15P, HX16P
and HX20P based on a mixed displacement-pressure formulation are available in
LUSAS to solve these problems.

1.4.7.2 Undrained/fully drained conditions


In this type of analysis no consolidation is assumed to take place and the coupled
governing equations for static undrained conditions can be expressed as:

LMK LOPRSUUV  R|S F  F U|V


ext int

MNL S PQTP W |TL U  SP|W


T T

where the matrices K, L and S are defined as:

K z
v
BT D' B dv

z
L  - BT mN dv
v

134
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

S - z
v
1 T
Ke
N N dv

 K is the tangent stiffness matrix


 L is the coupling matrix
 S is the compressibility matrix, where Ke is the equivalent bulk modulus of the
soil (see section 7.3.5.4) and D' the ‘effective’ soil modulus matrix.
 F and int F are external and internal equivalent nodal forces
ext

Under static fully drained conditions the coupled governing equations can be further
simplified as

LMK 0 UOPRS UV RS

ext
Fint F UV
N0 I P QT W T
0 W
where I is a unit matrix block.

1.4.7.3 Drainage/consolidation process


In the drainage/consolidation process, fluid flow in/out from the soil needs to be
considered. For linear transient consolidation the coupled governing equations can be
expressed as:

LMK L U OPRS UV 
LMK L OPRSUUV  RSF UV
MNL
T
TH P PQT Wt t MNL T
(1  )THPQTP W TQW
t

where:
 F is the incremental load
 Q the incremental flow
  the time stepping scheme parameter (set to 1.0 for backward Euler scheme)
 H the permeability matrix

The permeability matrix H is defined in terms of the shape function derivatives and a
permeability matrix of the soil, K , as:
p

z
H  NT K N dv
v
p

For nonlinear consolidation, the coupled governing equations can be written as

LM K L OPRS UV R|S
U k

Fext n1 Fint
n+1 k k
U|V
NLT
QT W |T c
tH P k t n Q  Q  tHn+1 P k  LT h c U  Uh|W
n 1 k n

135
Element Formulations

where the superscript on the left/right hand side represents the increment/iteration
number.

1.4.7.4 Material assumptions


The bulk modulus of the soil particle Ks is very large compared to the bulk modulus of
the pore fluid Kf . Therefore the overall compressibility of the soil mass is
approximated to be that of the pore fluid.
1  (1  ) 
  
Ke Kf Ks Kf

where:
 Ke is the equivalent bulk modulus of the soil
 Kf the bulk modulus of the pore fluid
 Ks the bulk modulus of the solid soil particle
  the porosity of the soil
In practical geotechnical applications it is usually difficult to determine Kf and Ks so a
large value of the equivalent modulus Ke is usually assumed, 1012> Ke >109.

1.4.7.5 Nonlinear formulation


The two phase 3-D continuum elements can be employed in
 Materially nonlinear drained/undrained/consolidation analysis utilising the
elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1] (section 4.2).
 Geometrically nonlinear drained/undrained/consolidation analysis.
 Geometrically and materially nonlinear drained/undrained/consolidation
analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
 Geometrically and materially nonlinear dynamic drained/undrained analysis
utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.

1.5 Space Membrane Elements


1.5.1 Axisymmetric Membrane (BXM2, BXM3)
1.5.1.1 Formulation
BXM2 and BXM3 elements are axisymmetric, isoparametric membrane elements.
They are defined in the XY-plane and symmetry may be specified about either the X or
Y axes. The nodal degrees of freedom are (fig.7.5.1-1)
U and V at each node

136
Space Membrane Elements

The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is defined in the local Cartesian


system by
u
x 
x
U
z 
R

The elastic modulus matrix is defined by

D
LM OP
E 1 
N Q
1  2  1

The thermal strain is defined by

b g  T ,
o t
T

The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in
(section 2.7).

1.5.1.2 Evaluation of stresses


The element output obtained at the element nodes and Gauss points consists of
 Stress Output
x Meridional stress (+ve tension)

z Circumferential stress (+ve tension)

 Strain Output
x Meridional strain (+ve tension)

z Meridional stress (+ve tension)

The element local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the
element nodes are specified. The local y and z axes form a right-hand set with the x-
axis such that the y-axis lies in the global XY-plane and the z-axis is parallel to the
global Z-axis (up out of page) (fig.7.5.1-4).
The Gauss point stresses are usually more accurate than the nodal values.
The nodal values of stress and strain are obtained using the extrapolation procedures
detailed in section 6.1.

1.5.1.3 Nonlinear formulation


The axisymmetric membrane elements can be employed in

137
Element Formulations

 Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elasto-plastic constitutive laws [O1]


(section 4.2).
 Geometrically nonlinear analysis.
 Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material
laws specified in 1.
 Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
 Linear eigen-buckling analysis.
Notes
 The geometric nonlinearity utilises a Total Lagrangian formulation which
accounts for large displacements but small strains. The nonlinear strain-
displacement relationship is defined by

x 
LM OP
u 1 u

2

LM OP
1 u
2

N Q
x 2 x N Q
2 x

   LM OP
2
U 1 U
R 2 NRQ
x

 The output is now in terms of the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and Green-
Lagrange strains referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is
conservative.
Y,V 1

2
1 BXM3

3
2
BXM2

X,U

Fig.7.5.1-1 Nodal Configuration For BXM2 And BXM3 Elements

138
Space Membrane Elements

Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh

(b) Circular Plate

Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh

(b) Circular Pipe

Fig.7.5.1-2 'Stand-Alone' Applications For BXM2 And BXM3 Elements

139
Element Formulations

BXM3 elements

QAX8 elements

Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh

Fig.7.5.1-3 Fibre Reinforced Cylinder Illustrating Coupling Between QAX8 And


BXM3 Elements

y
x
y
x
Y
y x 3
2
y 2
x
x
y
1
1

Fig.7.5.1-4 Local Cartesian System For Bxm2 And Bxm3 Elements

140
Space Membrane Elements

1.5.2 3-D Space Membrane (SMI4, TSM3)


1.5.2.1 Formulation
SMI4 and TSM3 elements are membrane elements that function in 3-D. They are
formulated in 2-D, by forming a local Cartesian system in the plane of the element
(using a least squares fit through the element nodes). Once the element matrices have
been formed they are then transformed to the global Cartesian basis.
Their formulations are exactly equivalent to their 2-D conterparts given in table 7.5.2-1

Space Membrane Plane Membrane

SMI4 PMI4
TSM3 TPM3

TABLE 7.5.2-1 Space Membrane Elements And Equivalent Plane Elements

The nodal configurations are shown in fig.7.5.2-1. The nodal degrees of freedom are
U, V and W at each node
Only a lumped mass matrix is evaluated using the procedure defined in (section 2.7).

1.5.2.2 Evaluation of stresses


The element output obtained at the element nodes consists of
 Stress Resultant Output
Nx , Ny , Nxy the direct and shear stress resultants/unit length
Nmax,Nmin the maximum and minimum principal stress resultants/ unit
length
b the angle between the maximum principal stress resultant and the
positive X-axis
 Strain Output
x, y,  xy the direct and shear strains
max , min the maximum and minimum principal strains
  the angle between the maximum principal strain and the positive
X-axis
The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.5.2-4. The
stress resultants are evaluated directly at the nodes.

1.5.2.3 Nonlinear formulation


The element has no nonlinear capability, but may be utilized in a nonlinear
environment. The element cannot be used for linear buckling analyses.

141
Element Formulations

3
3 4
Y, V

1
TSM3 2
2 1 SMI4

X, U

Z, W

Fig.7.5.2-1 Nodal Configuration For SMI4 And TSM3 Elements

Thin membrane SMI4 Elements

Stiffening members QSI4 elements

Problem definition Finite Element Mesh

Fig.7.5.2-2 Box Structure Illustrating The Use Of Space Membrane Elements

142
Plate Elements

4
Y

z y

x
1
2
X

Fig.7.5.2-3 Local Cartesian System For SMI4 And TSM3 Elements

X, Y +ve tension


Y XY +ve into XY quadrant
Y

XY
X X

XY

Y X

Fig.7.5.2-4 Sign Convention For Stress/Strain Output

1.6 Plate Elements


1.6.1 Isoflex Thin Plate (QF4, QF8, TF3, TF6)
1.6.1.1 Formulation
The Isoflex family of thin plate elements are formed by applying Kirchhoff constraints
within elements formulated using Mindlin plate assumptions. The displacements and
rotations are considered independent and the unconstrained nodal configurations are
(fig.7.6.1-1)

143
Element Formulations

w, x, y at the corner

w, x, y at the mid side nodes of the quadrilateral,

x, y at the central node of the triangle.

where  and  re the relative (departure from linearity) and absolute rotations of the
through-thickness normals after deformation. These rotations include the transverse
shear deformations (fig.7.6.1-2). An element with thin plate performance is then
produced by constraining the shear strains to zero at discrete points within the element.
These constraints provide extra equations that permit certain nodal degrees of freedom
to be discarded. The final nodal configurations are (fig.7.6.1-3)

w, x, y at the corner

 at the mid side nodes

where  is the relative rotation about a tangent to the element edge. This removes 8
and 11 degrees of freedom for the 6 and 3 noded triangles and 11 and 15 degrees of
freedom for the 8 and 4 noded quadrilaterals respectively. This is achieved by using the
following constraints, originally proposed by Irons for the Semiloof shell [I1]
w
t   y  0
x
At the points shown in fig.7.6.1-4, Where  t is the through-thickness shear strain
tangential to the element edges. This provides 6 and 8 constraints respectively for the
triangles and quadrilaterals which are suitable for eliminating the mid-side translation
and normal rotation.

zA
 XZdA  0 , z
A
 YZdA  0

Where the integral is performed using 2*2 Gauss quadrature. This provides 2
constraints for both the triangles and quadrilaterals, which are suitable for removing the
rotations at the central node.

zS
 ndS  0

Where  n is the transverse shear strain normal to the element sides and the integral is
performed using 2-point quadrature along each side. This provides 1 constraint suitable
for removing the central translation of the quadrilaterals.
These constraints are sufficient for the higher order elements and the extra constraints
required for the lower order elements are provided by enforcing a linear variation of
tangential rotation along the element sides.

144
Plate Elements

The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is derived from the 3-D continuum


relationship [Section 7.4] by neglecting Z which is zero in the Mindlin plate
assumptions, and  XZ and  YZ which have been constrained to zero, so that

U
X 
X
V
Y 
Y
U V
 XY  
Y X
The continuum displacements for plates of varying thickness are related to the original
degrees of freedom of the plate using
n
 b g
z
U Ni ,  t i Yi
t i 1

n
 b g
z
V Ni ,  t i Xi
t i 1

n
W Ni b, g Wi
i 1

where t and t i are the thicknesses of the plate at the integration and nodal points
respectively, and N() are the element shape functions. Therefore the discretised,
generalised, flexural strain-displacement relationship is

L 1 t N t i N1 OP
OP MM 1t Xt NX PPLM OP
i
LM  0
t X Wi
PP  MM t Y Y
X n
N1
PPMM PP
t
MM Y
i  i
Y
0 X i
N Q MM1 t N  1 t N
i 1
t
N1 t i N1 Yi N Q
Y PQ
XY ti
i i 
N t Y X t X Y t Y t

where the terms involving t / X and t / Y are the small strain contributions due to
thickness variations. For flat plates

LM   W OP
2

LM  X OP MM XW PP 2
2

MM Y PP  MM  Y PP 2
N XY Q M2  W P 2
MN XY PQ

145
Element Formulations

The isotropic and orthotropic elastic resultant modulus or rigidity matrices are

Isotropic e j  d(dzT) , , 0, 0, 0
0 t
T

Orthotropic e j  d(dzT)  ,  , 
0 t x y xy , yz , xz
T

where yx has been set to xyEy / Ex to maintain symmetry.

Note. For a valid material xy  (Ex / Ey )1/ 2

The thermal strain is defined by

Isotropic e j  dadzTf , , 0
0 t
T

Orthotropic e j  daTf  ,  , 
0 t dz
x y xy
T

Full details of the element formulation are given in [L2].


Both consistent and lumped mass matrices are available and are evaluated using the
procedures defined in (section 2.7).

1.6.1.2 Evaluation of stresses/strains


The element output obtained at the element nodes or Gauss points consists of
 Stress Resultant Output
MX , MY , MXY the moments/unit width in the global Cartesian system.

 Strain Output
X , Y, XY the flexural strains in the global Cartesian system.

The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.5.2-6.
The Gauss point values are usually more accurate than the nodal values.
The nodal stress resultants are evaluated using the extrapolation procedures detailed in
section 6.1.
Note. Approximate shear forces evaluated by differentiating the moments may also be
output.

1.6.1.3 Nonlinear formulation


The element has no nonlinear capability, but may be utilised in a nonlinear
environment. The element cannot be used for linear buckling analysis.

146
Plate Elements

W W
W
y y
y
6 5
7 x x
W
x y

W W 5
W x
y y
y W
W
9 4 y
8 x x 6
x y
x 4
W W x
W
Y y y Y
y W
W W
2 y y
1 x x
3 y
x
2 3
X 1 x x
x

Quadrilateral Element Triangular Element

Fig.7.6.1-1 Initial Nodal Configuration For Isoflex Plate Element

Displacement of any
W / X point a distance z
along normal is
Y U = z Y
Z where
XZ W
Y    XZ
X

Y
X

Fig.7.6.1-2 Rotation Of The Through-Thickness Normal For A Thick Plate

147
Element Formulations

W
x W
W y y
3
4 y
x x
x

W
W W W
y
y y y
2
1 x
x x x

QF4 TF3

W W
 W
y 7 y
4 y
3
3
x x
x

8
6 
 6 
5
W W
 W
Z y y W
y
1 y
1 5 2
x x 4 
x 2
x
Y QF8
TF6

Fig.7.6.1-3 Final Nodal Configuration For Isoflex Thin Plate Elements

1/ 3 1/ 3

2
1/ 3
1/ 3 1/ 3
2 2 1/ 3
1/ 3 1/ 3

1/ 3 1/ 3
2
2

Fig.7.6.1-4 Locations Where The Transverse Shear Strain Tangential To The Element
Edge Is Constrained To Zero

148
Plate Elements

(a) Problem Definition

QF4 elements
Y

X
(b) Finite Element Mesh

Fig.7.6.1-5 Thin Cantilever Plate Illustrating Use Of QF4 Element

MXY

MY

MX
MX
MXY MXY

Z MY
Y

X
MXY

Fig.7.6.1-6 Sign Convention For Stress Resultant Output

149
Element Formulations

1.6.2 Isoflex Thick Plate (QSC4)


1.6.2.1 Formulation
The Isoflex thick plate element QSC4 is formed by imposing an assumed shear strain
field on the isoflex thin plate element QF4 [section 7.6.1]. This is accomplished by first
forming the constrained flexural strain-displacement relationship in exactly the same
manner as for the QF4 element, and then imposing a bilinear shear strain field defined
using nodeless degrees of freedom, i.e.
XZ  P1 XZ1 P3 XZ3 and YZ  P2 YZ2 P4 YZ4

where XZi and YZi are the transverse shear strains along the element sides and Pi are
linear interpolation functions defined in fig.7.6.2-1.
The extra higher order degrees of freedom are condensed out before assembly so that
the final nodal configuration is (fig.7.6.2-2)

w, X , Y at the corner nodes

The elastic resultant modulus or rigidity matrix is defined as


LMD 0 OP
MN 0 PQ
D b
D
s

where, for isotropic materials

LM1  0 OP
 Et 3
M 1 0 PP
12e1   j M
MN0 0 a1 2 f PQ
D 2

  Et LM1 0OP
2.4a1  f N0 1Q
D
s

and for orthotropic materials

t M
L 1 / E  / E
3 x xy x 0 OP 1

D  M / E
 1/ E 0 PP
12 M
b yx y y

N 0 0 1 / Gxy Q
  t LG 0 O
and D
s . N
12 M 0 G PQ
yz
xz

where yx has been set to xyEy / Ex to maintain symmetry.

150
Plate Elements

Note. For a valid material xy  (Ex / Ey )1/ 2

The thermal strain is defined by

Isotropic e j  dadzTf , , 0, 0, 0
0 t
T

Orthotropic e j  daTf  ,  ,  , 
0 t dz
x y xy yz , xz
T

Full details of the element formulation are given in [C4].


Both consistent and lumped mass matrices are available and are evaluated using the
procedures defined in section 2.7.

1.6.2.2 Evaluation of stresses/strains


The element output obtained at the element nodes and Gauss points consists of
 Stress Resultant Output
MX , MY , MXY the moments/unit width in the global Cartesian system,

SX , SY the shear forces/unit width in the global Cartesian system.

 Strain Output
X , Y, XY the flexural strains in the global Cartesian system,

 YZ ,  XZ the shear strains in the global Cartesian system.

The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.6.2-4.
The Gauss point values are usually more accurate than the nodal values. The nodal
stress resultants are evaluated using the extrapolation procedures detailed in section
6.1.

1.6.2.3 Nonlinear formulation


The element has no nonlinear capability but may be utilised in a nonlinear
environment.
The element cannot be used for linear buckling analysis.

151
Element Formulations

3 4 3

1 2 1 2
P5 P66

4
3

1 1 2
2
P7 P8

Fig.7.6.2-1 Interpolation Functions For Nodeless Freedoms Of The QSC4 Element

W
x
W 3 y
4 y
x
x

W
W
y
y
Z 2
1 x
x

Fig.7.6.2-2 Nodal Configuration For The QSC4 Element

152
Plate Elements

Fig.7.6.2-3 Perferated Thick Plate Example Illustrating Use Of QSC4 Element

MXY

MY

MX SY MX
MXY MXY

SX
SX MY
Z
Y

SY
X
MXY

Fig.7.6.2-4 Sign Convention For Stress Resultant Output

1.6.3 Isoparametric Thick Mindlin Plate (QTF8, TTF6)


1.6.3.1 Formulation
The QTF8 and TTF6 elements are isoparametric plate elements formulated using
Mindlin plate theory [M3], which assumes that

153
Element Formulations

 Normal stress in the transverse stress is negligible in comparison with the in


plane stresses,
 'normals' to the mid-surface remain straight but not necessarily normal to the
mid-surface after deformation (fig.7.6.3-1).
Thus the elements account for the transverse shear effects associated with thicker plates
and the elements are termed 'thick' plate elements. The theory also permits treatment of
lateral displacement and rotations as independent variables, producing elements which
only require C(0) continuity.
The nodal degrees of freedom are (fig.7.6.3-2)

W, X , Y at each node

where X and Y are the rotation of the normals to the mid-surface and include the
effects of shear deformations. The infinitesimal, generalized, flexural strain-
displacement relationship is derived from the 3-D continuum strain-displacement
relationship by neglecting the out of plane strain, so that
Y
X 
X
X
Y  
Y
Y Y
XY  
Y X
W
 YZ   X
Y
W
 XZ   Y
Y
The elastic resultant modulus or rigidity matrix is defined as


LMD 0 OP
MN 0 PQ
D b

D
s

where, for isotropic materials

Et 3
LM 1  0 OP1
 
D
b 12(1  2 ) MM  1 0 PP
N 0 0 (1  ) / 2 Q
and

154
Plate Elements

LM
  t Gyz 0 OP
D
s 12
. N
0 Gxz Q
and for orthotropic materials

t3
LM
1 / Ex xy / Ex 0 OP1

D 
b 12 MM
xy / Ex 1 / Ey 0 PP
0N 0 1 / Gxy Q
and

LM
  t Gyz 0 OP
D
s 12
. N
0 Gxz Q
where yx has been set to xyEy / Ex to maintain symmetry.

Note. For a valid material xy  (Ex / Ey )1/ 2

The thermal strain is defined by

Isotropic e j  dadzTf , , 0, 0, 0
0 t
T

Orthotropic e j  daTf  ,  ,  , 
0 t dz
x y xy yz , xz
T

Both consistent and lumped mass matrices are available and are evaluated using the
procedures defined in section 2.7.

1.6.3.2 Evaluation of stresses/strains


The element output obtained at the element nodes and Gauss points consists of
 Stress Resultant Output
MX , MY , MXY - the moments/unit width in the global Cartesian system,

SX , SY - the shear forces/unit width in the global Cartesian system.

 Strain Output
X , Y, XY - the flexural strains in the global Cartesian system,

 YZ ,  XZ - the bending strains in the global Cartesian system.

The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.6.3-4.
The Gauss point values are usually more accurate than the nodal values.

155
Element Formulations

The nodal stress resultants are evaluated using the extrapolation procedures detailed in
section 6.1.

1.6.3.3 Nonlinear formulation


The element has no nonlinear capability but may be utilised in a nonlinear
environment.
The elements cannot be used for linear buckling analysis.

Displacement of any
W / X point a distance z
along normal is
Y U = z Y
Z where
XZ W
Y    XZ
X

Y
X

Fig.7.6.3-1 Rotation Of The Through-Thickness Normal For A Thick Plate

W W
W
y y
y
6 5
7 x x
W
x y

5
W W x
y y W
W
8 4 y
x x 6 y
x 4
W W x
W
Y y y Y
y W
W W
2 y y
1 x x
3 y
x
2 3
X 1 x x
x

Z QTF8 TTF6

Fig.7.6.3-2 Nodal Configuration For QTF8 And TTF6 Elements

156
Plate Elements

Fig.7.6.3-3 Perforated Thick Plate Illustrating Use Of The TTF6 Element

MXY

MY

MX SY MX
MXY MXY

SX
SX MY
Y
Z

SY
X
MXY

Fig.7.6.3-4 Sign Convention For Stress Resultant Output

157
Element Formulations

1.7 Shell Elements


1.7.1 Axisymmetric Thin Shell (BXS3)
1.7.1.1 Formulation
The BXS3 element is a thin, curved, non-conforming axisymmetric shell element
formulated using the constraint technique.
The global displacements and rotations are initially quadratic and are interpolated
independently using linear Lagrangian shape functions for the end nodes and a
hierarchical quadratic function for the central node. Therefore, the initial degrees of
freedom are (fig.7.7.1-1)

U, V,  at the end nodes

and u, v,  at the mid-length node.


The Kirchhoff condition of zero shear strain is applied at the two integration points by
forcing
v u v
   z  0
x z x
and eliminating the local transverse translational and rotational degrees of freedom at
the central node. The final degrees of freedom for the element are (fig.7.7.1-1)

U, V, z at the end nodes,

and u at the mid-length node

where u is the local axial relative (departure from linearity) displacement.


The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is defined in the local cartesian
system as
u
x 
x
U V
z  cos   sin 
R R

2v
x  
x2
1 v
z  cos 
R x

158
Shell Elements

where R and  are the radius and angle between the local and global Cartesian systems
(fig.7.7.1-2)
The elastic modulus and resultant modulus (or rigidity) matrices are defined as


LMD 0 OP
Explicit
MN 0 PQ
D m

D
b

where
Isotropic   Et 1  LM OP   Et3 LM1 OP
D
m 1  2  1 N Q D
b 12e1   j N 1Q
2

Orthotropic   t LM E  OP x xz  
3
t LM E  OP
x xz
D
m 1  2xz N E Q xz z
D
b 12e1   j N
2
xz xz E Q
z

Numerically Integrated

LM 1  y y OP
D z E
t 1  2
MM y
MNy
1 y
y y2
y
y2
y y2 y2
dy PP
PQ
The thermal strain vector is defined as
LM T OP
MM daTTf PP
Isotropic e j  M dy P
0 t
MM daTf PP
MN dy PQ
LM T OP x

MM daTTf PP z
Orthotropic e j  M dy  P
MM daTf PP
0 t x

MN dy  PQ z

Further information on the element formulation is given in [S1,C1,Z1].


The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in
section 2.7.

159
Element Formulations

1.7.1.2 Evaluation of stresses/strains


Element output is available at both the nodes and Gauss points and consists of
(fig.7.7.1-5)
 Stress Resultants
Nx , Nz the meridional and circumferential forces/unit width in the
local Cartesian system,

Mx , Mz the meridional and circumferential moments/unit width in


the local Cartesian system.
 Strains
x , z - the meridional and circumferential membrane strains,

x , z - the meridional and circumferential bending strains.

The forces and strains are output in the local Cartesian system, defined as having its x-
axis lying along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are
specified. The local y and z-axes form a right-hand set with the x-axis, such that the y-
axis lies in the global XY plane, and the z-axis is parallel to the global Z-axis (up out of
page) (fig.7.7.1-4).
The top fibre lies on the +ve local y side of the element and +ve values define tension.
The forces have greatest accuracy at the Gauss points.
Note Layer stress output is also available when the nonlinear continuum plasticity
model is utilised.

1.7.1.3 Nonlinear formulation


The axisymmetric shell element may be employed in
 Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1]
(section 4.2).
 Geometrically nonlinear analysis.
 Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material
laws specified in 1.
 Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
 Linear and nonlinear buckling analysis.
Notes
 The BXS3 element may be used in conjunction with the stress resultant
plasticity model (section 4.2).
 Geometric nonlinearity utilises either

160
Shell Elements

 A Total Lagrangian formulation which accounts for large displacements but


small strains. The nonlinear strain-displacement relationship is defined by

x 
u 1 u

LM OP 2

LM OP
1 v
2

x 2 x N Q N Q
2 x

u v u2 v2 uv
z  cos   sin   2 cos2   2 sin2   2 sin 2
R R 2R 2R 2R
2v u 2v v 2u
x    
x2 x x2 x x2
1 v u v v v
z  cos   2 cos2   2 cos sin 
R x R x R x
 where R is the radius and  is the angle between the local and global Cartesian
systems.
 The forces and strains output with the geometrically nonlinear analysis will be
the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff forces and Green-Lagrange strains respectively,
referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative.
Or

 An Updated Lagrangian formulation which takes account of large displacements


and large rotations but small strains, provided that the rotations are small within
a load increment. The output now approximates to the true Cauchy stresses and
logarithmic strains. The loading approximates to being non-conservative.
 The initial assumptions used in deriving the BXS3 element limit the rotations to
one radian in a Total Lagrangian analysis and rotation increments of one radian
in an Updated Lagrangian analysis (section 3.5).

V V

Z Z
U U
3 3
V
U

 Z
U
2 2

V Y V
Y
Z Z
U U
1 1

X X

Initial Variables Final Variables

Fig.7.7.1-1 Nodal Configuration For The BXSs3 Element

161
Element Formulations

Axis of
v, y
Revolution

 u, x

Fig.7.7.1-2 Definition Of R And  For The Axisymmetric Shell Element

162
Shell Elements

A A

Plan

Section A - A

Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh


(a) Spherical Shell

Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh

(b) Circular Shell

Fig.7.7.1-3 Examples Illustrating The Use Of BXS3 Element

163
Element Formulations

y
x

y x

Y
x
y

Fig.7.7.1-4 Definition Of Local Cartesian System For BXS3 Element

z
x

Y y

z
x

Mx Mz
Nz Nx

Fig.7.7.1-5 Sign Convention For Stress Resultant Output

1.7.2 Flat Thin Shell (QSI4, TS3)


1.7.2.1 Formulation
These flat shell elements are formulated in a local Cartesian system by superimposing
standard isoparametric plane stress elements (QPM4,TPM3,PMI4) and the isoflex thin

164
Shell Elements

plate elements (QF4,TF3). The xy-plane of the local Cartesian system is evaluated
using a least squares fit through the element nodes. The membrane and bending
stiffnesses are then formed independently, and combined to give

LMK OPRa U| R|R U|


PP|Sa
0 0
MM
membrane membrane
V|  S| R V|
membrane
0 K 0
PQ|T
bending bending bending
MN 0 0 K
art z W T M z W
where the component elements are listed in Table 7.7.2-1

Element Membrane Bending

QSI4 PMI4 QF4


TS3 TPM3 TF3

Table 7.7.2-1 Primary Elements Used To Form Flat Thin Shell Elements

Initially, the membrane stiffness is formed in terms of u and v, the in-plane


displacements. An artificial in-plane rotational stiffness K is then added to prevent
art
singularities occurring when elements are co-planar. K is defined as
art

LM 10. 0.5 0.5OP


Triangles K  kip dE  E itAM0.5 10. 0.5P
MN0.5 0.5 10. PQ
art x y

LM 1.0 1 / 3 1 / 3 OP
1 / 3

Quadrilaterals K  kip dE  E itAMM11 // 33 10


x y
. 1 / 3 1 / 3
1 / 3
PP
art
MN1 / 3 1 / 3 1 / 3
1 / 3 1.0
10
.
PQ
The in-plane stiffness parameter kip has a default value of 0.02 which may be changed
by using the SYSTEM command (variable STFINP).
Once the local element matrices have been evaluated they are transformed to the global
Cartesian system. The final nodal variables are (fig.7.7.2-1)

U, V, x, y, z at each node

The strain-displacement relationship is defined in section 7.3 (in-plane) and section 7.6
(bending).
Note. The incompatible terms in the strain-displacement matrix are not used to
evaluate nodal loads due to initial Gauss point stresses, e.g. thermal loading, initial
stresses.

165
Element Formulations

For further details of the element formulation see section 7.3, section 7.6, [Z1,L2]
A lumped mass matrix is evaluated using the procedures presented in section 2.7.

1.7.2.2 Evaluation of stresses/strains


The element output obtained at the element nodes consists of
 Stress Output
x, y, xy direct and shear stresses in the local Cartesian system,
max , min the maximum and minimum principal membrane stresses,
 the angle between the maximum principal membrane
stress and the local x-axis.
 Stress Resultant Output
Nx, Ny, Nxy the membrane stress resultants/unit width in the local
Cartesian system,
Mx, My, Mxy the moments/unit width in the local Cartesian system.
 Strain Output
x, y, xy the membrane strains in the local Cartesian system,
max , min the maximum and minimum principal membrane strains,
 the angle between the maximum principal membrane
strain and the local x-axis,
x, y, xy the flexural strains in the local Cartesian system,
max , min the maximum and minimum principal bending strains,
 the angle between the maximum principal bending strain
and the local x-axis

The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.7.2-3.
The xy-plane of the local Cartesian system is evaluated using a least squares fit through
the element nodes. The local x-axis is defined as being a line joining the first and
second element nodes, and the local y and z-axes are defined by a right hand screw rule
(fig.7.7.2-4)
The nodal stress resultants are evaluated by extrapolating the strain-displacement
relationship at the Gauss point to the nodes. The nodal stress is computed at each node
directly.
The stress resultants are most easily interpreted if the local Cartesian axes are all
parallel. Average nodal stresses are in the global Cartesian system.

1.7.2.3 Nonlinear formulation


The elements have no nonlinear capability but may be utilised in a nonlinear
environment.

166
Shell Elements

The elements cannot be used for linear buckling analysis.


W
W z
z W
z
y x
x x y V
V 3 3 y
4 V U
U
U

W W W
z W z z
z
y y
Z y 1 V
V V
1 V y 2
U x 2 U x U x
U x
QS4/QSI4 TS3
Y

Fig.7.7.2-1 Nodal Configuration For Flat Thin Shell Elements

Problem Description Finite Element Model

Fig.7.7.2-2 Cylindrical Roof Example Illustrating Use Of Thin Flat Shell Elements

167
Element Formulations

MXY

MY

MX
MX
Stress Resultants MXY MXY

Y
MY
Z

X
MXY
X, Y +ve tension
XY +ve into XY quadrant
Y
Y

XY
Stresses
X X

XY

Y X

Fig.7.7.2-3 Sign Convention For Stress And Stress Resultant Output

4 y

3 1
x
z

z
y

Z x 2 2
3
Y

Fig.7.7.2-4 Local Cartesian System For Thin Flat Shell Elements

168
Shell Elements

1.7.3 Semiloof Thin Shell (QSL8, TSL6)


1.7.3.1 Formulation
The Semiloof shell element is a thin, doubly curved, isoparametric element formed by
applying Kirchhoff constraints to a three dimensional degenerated thick shell element.
The displacements and rotations are considered independent and the unconstrained
nodal configurations are (fig.7.7.4-1)
U, V, W - at the corner and mid-side nodes,
x, y - at the loof nodes,

and w, x, y - at the central node,

where x and y are the rotations of the through-thickness normals. These rotations
include transverse shear deformations.
An element with thin shell performance is then produced by constraining the shear
strains to zero at discrete points within the element, i.e. by ensuring that [I1]
w
t   y  0
x
at the points shown in fig.7.7.4-2. Where  t is the through-thickness shear strain
tangential to the element edges. This provides 6 and 8 constraints respectively for the
triangles and quadrilaterals which are suitable for eliminating the tangential rotations at
the loof nodes.

z A
 xzdA  0, z
A
 yzdA  0

where the integral is performed using 2*2 Gauss quadrature. This provides 2
constraints for both the triangles and quadrilaterals which are suitable for removing the
rotations at the central node.

z S
 ndS  0

where  n is the transverse shear strain normal to the element sides and the integral is
performed using 2-point quadrature along each side. This provides 1 constraint suitable
for removing the central translation of the quadrilaterals.
These constraints provide extra equations that permit certain nodal degrees of freedom
to be discarded. The final nodal configurations are (fig.7.7.4-3)
U, V, W - at the corner and mid-side nodes,

and   - at the loof nodes.

169
Element Formulations

Using the assumptions of thin shell theory, the strain-displacement relationship is


written as
u
x 
x
v
y 
y
u v
 xy  
y x

2w
x  
x2
2w
y  
y2

2w
xy  2
xy

The isotropic and orthotropic modulus and resultant modulus (rigidity) matrices are
defined as
Explicit


LMD 0 OP
MN PQ
membrane
D 
0 D
bending

where, for Isotropic materials

LM1  0 OP
E M
  0 P
1  M
 1
a1  f P
D 2
MN0 0 2 PQ
membrane

LM1  0 OP
 
Et 3
M 1 0 PP
12e1   j M
MN0 0 a1 2 f PQ
D 2
bending

and for Orthotropic materials

170
Shell Elements

LM 1 / E x xy / Ex 0 OP 1


D  M / E 1 / Ey 0 PP
membrane
MN 0 xy x
0 1 / Gxy Q
t M
3
L 1/ E x xy / Ex 0 OP 1


D  M / E 1 / Ey 0 PP
12 M
bending xy x

N 0 0 1 / Gxy Q
where yx has been set to xyEy / Ex to maintain symmetry.

Notes

 To obtain a valid material xy  Ex / Ey d i1/ 2

 A three dimensional orthotropic modulus matrix may be specified by using the


appropriate data input. This 6 by 6 modulus matrix is the same as that given in
section 7.4.1 and is reduced to the plane stress modulus matrix in the following
way:
 remove the  YZ and  XZ shear strain rows and columns,
 invert the matrix so that the stress-strain relationship is obtained,
 remove the s Z row and column since this stress is assumed to be zero,
 re-invert the matrix to obtain the stress-strain relationship (a 3 by 3 matrix).

Numerically Integrated

LM 1  0 z z 0OP
MM  1
a f
0
1 
z z
a f PP
0
1  z
D z E
t 1  2
MM 0
MMzz z
z
0
2
0
0
z
0

z
2
2
0
z2
z2
2
0
0
PP
PP
dz

MM 0 a f
1  z a f PP
1   z2
N 0
2
0 0
2 Q
The thermal strain vector is defined as

LM T OP
MM 0T PP
Isotropic e j  MM dadzTf LMN  T ddT OPQPP
0 t
MM daTf L d OPP
MM dz MN  T dT PQPP
N 0 Q
171
Element Formulations

LM x T OP
MM y 
 T
T PP
MM daTf L xy
d O PP
e j  MM dz MN   
dT PQ P
T x
Orthotropic x

daTf L d O P
0 t
MM dz MN  T dT PQ PP
y
y

MM daTf L  T d OPP
MN dz MN dT PQPQ
xy
xy

Full details of the element formulation are given in [I1].


Both consistent and lumped mass matrices are available and are evaluated using the
procedures defined in (section 2.7).

1.7.3.2 Evaluation of stresses/strains


The element output obtained at the element nodes and Gauss points consists of
 Stress Output
x, y, xy direct and shear stresses in the local Cartesian system,
max , min the maximum and minimum principal membrane stresses,
 the angle between the maximum principal membrane stress
and the local x-axis.
 Stress Resultant Output
Nx, Ny, Nxy the membrane stress resultants/unit width in the local
Cartesian system,
Mx, My, Mxy the moments/unit width in the local Cartesian system,
 Strain Output
x, y, xy the membrane strains in the local Cartesian system,
max , min the maximum and minimum principal membrane strains,
 the angle between the maximum principal membrane strain
and the local x-axis,
x , y , xy the flexural strains in the local Cartesian system,
max , min the maximum and minimum principal bending strains,
 the angle between the maximum principal bending strain
and the local x-axis.

The local Cartesian system varies over the element for curved elements. For the
quadrilateral element, the local y-axis, at any point within the element, coincides with
the curvilinear line  = constant (fig.7.7.4-8). The local x-axis is perpendicular to the
local y-axis in the +ve  direction and is tangential to the shell mid-surface. For the
triangular element, the local Cartesian system is formed by orientating the local y-axis

172
Shell Elements

parallel to a line joining the mid-point of the first side with the 5th node. The x-axis is
then formed perpendicular to the y-axis and tangential to the shell mid-surface, with the
+ve direction defined by the +ve  direction. The local z-axis forms a right-handed set
with the x and y-axes. The +ve z-axis defines the top surface.
The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.7.4-9.
The nodal stress resultants are evaluated using the extrapolation procedures detailed in
section 6.1.

Notes
 The Gauss point stresses are converted to the global Cartesian system before
extrapolation.
 The average nodal stresses are in the global Cartesian system.

1.7.3.3 Nonlinear formulation


The Semiloof shell element may be employed in
 Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1]
(section 4.2) and the nonlinear concrete model (section 4.3).
 Geometrically nonlinear analysis.
 Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material
laws specified in 1.
 Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
 Linear and nonlinear buckling analysis.
Notes
Geometric nonlinearity may be represented with either
 A Total Lagrangian formulation which accounts for large displacements but
small rotations and strains. The nonlinear strain-displacement relationship is
defined by

x 
LM OP  1 LM v OP  1 LM w OP
u 1 u

2 2 2

N Q 2 N x Q 2 N x Q
x 2 x

v 1 L u O 1 L v O 1 L w O
2 2 2
y   M P  M P  M P
y 2 N y Q 2 N y Q 2 N y Q

u v u u v v w w
 xy     
y x x y x y x y

2w
x  
x2

173
Element Formulations

2w
x  
y2

2w
xy  2
xy2

The output is now in terms of the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and Green-Lagrange
strains referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative.
or
 An Updated Lagrangian formulation, which takes account of large
displacements and moderately large strains provided that the strain increments
are small. The output is now in terms of the True Cauchy stresses and the strains
approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading approximates to being non-
conservative.
 The initial assumptions used in deriving the shell elements limit the rotations to
one radian in a Total Lagrangian analysis, and rotation increments of one radian
in an Updated Lagrangian analysis (section 3.5).

174
Shell Elements

V V
V
7 x x 5
U U
6 U
W W
y y
W
x
y
y
x
W
V V
y
8
U U
W x W 4

x

y y
V x
V y V
U y
Y
U W 2 x U
x
W 1 W 3

X
(a) QSL8 V

Z 5
U
x W

y
y
V
x
V
6 U
W U
x 4
W

y
y
V x
V y V
U y
Y
2
U  W x U
1
x 3
W W

X (b) TSL6

Fig.7.7.3-1 Initial Nodal Configurations For QSL8 And TSL6 Elements

175
Element Formulations

1/ 3 1/ 3

1/ 3
2
1/ 3

(a) QSL8

2
1/ 3
1/ 3
2 1/ 3
1/ 3

1/ 3 1/ 3

(b) TSL6

Fig.7.7.3-2 Locations Where Transverse Shear Strains Tangential To The Element


Edge Are Constrained To Zero

176
Shell Elements

V V
V
7 5
U U
6 U
W W
2 1
W
2
1
W
V V
y
8
U U
W x W 4

2 1
V
V 1 V
U 2
Y
U W 2 U
W 1 W 3

X
(a) QSL8 V

Z 5
U
W

2
1
V
V
6 U
W U
4
W
2
1
V
V V
U
Y
2
U 1 W 2 U
1 3
W W

X (b) TSL6

Fig.7.7.3-3 Final Nodal Configuration For QSL8 And TSL6 Elements

177
Element Formulations

Fig.7.7.3-4 Tubular Joint Example Illustrating Use Of QSL8 And TSL6 Elements

Fig.7.7.3-5 Pressure Vessel Example Illustrating Coupling Of HX20 And QSL8


Elements

178
Shell Elements

QSL8 elements

BSL3 elements

Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh

Fig.7.7.3-6 Stiffened Shell Illustrating Coupling Between QSL8 And BSL3 Elements

Fig.7.7.3-7 Bending Mechanism For QSL8 Element

179
Element Formulations

z 
4
x
 6 y

7 2

(a) QSL8 Element

z
x

y 4
5
3

6 2

(b) TSL6 Element

Fig.7.7.3-8 Local Cartesian System

180
Shell Elements

X, Y +ve tension


XY +ve into XY quadrant
Y
Y

XY
X X

XY

Y X

Stresses

X, Y +ve tension


XY +ve into XY quadrant
Y
Y

XY
X X

XY

Y X

MXY

MY

MX
MX
MXY MXY

Z
Y MY

X
MXY

Stress Resultants

Fig.7.7.3-9 Sign Convention For Stress And Stress Resultant Output

181
Element Formulations

1.7.4 Thick Shells (TTS3, TTS6, QTS4, QTS8)


1.7.4.1 Formulation
The formulation for this family of thick shell elements is based on the degeneration of a
three dimensional continuum. In this approach, the displacements at any point in the
shell are defined by the translation of the reference surface together with the rotation of
a director. The director is subsequently referred to as the normal, however, the director
need not be initially normal to the reference surface. The normal is considered to
remain straight during deformation for computation of displacements through the
element thickness. The triangular elements (TTS3, TTS6) are formulated using a
standard isoparametric approach. The quadrilateral elements (QTS4,QTS8) adopt an
assumed strain field for interpolation of the transverse shear strains. The inclusion of an
assumed strain field prevents the element from 'shear locking' when used as a thin
shell. The displacements and rotations are considered independent and the nodal
degrees of freedom are (fig.7.7.4-1)
U, V, W,  ,  - at all nodes.

 and  are the rotations of the through-thickness normals. These rotations include
transverse shear deformations and relate to a set of 'local' axes set up at each node. To
avoid singularities, the direction of these axes is dictated by the direction of the nodal
normal. One of the global axes is chosen to define the  rotation, the axis chosen
corresponds with the smallest component of the nodal vector. The cross product of this
axis and the nodal vector defines the second axis of rotation for  (fig.7.7.4-1). This
definition of the rotations is used when a smooth surface configuration is to be
modelled (fig.7.7.4-2). In the event of a discontinuity, connection with a beam element,
or a branched shell junction, these rotations are transformed to relate to global axes, x ,
 y , z (fig.7.7.4-1).

The location of the transverse shear sampling points for defining the assumed strain
fields are shown in fig.7.7.4-3. For the four noded quadrilateral (QTS4) the factors for
interpolating from the sampling points to the gauss points are

R1 
1
2
a f
1 

R2 
1
2
a f
1 

while for the eight noded element (QTS8) the factors are

R1 
1LM OPa f
 1
1  1    R5
4 N Qa 4

1 L O
 M1  Pa1  f  R
1
4 N aQ
R2 5
4

182
Shell Elements

R3 
LM OPa f
1  1
1  1    R5
N Q
4 a 4

1 L O
 M1  Pa1  f  R
1
4 N aQ
R4 5
4

1 L LO O
2
 M1  M P Pe1   j 2
4 MN N a Q PQ
R5

where

a 1 / 3

and
Si (, )  Ri (, )

The covariant transverse shear strains at the gauss points are then given by
n
  Ri b, g i
i 1

n
  Si b, g i
i 1

where  and  are the covariant transverse shear strains at the gauss points and 
i

, i are the transverse shears at the sampling points.

Using this representation of shear strains allows


 Correct representation of the six rigid body modes.
 Approximation of the Kirchhoff-Love thin shell hypothesis.
 No spurious zero energy modes using full numerical integration.
It is necessary to express the transverse shear strains in terms of covariant components
so that interpolation can be carried out using the isoparametric map. The stress and
strain terms are ultimately transformed to relate to a local orthogonal set of axes at each
gauss point. The local axes are set up using

e1  G / G

e j
e 3  e1 x G / e1 x G

e 2  e 3 x e1

183
Element Formulations

where G and G are the covariant base vectors at a gauss point.

b g
Strains in the curvilinear system lm may then be transformed to strains in the
d i
 ij by using the contravariant base vectors
orthogonal local system 

d i  dG  e ieG  e j
ij lm
1
i
m
j

The elements are formulated using the plane stress hypothesis so that zz in the
thickness direction is set to zero. The continuum strains are evaluated at integration
points through the thickness, and for the geometrically linear case these strains are
given by

 xx  u

x

 yy  v

y

u v
 xy  
y x
v w
 yz  
z y

u w
 yz  
z x
Material properties are specified in the local orthogonal axes. For a thick shell the
modulus matrix is condensed so that the plane stress hypothesis is observed.
The isotropic modulus matrix is given by [Z1]

 1  0 0 0 
 1 0 0 0 
 
 1  
E  0 0 
D  2 
1  2  1  
 2k
0 
 
Symm. 1 
 2k 

If orthotropic properties are specified the modulus matrix becomes

184
Shell Elements

 Ex Ex yx 
 0 
  1  xyyx 
0 0
 1  xyyx 
 
 Ey 
1  xyyx 
 0 0 0 
 
D
 Gxy 0 0 
 G yz 
 0 
 k 
 Gxz 
 Symm. 
 k 

where k accounts for the non-constant distribution of the transverse shear stresses,
which has been assumed when the through thickness integration is performed. For a
homogenous isotropic material the true distribution is parabolic and k=1.2. For
laminated composite shells its calculation is more complicated and it involves the in-
plane stiffness of each layer, [H9]. In general, there would be a coupling between the
two transverse shear terms, which, for simplicity, is not presented above.
Residual bending flexibility correction (RBF). The introduction of RBF can
significantly improve the performance of TTS3 elements. The modulus matrix can be
decomposed into a modulus matrix relating in-plane stresses and strains, and a
modulus matrix relating out-of-plane shear stresses and strains

RBF modifies the shear modulus matrix as follows

where I is a 2×2 unit matrix, is the area of the element on the reference surface,
is the shear rigidity matrix, and

with t the thickness, the bubble function, the shape function matrix composed
of for bubble mode enhancement of rotations, and the differential operator.

185
Element Formulations

As the material properties are specified in local element directions and the element
formulation is based on covariant components of strain, the modulus matrix must be
transformed.
The required transformation of the modulus matrix is

d id id id i
Cijkl  Gi  ea G j  eb Gk  ec Gl  ed D
abcd

where Gm m  , ,  are the contravariant base vectors.

Full details of the element formulations may be found in [D4],[H9] and [S7].
Both consistent and lumped mass matrices are available and are evaluated using the
procedures defined in (section 2.7).

1.7.4.2 Evaluation of stresses/strains


The element output obtained at the element nodes and Gauss points consists of
 Stress Output
x, y, xy direct and shear stresses in the local Cartesian
yz, xz, e system, together with von Mises equivalent stress
Three dimensional principal stresses and the corresponding direction cosines may also
be output

 Stress Resultant Output


Nx, Ny, Nxy the membrane stress resultants/unit width in the local
Cartesian system,
Mx, My, Mxy the moments/unit width in the local Cartesian system,
Sx,Sy the shear stress resultants/unit width in the local Cartesian
system
 Strain Output
x, y, xy, the direct and shear strains in the local Cartesian
yz, xz, e system, together with von Mises equivalent strain

186
Shell Elements

The local cartesian systems are set up at the element reference surface. For curved
elements, the local Cartesian system will vary over the reference surface. The local x-
axis, at any point within the element, coincides with the curvilinear line  = constant in
the direction of increasing  (fig.7.7.5-4). The direction of the local z-axis is defined by
the vector product of the local x-axis and the curvilinear line  = constant (in the
direction of increasing ). The local y-axis is defined by the vector product of the local
z and local x-axes. The +ve z-axis defines the element top surface. The position of the
origin of the curvilinear system for each element together with the directions of
increasing values are shown in (fig.7.7.5-5).
The sign convention for stress and strain output is shown in fig.7.7.5-6 and fig.7.7.5-7.
The nodal stresses and strains are evaluated using the extrapolation procedures detailed
in section 6.1.

Notes
 The Gauss point stresses are converted to the global Cartesian system before
extrapolation.
 The average nodal stresses are in the global Cartesian system.

1.7.4.3 Nonlinear formulation


The thick shell elements may be employed in
 Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1]
(section 4.2) and the nonlinear concrete model (section 4.3).
 Geometrically nonlinear analysis using a Total Lagrangian formulation.
 Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material
laws specified in 1.
 Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
 Linear and nonlinear buckling analysis.
 Creep analysis
Note. The Total Lagrangian formulation used for these elements is valid for both large
displacements and large rotations. However, the formulation is only valid for small
strains. The nonlinear strain-displacement relationship is defined by

x 
LM OP  1 LM v OP  1 LM w OP
u 1 u

2 2 2

N Q 2 N x Q 2 N x Q
x 2 x

v 1 L u O 1 L v O 1 L w O
2 2 2
y   M P  M P  M P
y 2 N y Q 2 N y Q 2 N y Q

u v u u v v w w
 xy     
y x x y x y x y

187
Element Formulations

v w u u v v w w
 yz     
z y z y z y z y

u w u u v v w w
 xz     
z x z x z x z x
The output is now in terms of the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and Green-Lagrange
strains referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative.

 V



Z,w

 V

(a) 5 degrees of freedom


Definition of nodal rotations
Y,v
when global X defines.


X,u

Z,w

z

y
Y,v

x
X,u

(b) 6 degrees of freedom

Fig.7.7.4-1 Nodal Variables For Thick Shell Elements

188
Shell Elements

Default angle < 20o


Averaged nodal vector

V2

V1 V3
2

1 3
Element 1 Element 2

(a) SMOOTH SURFACE (5 degrees of freedom)

Default angle > 20o


Separate nodal vector

V21 V22

V1 V3
2

1 Element 1 Element 2 3

(b) DISCONTINUOUS SURFACE (5 degrees of freedom)

Fig.7.7.4-2 Smooth And Discontinuous Surface

189
Element Formulations

2
4 3 4 3

 

1 2
 

1 2 1 2
1

Shear  Shear 

(a) QTS4

3 4
7 6 5 7 6 5

a a
3 4
 
a a
8 8 4
5  5 
a a
1 2
a a

1 2 3 a = 3-1/2 1 2 3
1 2
Shear  Shear 

(b) QTS8

Fig.7.7.4-3 Shear Sampling Points

190
Shell Elements

4
z 3  = constant

y
5
x
2

 = constant

(a) TTS6 (TTS3 axes coincide when element is flat)

5
 = constant
 = constant
6
z 4
y
x

7
3

8 2

(a) QTS8 (QTS4 axes coincide when element is flat)

Fig.7.7.4-4 Local Cartesian Systems

191
Element Formulations

2 3

  

5 2
3

1 1

(a) TTS3 (b) TTS6

3 5


4   4
 7

2 8 3

1 1
(c) QTS4 (d) QTS8

Fig.7.7.4-5 Curvilinear Coordinates

192
Shell Elements

y
y

xy
x x

xy

y
x

z z

xz yz

xz yz

x y

Direct stress (+ve) Tension


Shear stress (+ve) Shear into XY, YZ and ZX quadrants
Note: Positive values shown in figure

Fig.7.7.4-6 Sign Convention For Continuum Stress Output

193
Element Formulations

Y Y

Mxy
My Sx
Mx

Mxy Sy

Mxy
Mx Sy

Sx
My Mxy

Y
X X

Nx

Nxy Ny

Nxy

Nxy

Ny
Nxy

Nx

Membrane stress (+ve) Direct tension


(+ve) In-plane shear into XY quadrant
Flexural stress (+ve) Hogging moment (producing +ve stresses on
the element top surface)
Shear stress (+ve) In-plane shear into YZ and XZ quadrants

Note: Positive values shown in figure

Fig.7.7.4-7 Sign Convention For Stress Resultant Output

194
Field Elements

1.8 Field Elements


1.8.1 Thermal Bar (BFD2, BFD3)
The thermal bar element (fig.7.8-1) has either 2 or 3 nodes and may transfer heat along
its length. The bar is assumed to be perfectly insulated along its length and may
transfer heat across its end areas via conduction, convection, radiation or applied heat
flux.

The nodal degree of freedom is the field variable . The cross sectional area of the
material is defined at each node and may vary over the element.
The gradient-field variable relationship is defined as

gx 
x
where x represents the local x-direction of the element. The field gradient is related to
the flow by
qx  k gx

1.8.1.1 Element Output


The element output consists of the gradients of the field variables and flow in the local
element axis system at either the Gauss or nodal points, i.e.

gx field gradient

qx flow

The local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes
are specified.
The Gauss point values are generally more accurate.

195
Element Formulations

Y,V
1
2 BFD3
1
3
2
BFD2

X,U

Fig.7.8-1 Nodal Configuration For Bar Field Elements

Struts represented with


BFD2 elements
Pressure

Continuum elements

Heat transfer between members

Fig.7.8-2 Example Illustrating The Use Of Bar Field Elements

196
Field Elements

1.8.2 Thermal Axisymmetric Bar (BFX2, BFX3)


The axisymmetric thermal bar element (fig.7.8-3) has either 2 or 3 nodes and may
transfer heat along its length. The bar is assumed to be perfectly insulated along its
length and may transfer heat across its end areas via conduction, convection, radiation
or applied heat flux.

The nodal degree of freedom is the field variable . The gradient-field variable
relationship is defined as

gx 
x
The field variable is related to the flow by
qx  k gx

1.8.2.1 Element output


The element output consists of the gradients of the field variables and flows in the local
element axis system at either the Gauss or nodal points, i.e.

gx field gradient

qx flow

The local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes
are specified.
The Gauss point values are generally more accurate.

Y,V
1
2 BFX3
1
3
2
BFX2

X,U

Fig.7.8-3 Nodal Configuration For Axisymmetric Bar Field Elements

197
Element Formulations

Problem Definition

Finite Element Mesh

Fig.7.8-4 Spinning Cylinder Example Illustrating The Use Of Axisymmetric Bar


Field Elements

1.8.3 Thermal Link (LFD2, LFS2, LFX2)


The thermal link element (fig.7.8-5) has 2 nodes and may transfer heat between two
nodal points by either conduction, convection or radiation. The nodal degree of
freedom is the field variable . The cross sectional area of the material is defined at
each node and may vary over the element.
The heat flow is positive in the direction of the local x-axis and is defined as
Conduction q  K(1  2 )

Convection q  hc (1  2 )

Radiation q  hr (14  24 )

where K is the gap conductance. hc and h r are the convective and radiative heat
transfer coefficients.

198
Field Elements

Note that the material properties may be dependent on both the gap distance and the
temperature evaluated at the centre of the element.
The element stiffness matrix may be derived from the nodal flows which are defined as

b
Q1  Kt A 1  2  Q2 g
where Kt is the combined heat transfer coefficient for the element. The stiffness matrix
is then rewritten as
KK K
o 1

where K is the linear contribution to the stiffness matrix defined as follows


o

K  Kt A
LM 1 1OP
o N1 1 Q
and K1 is the nonlinear contribution to the stiffness matrix defined as

LM K Ab   g
t Kt
b g OP
A 1  2
K M P
1 2
 2
MM K Ab   g gPPQ
1
1

N 
t
1
1 2
K
2
b
 t A 1  2

The nodal flows are evaluated directly using


Q  K

where K is evaluated using the current properties in temperature dependent analyses.

1.8.3.1 Element output


The element output consists of the gradients of the field variables and flows in the local
element axis system at either the Gauss or nodal points, i.e.

gx field gradient

qx flow

The local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes
are specified.
The Gauss point values are generally more accurate.

199
Element Formulations

Y,V

2
LFD2
LFX2
LFS2

X,U

Fig.7.8-5 Nodal Configuration For Link Field Elements

LFX2 elements

QAX8 elements

Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh

Fig.7.8-6 Thermal Analysis Of An Interface Fit Illustrating The Use Of Link Field
Elements

1.8.4 Plane Field (QFD4, QFD8, TFD3, TFD6)


The plane field element (fig.7.8-7) is defined in the global XY-plane. The gradient-
field variable relationship is defined as

200
Field Elements


gX 
X

gY 
Y
The isotropic and orthotropic thermal conductivity modulus matrices are defined as
follows

Isotropic k
LMk 0OP
N0 k Q
Orthotropic
Lk 0 OP
kM
x

N0 k Q y

1.8.4.1 Element output


The element output consists of the gradients of the field variables or flows in the global
axis system at either the Gauss or nodal points, i.e.

gX, gY field gradient

q X , qY flow

The Gauss point values are generally more accurate.

3 6
5
4 7

8 4

2
1 2 3
QFD4 1
QFD8
Y 5
1
4
6

2 2
1 3
3 TFD3 TFD6

Fig.7.8-7 Nodal Configuration For Plane Field Elements

201
Element Formulations

(a) Problem Definition

(b) Finite Element Mesh

Fig.7.8-8 Cofferdam Example Illustrating The Use Of Plane Field Elements

202
Field Elements

1.8.5 Axisymmetric Field (QXF4, QXF8, TXF3, TXF6)


The axisymmetric field elements (fig.7.8-9) are formulated using the axisymmetric
quasi-harmonic equation (section 2.10) and are defined in the global XY-plane.
The gradient-field variable relationship is defined as

gX 
X

gY 
Y
The isotropic and orthotropic thermal conductivity modulus matrices are defined as
follows

Isotropic k
LMk 0OP
N0 k Q
Orthotropic
Lk 0 OP
kM
x

N0 k Q y

1.8.5.1 Element output


The element output consists of the gradients of the field variables or flows in the global
axis system at either the Gauss or nodal points, i.e.

gX, gY field gradient

q X , qY flow

The Gauss point values are generally more accurate.

203
Element Formulations

3 6
5
4 7

8 4

2
1 2 3
QXF4 1
QXF8
Y 5
1
4
6

2 2
1 3
3 TXF3 TXF6

Fig.7.8-9 Nodal Configuration For Axisymmetric Field Elements

Well

Flow

(a) Problem Definition

Point sink to
represent well

(b) Finite Element Mesh

Fig.7.8-10 Groundwater Flow Example Illustrating The Use Of Axisymmetric


Field Elements

204
Field Elements

1.8.6 Solid Field (HF8, HF16, HF20, PF6, PF12, PF15, TF4,
TF10)
The solid field elements (fig.7.8-11) are formulated using the 3-D quasi-harmonic
equation (section 2.10). The nodal degree of freedom is the field variable .
The gradient-field variable relationship is defined as

gX 
X

gY 
Y

gZ 
Z
The isotropic and orthotropic thermal conductivity modulus matrices are defined as
follows

LMk 0 0 OP
Isotropic k  M0 k 0 PP
MN0 0 k Q
LMk x 0 0 OP
Orthotropic kM0 ky 0 PP
MN 0 0 kz Q
1.8.6.1 Element output
The element output consists of the gradients of the field variables or flows in the global
axis system at either the Gauss or nodal points, i.e.
gX , gY, gZ field gradient

q X , qY , q Z flow

The Gauss point values are generally more accurate.

205
Element Formulations

15
8 16
7 14 13
5
9 12
6 4 10
11
3 7
1 6
8
5
1 4
2 HF8 2 HF16
3
19 6
20
18
17 4
13 16
14 12
15 11 5 3
9 7
8 6
5 1
10 PF6
1 4
2
3
HF20
2

11 15 14
12 10 13
7 10 11 9
8 12
9 5 6 5
6 7
4 8 4
1 1
2 PF12
2 PF15

3 3
4
10 9

7 5
3 8 6
1 4
1 2
TF4 TF10

2 3

Fig.7.8-11 Nodal Configuration For Solid Field Elements

206
Field Elements

Beryllia heat
sinks

Silicon Chips

Stainless steel
side walls

Copper Base

Fig.7.8-12 Thermal Analysis Of A Hybrid Power Assembly Illustrating Use Of Solid


Field Elements

207
Element Formulations

1.8.7 Solid Composite Field – Tetrahedral (TF4S, TF10S)


If tetrahedral elements are used for an analysis of composite structures the number of
degrees of freedom even for small laminate structures rapidly becomes very large
leading to prohibitively excessive computer costs. To overcome this difficulty layered
tetrahedral elements were developed where several laminae are included in a single
element. Composite field elements are designed to compliment the structural elements
in a thermo-mechanical analysis. For these elements the field variable (temperature) at
nodes are used to interpolate a linear (TF4S) or quadratic (TF10S) temperature field.
These elements adopt an isoparametric formulation utilizing the same shape functions
to interpolate both scalar field variable (temperature) and geometry, i.e.
n
temperature    Ni  Li  NΦ
i 1

n
geometry x   Ni  L xi
i 1

where Ni( ) is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of nodes. L =
[L1, L2, L3, L4] represent volumetric coordinates. The nodal configuration (Fig.7.8-13)
is the same as the corresponding field elements available within LUSAS. The nodal
degrees of freedom are

 at each node
The field gradient vector g is defined as


 x 
 

g     BΦ
 y 

 
 z 
The element thermal stiffness or conductivity matrix

K  K  Kc  Kr (1
in which

208
Field Elements

nply npartition
k

K   B κB dV   T
 BTκk BdV
V j 
k
V
k 1 j 1

Kc   hc NTs Ns dS
Sc

Kr   hr NTs Ns dS
Sr

where  is the principal thermal conductivity matrix, for an orthotropic material

 x 0 0 
κ   0  y 0  ,
 0 0  z 
hc and hr are the convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients respectively. V
k 
represents the whole element, nply is the number of plies in the element, npartition (=1 or

2) is the number of partitions for layer k, V j k  represents the jth partition of layer k.
The superscript (k) indicates layer k. Sc and Sr represent element boundary with
convective and radiative heat flux, respectively.
The applied flux vector

F  Q  Qcext  Qrext
in which the applied heat flow

Q   NTQdV   NTs qdS  Qcon


V Sq

where q is the imposed heat flux on element boundary Sq, Q is the rate of internal heat
generation and Qcon is the concentrated nodal heat flux. The heat flow due to
convection

Qcext   hc NTs NsΦe dS


Sc

and the heat flow due to radiation

Qrext   hr NTs NsΦe dS


Sr

where e is the temperature of the surrounding environment.

209
Element Formulations

The internal flux or internal heat flow is

R  Qint  Qcint  Qrint


in which the internal heat flow due to conduction

nply npartition
k

Qint   B qdV   B κBΦdV  


T T
 BTκk BΦdV
V j 
k
V V
k 1 j

the internal heat flow due to convection

Qcint   hc NTs NsΦdS


Sc

and the internal heat flow due to radiation

Qrint   hr NTs NsΦdS


Sr

For a linear steady state analysis, all quantities related to radiation, i.e. defined on Sr,
vanish.
For transient field analysis the specific heat matrix

nply npartition
k

C   N ρc Φ NdV  
T
 NTρk ck  Φ NdV
V j 
k
V
k 1 j

where c is the specific heat and  is the density. The specific heat matrix can be
computed using two approaches:

 considering an average value for the specific heat over layers and integrating
over the element.

 integrating the specific heat matrix for each layer using the layer specific heat.
Details for the numerical integration of element characteristic matrices and flow
vectors are the same as tetrahedral composite structure elements.

210
Field Elements

4
10 9

7 5
3 8 6
1 1 4
2

2 3

TF4S TF10S
Fig.7.8-13 Nodal Configuration For Tetrahedral Composite Field Elements

1.8.8 Solid Composite Field - Pentahedral and Hexahedral


(HF8C, HF16C, PF6C, PF12C)
If brick elements are used for a structural analysis of composites the number of degrees
of freedom even for small laminate structures rapidly becomes very large leading to
prohibitively excessive computer costs. To overcome this difficulty layered brick
elements were developed where several laminae are included in a single element.
Composite field elements are designed to compliment the structural elements in a
thermo-mechanical analysis. For these elements the field variable at a node
(temperature) is used to interpolate a temperature field that varies linearly over the
thickness of the whole element and quadratically in-plane for the higher order
elements.
As with the PN6L, PN12L, HX8L and HX16L structural elements, in order to speed up
the computation the elements are restricted to constant layer thicknesses [H13]. This
limitation requires the calculation of only a 2x2 Jacobian matrix. For the integration of
the element thermal stiffness matrix, the thermal conductivity matrices are summed
layerwise through the thickness, while the shape function derivative matrices are
integrated using a plane 2x2 (for HF8C and HF16C), or a single point (for PF6C), or a
3 corner point quadratic (for PF12C) gauss integration scheme outside the through
thickness loop. This indicates that the (in plane) shape function derivative matrix is
independent of the non-dimensional coordinate through the thickness.
The shape functions for the top and bottom surfaces of the composite elements can be
considered to be single membrane element shape functions, see figure 7.8-13. The
shape functions Ni (top)  Ni (bot )  Ni , are defined in terms of natural coordinates  and
, for the HF16C element these are given by:

Ni 
1
4
b gb gb g
1  i 1  i  i  i   1 for corner nodes

211
Element Formulations

Ni 
1
2
e jb
1  2i 2  2i  1  i  i  g for mid-side nodes

The PF12C, HF8C, and PF6C elements use the equivalent shape functions for 6, 4 and
3 noded membranes. To form the complete shape functions for the brick element Nbr ,
linear interpolation is used between the functions for the top and bottom surfaces:

NTbr 
1
2
b g b g
  1 NTiabot f ;   1 NTibtopg

The in-plane and through-thickness shape functions can then be separated to give:

NTbr  T  T

where
1 T T
T  N ;N
2 i i
1
T  NTi ; NTi
2

The scalar temperature field, , can now be interpolated as:

   T   T  lq
  H

with the field variable in terms of the nodal variables:

l
  1, 2 ,..............n q T

The field gradient vector g is defined as

gT 
RS  ,   ,   UV
T x  y  z W
The field gradient - variable relationship is given by:

g  B

212
Field Elements

where B is the field gradient - variable matrix.

LM    OP
T T

MM x  x PP
T T

BM
MM  y 2  y PPP


MMN c  PPQ T

and ‘c’ is the overall depth of the element shown in figure 7.8-13.
B can be split into two matrices combining in-plane and through thickness terms:

B  B  B
1 2

where

LM  OP T
LM OP T

MM  x PP T MMx PP
B M
MM2 y PPP
T

B M
1 2
MM 0y PPP T

MMN c  PPQ T
MN PQ
The restriction of constant layer thicknesses provides an uncoupling between the in-
plane coordinates and the through-thickness coordinate. Consequently for the
transformation of the cartesian derivatives into the natural derivatives only a 2
dimensional Jacobian matrix is required.

R|  U| LM x y OPR|  U|
S|  V|  MM x 
y
PPS x V
| |
T| W| NM   QPT| y W|
or inverted
 1  1 
 J11  J12
x  

213
Element Formulations

 1  1 
 J21  J22
y  

and an integration constant for the thickness is computed from:


c  2 
z   .
2 z c 

where c is the depth of the element see figure 7.8-13. The differential of the volume is
given by
c
dV  J dd
2

where |J| is the 2x2 Jacobian determinant.


The element thermal stiffness matrix in basic form may be defined as

K z
V
BT k B dV

where k is the principal thermal conductivity matrix for an orthotropic material.

LMk x 0 0 OP
k M0 ky 0 PP
MN 0 0 kz Q
As the matrices B1 and B2 are independent of , only k varies from layer to layer.
Therefore the field gradient - variable matrices can be left out of the integration through
the thickness:

As the matrices B1 and B2 are independent of , only k varies from layer to layer.
Therefore the strain-displacement matrices can be left out of the integration through the
thickness:

F B LM k d OPB  B LM  k d OPB I


GG N z Q N z
nlay nlay
T

Q JJ c T

K  zz
1 lay n 1 1 lay n 2
n1 n1

GG B L  k d OB  B L  k d OB JJ 2 J dd
MN z PQ MN z
 

PQ K
nlay nlay
T T

H
2
2 lay n 1 2 lay n 2
n1 n1

214
Field Elements

with B1 and B 2 as:

LM J 1  T 1 
 J12
T
OP LM J 1  T 1 
 J12
T
OP
MM 11
  PP MM 11
  PP
1  1  1  1 
T T T T

B  MJ  J PP B  MJ  J PP
1
MM 21

2 T
22

PP
2
MM 21

0T
22

PP
MMN c

PQ MMN PQ
The through thickness dependency is condensed in the integration of the thermal
conductivity matrix which makes the assembly of the element thermal stiffness matrix
more efficient. The field gradient - variable matrices only have to be computed in-
plane. This is possible by restricting the element to a reasonably uniform thickness for
a single layer.

Fig.7.8-13 Nodal Configuration For Solid Composite Field Elements

215
Element Formulations

1.9 Joint Elements


1.9.1 Joints (JNT3, JPH3, JF3, JNT4, JL43, JSH4, JL46,
JSL4, JAX3, JXS3)
Joint elements are composed of translational and rotational springs that may be used to
connect two nodes on adjacent finite elements (fig.7.9-1). The number of springs
utilised in each element type is chosen to be compatible with a corresponding finite
element type, e.g. two translational springs for plane elements or one translation and
two rotations for plate bending elements (fig.7.9-2).
The local element stiffness matrix is formulated directly from user input stiffness
coefficients and is then transformed to the global Cartesian system.
The element mass matrix is lumped and formed directly from user input masses.

1.9.1.1 Evaluation of Stresses/Forces


Element forces f are evaluated directly in the local Cartesian system from
f  ka'

where k and a are stiffness matrix and displacement vector in the local Cartesian
system.
Element strain output is evaluated in the local element system as

R| U| R| u  u U|
x 2 1
S| V|  S| v  v V|
y 2 1 translational strain
T W Tw  w W
z 2 1

R| U| R|   U|
x x2 x1
and S| V|  S|   V|
y y2 y1 rotational strain
zT W T   W
z2 z1

The element local axes are defined by


3 noded element The local x-axis is defined by a line joining the first and third
element nodes. The local y-axis forms a right handed set with the x-
axis such that the local z-axis is upwards (out of page) (fig.7.9-5).
4 noded element The local x-axis is defined by a line joining the first and third
element nodes. The local xy-plane is defined by the fourth element
node and the element x-axis. The local y and z-axes form a right
handed set with the local x-axis (fig.7.9-6).
For convenience, element output may be obtained at either nodal or Gauss points.

216
Joint Elements

1.9.1.2 Nonlinear Formulation


The joint elements may be employed in materially nonlinear analysis using the
nonlinear joint models (section 4.4).

Note. The joint element possess no geometrically nonlinear terms, however they may
be used as nonlinear support conditions in geometrically nonlinear analysis.

1 Springs

Fig.7.9-1 Springs Connecting Two Nodes In 2-D (No Rotational Stiffness)

Rotational springs
y
x
3

2
z
Translational spring

Fig.7.9-2 Joint Element For Plate Bending Elements (One Translation And Two
Rotations)

217
Element Formulations

z
y

Z x

Y
y is given zero stiffness
to allow rotation
X

Fig.7.9-3 Modelling A Hinged Connection Between Shell Elements

Fig.7.9-4 Excavation Example Illustrating Use Of Joint Elements For Nonlinear


Support Conditions

218
Joint Elements

y
Y x

3
1, 2

Fig.7.9-5 Local Cartesian System For 3-Noded Joint Elements

z y
4 x
Y

1, 2

Fig.7.9-6 Local Cartesian System For 4-Noded Joint Elements

1.9.2 Use of Joints With Higher Order Elements


To illustrate the behaviour of joints with higher order elements, consider the problem
of the beam on the elastic foundation shown in figure 7.9-7. A constant stress per unit
length q along the top face is transmitted through the beam to the elastic foundation
beneath. For equilibrium, the elastic foundation must apply an equal and opposite stress
per unit length.
The beam is modelled by a single quadratic element of length two and the elastic
foundation by three joint elements, as depicted in figure 7.9-8. For convenience, the
coordinate system is centred at the mid-node of the element. The equivalent nodal
loads are calculated using the principle of virtual work as

219
Element Formulations

z1
1
qu dx  q u1
N 2 z
1
1
2 z
LM 1 xax  1fdx  u e1  x jdx + u
1
1
2
3 z
1 2
11
a f OPQ
x x  1 dx

= q M u  u  u OP
L 1 4 1
N3 3 3 Q
1 2 3

where the virtual work of the load is calculated from the perturbation of shape
functions particular to each node. From equilibrium, the nodal loads calculated must be
identical to the nodal loads developed by the discrete joint elements connected to the
nodes on the lower surface. Note, the nodal loads are different since the virtual work
arising from the perturbation of the mid-node is larger than that of the side nodes; there
is a corresponding difference in the internal strain energy associated with each virtual
perturbation.
If the elastic foundation has a stiffness per unit length of k, then the stress per unit
length is related to k by
q = ku
For a constant deflection u along the lower face, q may be substituted in each of the
nodal equilibrium equations resulting with discrete spring stiffnesses K of (see fig.7.9-
9)
1
At node 1 and 3 K k
3
4
At node 2 K k
3

If the beam is modelled by two or more elements, then the spring stiffness at
connecting nodes must be summed (fig.7.9-10).
For non-central midside nodes, the computer program may be used to calculate the
ratio of joint stiffnesses. If the appropriate boundary nodes are restrained, and a unit
face load applied, the resulting nodal reactions will correspond to the integrated shape
functions; these are also the ratio of spring stiffnesses to be used. With a little ingenuity
a variety of spring boundary conditions can be evaluated using appropriate loading and
the program to calculate equivalent reactions.
However, it is recommended that for nonlinear contact problems, linear elements
should be used if possible as higher order elements poorly represent the discontinuities
in the boundary conditions. This may result in either poor convergence or divergence
of the solution.

220
Joint Elements

Fig.7.9-7 Beam On An Elastic Foundation

l l

q
3 5
4
2 6
y
8 x
1 7

Fig.7.9-8 Finite Element Discretisation

q/3 4q/3 q/3

y
x

k/3 4k/3 k/3

Fig.7.9-9 Discrete Joint Stiffnesses

221
Element Formulations

q/3 4q/3 q/3 q/3 4q/3 q/3

k/3 4k/3 k/3 k/3 4k/3 k/3

2k/3

Fig.7.9-10 Summation Of Joint Stiffnesses

222
Fourier Elements

1.10 Fourier Element Formulation


1.10.1 Axisymmetric Solid Elements (TAX3F, QAX4F,
TAX6F, QAX8F)
These elements may be subjected to non-axisymmetric loading (fig.7.10-1).

1.10.1.1 Global and Local Coordinate Systems


The structural mesh is specified in the global XY-plane and, together with the global Z-
coordinate, the global coordinate axes form a right-hand coordinate system. In general
the structure may be axisymmetric about either the X or Y axis, unless CBF loading is
applied, in which case the structure is restricted to be axisymmetric about the X-axis.
The element axes are defined in the cylindrical coordinate system xyz, with associated
displacements u,v,w. The tangential displacement w is positive in the direction of
increasing j, where  is the positive rotation defined by the right-hand coordinate
system about the axis of symmetry. u and v are positive in the direction of increasing x
and y respectively and may be either axial or radial displacements depending on the
definition of the axis of symmetry.

1.10.1.2 Standard Isoparametric Elements


The geometry of the body is defined using the shape functions
m m
X  b g and Y  N b, gY
Ni ,  Xi i i
i 1 i 1

where N b, g are standard linear or quadratic isoparametric element shape functions
i
for node i and m is the number of nodes. The nodal degrees of freedom of the element
are
u,v,w at each node in the cylindrical coordinate system

223
Element Formulations

3 6
5
4 7

8 4

2
1 2 3
1
QAX4F QAX8F

5
1
4
6

2 3 2
1
3 TAX3F
TAX6F

Y,V

X,U

Figure 7.10-1 Nodal Configurations For Fourier Elements

where u,v,w are given by the Fourier expansions,


m m
u  usn cos n  uan sin n
n 0 n 1

m m
v vsn cos n  van sin n
n 0 n 1

224
Fourier Elements

m m
w wsn sin n  wan cos n
n 0 n 0

n=0,1,..,m represents the range of harmonics considered and superscripts 's' and 'a'
denote the symmetric and asymmetric components. For each harmonic, the discretised
displacement is defined as
u  N' a

where a is the nodal displacement vector and for any node i


T T
ai  asi , aai  usi , vsi , wsi , uai , vai , wai

and N' is the shape function matrix defined as

LMN cos n
i 0 0 Ni sin n 0 0 OP
N'  MM 00 Ni cos n 0 0 Ni sin n 0 PP
N 0 Ni sin n 0 0 Ni cos n Q
where Ni are the standard isoparametric shape functions.

1.10.1.3 Strain-Displacement Relationships


The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationships for structures symmetric about the
global X-axis are given by
u
x 
x
v
y 
y
1 w v
 z  
Y  Y
u v
 XY  
Y X
w W 1 v
 Y   YZ   
Y Y Y 
1 u w
 X   XZ  
Y  X

1.10.1.4 Constitutive Relationships


The modulus matrix D, which for isotropic and orthotropic elasticity is defined as

225
Element Formulations

Isotropic
LMa1  f   0 O
0 PP
0 0
MM  a1  f  0 0
0 P
MM   a1  f a1 02f 0 P
E 0 P
D
a1  fa1  2f MM 0 0 0
2
a
0
1  2f
PP
MM 0 0 0 0 0 P

MMN 0 0 0
2
a1  2f PP
2 PQ
0 0

Orthotropic

LM 1 / E x yx / Ey zx / Ez 0 0 0 OP 1

MM // EE
xy x 1 / Ey
yz / Ey
zy / Ez 0 0 0 PP
DM PP
xz x 1 / Ez 0 0 0
MM 0 0 0 1 / Gxy 0 0
PP
MMN 00 0
0
0
0
0
0
1 / Gyz
0
0
1 / Gxz PQ
where for symmetry
xy yx xz zx yz zy
 ,  , 
Ex Ey Ex Ez Ey Ez

In addition to the solid material definition of the element, a plane stress material model
may also be utilised. The constitutive relationship is,

LM 1 / E x yx / Ey 0 0 0 0 OP
MM 0/ E
xy x 1 / Ey 0 0 0 0 PP
DM PP
0 0 0 0 0
MM 0 0 0 1 / Gxy 0 0
PP
MMN 00 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 PQ
The use of this material model results in a reduction of the active stresses from

x, y, z, xy, yz and xz

to

x, y and xy

226
Fourier Elements

The plane stress material option is intended to allow the modelling of fan blades for
which the use of the full modulus matrix is inappropriate. Note that elements using this
material model should be adequately restrained in the tangential w direction.
A complete description of the element formulation is given in [C1].

1.10.1.5 Element Loading


Concentrated loads, constant body forces and body force potentials are applied in the
global XYZ directions, in contrast, surface tractions, initial stresses, initial strains and
thermal loading are applied in the local xyz directions. Note that concentrated loads
(and nodal reactions) are applied as forces per unit length of the structural surface.
The resolution of the global loads into the local tangential and radial directions is
performed using the following matrices. Two possible axes of symmetry must be
considered.

(i) Axisymmetric about x-axis


From fig.7.10-2a, the global loads are related to the local loads via

LMP x1 OP LM1 0 OPLM


0 PXG OP
MMPP
y1 PP  MM00 PPMM
cos  sin  PYG PP
N z1 Q N QN
 sin  cos  PZG Q
Applying the appropriate virtual perturbations gives
For symmetric contributions

LMP x1 cos n OP LMcos n 0 0 PXG OPLM OP


MMPP
y1 cos n  PP MM 00 cos  cos n sin  cos n PYG PPMM PP
N z1 sin n Q N  sin sin n cos  sin n PZG QN Q
For asymmetric contributions

LM P sin nOP LMsin n


x1 0 0 PXG OPLM OP
MMPP cos
sin nP  M 0
y1
nPQ MN 0
cos sin n sin  sin n PYG PPMM PP
N z1 sin  cos n  cos  cos n PZG QN Q
(ii) Axisymmetric about y-axis
From fig.7.10-2b, the global loads are related to the local loads via

LMP x1 OP LM cos 0  sin  PXGOPLM OP


MMPP
y1 PP  MMsin0  1 0 PYG PPMM PP
N z1 Q N 0  cos  PZG QN Q
Applying the appropriate virtual perturbations gives

227
Element Formulations

For symmetric contributions

LMP x1 cos n OP LM coscos n 0 OPLM


 sin  cos n PXG OP
MMPP
y1 cos nP  M 0
sin n PQ MN sin  sin n
cos n 0 PPMM
PYG PP
N z1 0 QN
 cos  sin n PZG Q
For asymmetric contributions

LM P sin nOP LMcossin n


x1 0 OPLM
 sin sin n PXG OP
MMPP cos
sin nP  M
y1
P M
0 sin n 0 PPMM
PYG PP
N z1 nQ N sin  cos n 0 QN
cos  cos n PZG Q
For dynamic and harmonic response analyses where the automatic evaluation of
Fourier loads is not available, the global loads for the 'nth' harmonic must be converted
to local loads using the above expressions.

228
Fourier Elements

Pz
PZ
Py

PY


x Y

(a) Axi-symmetric about the global X-axis

Pz

Px

PX


Y PZ X

(b) Axi-symmetric about the global Y-axis

Fig 7.10-2 Local And Global Loads

1.10.1.6 Inertial Loading


The inertial loading due to angular accelerations and rotations require explicit
evaluation and are directly applied to the element.

229
Element Formulations

Assuming an arbitrary origin for the XYZ coordinate system (as shown in fig.7.10-3),
about which the angular accelerations and velocities are to be applied, results in the
following definition for the displacement vector r

d i d i d
r  X  x i  Y  r cos j  Z  r sin  k i
where X, Y, Z define the shift in the global coordinate system.

1.10.1.7 Definition of the acceleration vector


The instantaneous acceleration of a particle in a rotating coordinate system

r(X, Y, Z) with respect to a fixed system r' (X' , Y' , Z' ) is [S4]

b g
r'  r  2xr  x xr  xr

where a dot signifies the derivative with respect to time and the vectors
  X i  Y j  z k   X i  Y j  z k

are the angular velocities and accelerations about the r'(X', Y', Z') axes and
  
r  Xi  Yj  Zk

are the linear accelerations in the global X', Y' and Z' directions. Substituting for r gives
the accelerations with respect to the fixed system, X', Y' and Z'. To apply the resulting
inertial forces in the cylindrical coordinate system, the accelerations are resolved
(fig.7.10-4)
x  x'
yL  y' cos   z' sin 
zL  y' sin   z' cos 

230
Fourier Elements

zl
Z
yl


x y

Figure 7.10-3 Definition Of Rotation Axes Origin

 Z,Z
z

x r

x y

Z
o

 X,X
 Y,Y
Y
X
X Y

Figure 7.10-4 Resolution Of Global To Local Accelerations

231
Element Formulations

which gives the following acceleration terms in cylindrical coordinates


r'  c1  c2 cos  c3 sin   c4 cos 2  c5 sin 2

where

LMx  e   jdX  xi  b    gY  b    gZOP


2
Y
2
Z X Y Z X Z Y

c  MM  F     2e   j I r PP
1 2
2H K
2 2

MM PP
1 Y Z X

N e   jrX Q
LM e e  2 j   jr
Y X Z
OP
c  MMY  b    gdX  xi  e   jY  b    gZPP
 2 2

MMZ  b    gdX  xi  b    gY  e   jZPP


2 X Y Z X Z Y Z X
2 2
N X Z Y Y Z X
Q X Y

LM e e  2 j   jr
Z X Y
OP
c  MM Z  b    gdX  xi  b    gY  e   jZ PP
 2 2

MMY  b    gdX  xi  e   jY  b    gZPP


3 X Z Y Y Z X X Y
2 2
N X Y Z X Z
Q
Y Z X

L 0 O
c  r MM   PP
1 2 2

MN 2  PQ
4 Y Z
2
Y Z

1 M
L 0 OP
c  r M 2  P
MN   PQ
5 Y Z
2 2 2
Z Y

Using d'Alembert's principle, the inertia force may be included as part of the load
vector

Rb  ze j e
v
N'
T
f  j
x dv

 Rb(f )  Rb(a)

where Rb(f ) is the element nodal and body forces and Rb(a ) is the inertial force vector
which includes the effects of angular velocities and accelerations

Rb(a)   zzzbg
1 1 2
1 1 0
N'  
T
x Y J d d

232
Fourier Elements

1.10.1.8 Centripetal load stiffening


Centripetal load stiffening has been applied to the n = 0 term, but there is no nonlinear
stress stiffening contribution. The centripetal load stiffening matrix, contrary, to its
name, actually decreases the stiffness of the structure. Centripetal forces are
proportional to the angular rotation squared and the lever arm of the mass from the
centre of rotation. As the body spins, the lever arm is lengthened by positive
displacements, which increases the applied load. This may, conversely, be thought of
as reducing the stiffness. The centripetal load stiffness is applied by default, but it may
be omitted by setting OPTION 102.

1.10.1.9 Evaluation of Stresses


The stresses are evaluated at the element Gauss points and are extrapolated to the nodal
points. The output consists of
 Stress Output
x, y, z, xy, yz, xz direct and shear stresses

 Strain Output
x, y, z,  xy,  yz,  xz direct and shear strains

where x , y are the coefficients of the Fourier series expansion of the stresses and
strains. The principal stresses and strains are evaluated at  = 0 only.

233
Element Formulations

1.11 Interface Elements


1.11.1 Interface elements (IPN4, IAX4, IPN6, IAX6, IS6,
IS8, IS12, IS16)
1.11.1.1 Definition and interpolation
Interface elements are used to model composite delamination in an incremental non-
linear analysis. They may be inserted at planes of potential delamination to model
inter-laminar failure, and crack initiation and propagation. Two-dimensional and
axisymmetric variants are available (IPN4, IAX4, IPN6, IAX6) along with elements
that may be used in a three-dimensional analysis (IS6, IS8, IS12, IS16). These elements
have no geometric properties and are assumed to have no thickness (see Fig. 7.11-1).

Fig.7.11-1 Topology for Interface Elements

234
Hygro-Thermal Elements

The displacement field u for these elements contains the bottom displacement ub and
the top displacement u t (number of components in ub and u t is two for the 2D
elements and three for the 3D elements) so that uT  uTb uTt . The bottom and the top
displacements are interpolated as
ub  Hp and ut  Hp
b t

where p and p are the vectors of the bottom and the top nodal displacements. H is a
b t
matrix of shape functions, which for 2D and 3D takes the form

Lh OP LMh T 0T 0T OP
HM
T 0T
2D: 3D: H  M0 T h T 0T PP
MN0 T hT PQ MN0 T 0T h T Q
where the ith component in vector h is the value of the ith shape function at a particular
point. The actual constitution of the interface element is defined in terms of the relative
displacements between the bottom and the top surfaces

  ut  ub  B
R|Sp U|V  Bp
b
|Tp |W
t

where p is the vector of the nodal displacements.

Examples of the form of the matrix B for IPN6 and IS16 are shown below:

B
LMh T hT 0T 0T OP
for IPN6 and
MN 0 T 0T hT hT PQ
LMh T h T 0T 0T 0T 0T OP
B M 0 T 0T hT hT 0T 0T for IS16. PP
MN 0
T 0 T 0T 0T  h T h T Q

1.11.1.2 Internal force vector and stiffness matrix


The element equilibrium equation in a vector form is given as
gPR0

where R is the vector of applied loading and P is the vector of nodal internal forces.
The vector of nodal internal forces can be written in a standard form as

235
Element Formulations

z
P  B dA
A
T

where the integration domain A is a line for the 2D elements and an area for the 3D
elements. For a given arbitrary constitutive relationship (note that  is a relative
displacement between the element’s surfaces rather than a strain measure)

  bg
where  is a stress vector, the stiffness matrix in a geometrically linear analysis
follows as

z T
K  B D BdA
A
t

i
where D is a tangent constitutive matrix, which follows from Dt,ij  for a given
t  j
material model. In order to eliminate spurious oscillations of the stress field along the
element [H13], the internal force vector and the stiffness matrix are integrated using a
Newton-Cotes integration rule rather than a reduced or full Gauss integration rule. The
interface elements can only currently be used with the delamination interface (non-
linear material model 25).

1.12 Hygro-Thermal Elements


1.12.1 Plane (QHT4, QHT8, THT3, THT6)
1.12.2 Axisymetric (QXHT4, QXHT8, TXHT3, TXHT6)
1.12.3 Solid (HHT20, HHT16, HHT8, PHT15, PHT12, THT10,
THT4)

In a hygro-thermal analysis the model can be meshed with hygro-thermal elements only,
with the exception of thermal bars, which can be included.
Hygro impervious parts, where only heat transfer occurs, can be modelled with hygro-
thermal elements and isotropic thermal material properties. The ‘hygro’ properties will be
internally assigned appropriate values.
Thermal bar elements can be used to represent steel reinforcement in concrete. They must
connect nodes which already belong to hygro-thermal elements.
The finite element discretization of the governing partial differential equations in Section
2.17 results in the following system of ordinary differential equations

236
Hygro-Thermal Elements

 C11 C12   T   K11 K12   T   F1 


        
C21 C22  Pc  K21 K22  Pc  F2 

where
Cij  NC


ˆ NTd
ij


ˆ NTd
Kij  NK

ij

F1  
env

NT,env  Tenv  T  d  NQd 

F2    
Nv,env v,env  iv1 d
env
and

Ĉij  terms in the 22 hygro-thermal material capacity matrix

K̂ij  terms in the 22 hygro-thermal material conductivity matrix

Q  rate of internal heat generation (e.g. heat of hydration)

T,env , v,env  boundary convection heat and water vapour transfer coefficients

Tenv , v,env  environmental temperature and water vapour content

Boundary fluxes and internal water and water vapour generation are omitted for
simplicity of presentation.
The difference between Plane, Axisymmetric and Solid hygro-thermal elements is in
the domain of integration – element volume  , and element boundary with the
specified boundary condition env . All elements are numerically integrated using the
fine integration scheme.
The hygro-thermal analysis of a concrete structure starting from casting can provide
results for the evolution of temperature and water saturation due to the hydration of
concrete and the drying through the exposed boundary surfaces. These results can be
used in a coupled analysis in which thermal and shrinkage strains, and possible
concrete cracking, will be calculated. The computed damaged material properties can
be used in a subsequent structural analysis to provide more realistic modelling.
One half of a concrete beam, modelled by plane hygrothermal elements QHT4, with
steel reinforcement modelled by thermal bar elements BFD2 is presented in Fig. 7.12.1.

237
Element Formulations

Fig.7.12-1 Plane hygro-thermal concrete model with reinforcement

A solid model of a similar beam (1/8 modelled) is presented in Fig. 7.12.-2

Fig.7.12-2 Solid hygro-thermal concrete model with reinforcement

1.12.3.1 Element output


The element output consists of the following data computed at the Gauss points:

 Gradients along the global coordinate axes

GX; GY; GZ Temperature gradients, (*) T

dPc / dX; dPc/dY; dPc/dZ Capillary pressure gradients, Pc

dSw / dX; dSw/dY; dSw/dZ Water saturation gradients, Sw

dPv / dX; dPv/dY; dPv/dZ Water vapour gradients, Pv

 Fluxes along the global coordinate axes

238
Hygro-Thermal Elements

qX; qY; qZ Thermal fluxes, JT  kT T

Jw,X; Jw,Y; Jw,Z Water fluxes, Jw  wvw

 Other

Sw Liquid water saturation, Sw  Sw  Pc 

ROwC Liquid water content, w  nSw w


Pc

w RvT
Pv Water vapour pressure, Pv  Psat (T )e

DH Degree of hydration, 
TEFH Effective time of hydration

POR Porosity, n  n  

TC Thermal conductivity, kT

KI Krw
PMw Water permeability [m/s], Kw*  w g
w

Hr Relative humidity, hr  Pv / Psat

(*) Notation defined in Theory Manual Volume 1, Section 2.17.

239
Element Formulations

240
Appendix A

Appendix A
Quadrature Rules
The locations and weights of the quadrature points used in integrating the element
matrices are listed in table A-1 to table A-7 and are shown in fig.A-1 to fig.A-7.

ORDER LOCATION i WEIGHT WI

1 0.0000000000 2.0000000000
2  0.5773502692 1.0000000000
3  0.7745966692 0.5555555555
0.00000000000 0.8888888888
4  0.8611363116 0.3478548454
 0.3399810436 0.6521451549

TABLE A-1 SAMPLING POINTS AND WEIGHTS FOR BARS,


BEAMS,QUADRILATERAL 2-D SOLIDS, PLATES, SHELLS AND 3-D
HEXAHEDRA AND PENTAHEDRA

RULE LOCATION WEIGHT

 

5 point  0.592348877  0.592348877 0.95000000


0.000000000 0.000000000 0.20000000

TABLE A-2 SAMPLING POINTS AND WEIGHTS FOR 5-POINT RULE FOR 2-D
QUADRILATERALS AND SHELLS

241
Element Formulations

RULE LOCATION WEIGHT

A1 A2 A3

1-point 0.3333333333 0.3333333333 0.3333333333 1.0000000000


3-point 0.5000000000 0.0000000000 0.0000000000 0.3333333333
4-point 0.3333333333 0.3333333333 0.3333333333 -0.5625000000
0.6000000000 0.2000000000 0.2000000000 0.5208333333
7-point 0.3333333333 0.3333333333 0.3333333333 0.2250000000
0.0597158717 0.4701420641 0.4701420641 0.1323941527
0.7974269853 0.1012865073 0.1012865073 0.1259391805

TABLE A-3 SAMPLING POINTS AND WEIGHTS FOR TRIANGULAR 2-D


SOLIDS, PLATES, SHELLS AND 3-D PENTAHEDRA

RULE LOCATION WEIGHT

A1 A2 A3

3-Point 1.0000000000 0.0000000000 0.0000000000 0.3333333333

TABLE A-4 SAMPLING POINTS AND WEIGHTS FOR TRIANGULAR


SEMILOOF SHELL

RULE LOCATION WEIGHT

V1 V2 V3 V4

1-Point 0.25000000 0.25000000 0.25000000 0.25000000 1.00000000


2-Point 0.58541020 0.13819660 0.13819660 0.13819660 0.25000000
3-Point 0.50000000 0.50000000 0.00000000 0.00000000 0.16666666

TABLE A-5 SAMPLING POINTS AND WEIGHTS FOR 3-D TETRAHEDRA

242
Appendix A

RULE LOCATION WEIGHT

i i i

13-Point 0.00000000 0.00000000 0.00000000 1.684210565


 0.88030430  -0.49584802  -0.49584802 0.54498736
 0.79562143  0.79562143  0.025293237 0.507644216
14-Point  0.795822426 0.000000000 0.000000000 0.355555556
-0.758786911 -0.758786911 -0.758786911 0.335180055
0.758786911 -0.758786911 -0.758786911 0.335180055
0.758786911 0.758786911 -0.758786911 0.335180055
0.758786911 0.758786911 0.758786911 0.335180055

TABLE A-6 - SAMPLING POINTS AND WEIGHTS FOR SPECIAL RULES FOR
3-D SOLIDS

RULE LOCATION WEIGHT

1-Point 0.000000000 2.000000000


2-Point  1.000000000 1.000000000
3-Point  1.000000000 0.166666667
0.000000000 1.333333333
4-Point  1.000000000 0.250000000
 0.333333333 0.750000000
5-Point  1.000000000 0.155555556
 0.500000000 0.711111111
0.000000000 0.266666667

TABLE A-7 - SAMPLING POINTS AND LOCATIONS FOR NEWTON-COTES


RULES

243
Element Formulations

1
1 2

(a) 1-Point Rule

1 1 2 2

(b) 2-Point Rule

1 1 2 3 2

(c) 3-Point Rule

1 1 2 3 4 2

(d) 4-Point Rule

FIG.A-1 GAUSS QUADRATURE RULES FOR BAR, BEAM AND


AXISYMMETRIC SHELL ELEMENTS

244
Appendix A

FIG.A-2 GAUSS QUADRATURE RULES FOR QUADRILATERAL 2-D


CONTINUUM, PLATE AND SHELL ELEMENTS

245
Element Formulations

3 3

3 1

1 2 2 2
1
(a) 1-Point Rule (b) 3-Point Rule

3 3

1
5
7 4
4
3 2 3 1
6

1 2 1 2
(a) 4-Point Rule (b) 7-Point Rule

FIG.A-3 GAUSS QUADRATURE RULES FOR TRIANGULAR 2-D CONTINUUM,


PLATE AND SHELL ELEMENTS

1 2

1 2

FIG.A-4 SPECIAL 3-POINT RULE FOR TRIANGULAR SEMILOOF SHELL


ELEMENT

246
Appendix A

1 3

2
(a) 1-Point Rule

4 2
1 3
1

2
(b) 4-Point Rule

6 2
3

5
3
1
4 1

2
(c) 6-Point Rule

FIG.A-5 GAUSS QUADRATURE RULES FOR SOLID TETRAHEDRA


ELEMENTS

247
Element Formulations

8 7
5

8 7

3 4 5
6
5 4
5 6
6

4 3
3
2 1
1 2
3

1 2 1 2

(a) 3*2 Rule (b) 2*2*2 Rule

8 7 8 7

16 17 25 26 27
18
5 13 14 15 5
6 19 6 18
10 11 12

7 8 9
10 11 12 9
3 3
4 5 6
4 5 6
1 2 3
1 2
3
1 2 1 2

(c) 3*3*2 Rule (d) 3*3*3 Rule

FIG.A-6 QUADRATURE RULES FOR SOLID PENTAHEDRA AND


HEXAHEDRA ELEMENTS

248
Appendix A

(a) 1-Point Rule

1 2

(b) 2-Point Rule

1 2 3

(c) 3-Point Rule

1 2 3 4

(d) 4-Point Rule

(e) 5-Point Rule

FIG.A-7 NEWTON-COTES RULES

249
Element Formulations

250
Appendix B

Appendix B
Restrictions On Element Topology
Mid-Length and Mid-Side Nodes
The mid-length and mid-side nodes of elements should be equidistant from the two end
nodes, and the element curvature must satisfy the following requirements
(i) |a - b|/(a + b) < 0.05
(ii) (a + b)/c < 1.02
where a, b and c are defined in fig.B-1.

a c

Fig.B-1 DEFINITION OF PARAMETERS FOR CURVATURE LIMITS

Warping of Flat Elements


The four nodes defining a flat quadrilateral element in 3-D should be coplanar.
However, a small amount of warping is permitted provided that
z < 0.01 a
where z is the distance of the out of plane node from the plane
and a is the length of the side between the first and second nodes.

251
Element Formulations

252
Appendix C

Appendix C
Section Property Calculation for Tapered Sections
Interpolation options
The engineering properties at locations along a tapering beam are calculated in
different ways according to section type and the interpolation method that is either
permitted by the software or selected by a user. Two methods are available: Enhanced
and Linear.

Enhanced section property calculation


Enhanced interpolation uses proprietary LUSAS equations to calculate best-estimate
cross-section properties for locations along a beam from the cross-sectional area (A)
and Moment of Interial (I) values of the sections defined at each beam end.
The best areas (including shear areas) at mid span are computed from

1  1 
 
2
 1
Am   A1  A2 )    A1  A2 
2  2  2 

and the moments of inertia and torsion constant at mid span are computed from
2
1  I I 
Im  Am   1  2 
2 
  1A A 
2 

Note. Ixy which may be –ve so abs values should be used and the result should be
multiplied by the sign of Ixy1.

Linear section property calculation


Linear interpolation calculates cross-section properties for locations along the beam by
linearly interpolating the cross-sectional area (A) and Moment of Inertia (I) values of
the sections defined at each beam end. This method has generally known limitations for
particular section types.

253
Element Formulations

Usage of Values
For beams defined using arbitrary sections of the same section shape at each beam end
the standard LUSAS section property calculator is used to calculate the values of A,
Iyy, Izz and Iyz. By default the enhanced interpolation method is used to calculate the
values of J, Asy and Asz, but the linear interpolation method is also available.
For beams defined using arbitrary sections with different section shapes at each beam
end, by default the Enhanced method is used to calculate all values but the linear
interpolation method is also available.

254
References

2 References
Contact support@lusas.com for details of all references stated in this manual.

255
References

256

You might also like