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Table of Contents
1 Element Formulations ................................................................................... 1
1.1 Bar Elements ............................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 BAR2, BAR3, BRS2, BRS3 ................................................................ 1
1.2 Beam Elements ......................................................................................... 7
1.2.1 2-D Straight Beam (BEAM) .............................................................. 10
1.2.2 2-D Straight Grillage (GRIL) ............................................................. 12
1.2.3 3-D Straight Beam (BMS3) ............................................................... 14
1.2.4 2-D Curved Thin Beam (BM3, BMX3) .............................................. 18
1.2.5 3-D Curved Thin Beam (BS3, BS4, BSX4)....................................... 26
1.2.6 Semiloof Thin Beam (BSL3, BSL4, BXL4) ....................................... 34
1.2.7 3-D Straight Beam (BTS3) ................................................................ 41
1.2.8 3-D Isoparametric Thick Beam (BMI21/BMX21, BMI31/BMX31,
BMI22/BMX22, BMI33/BMX33) ................................................................. 51
1.3 Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements .................................................. 59
1.3.1 Standard Isoparametric Elements .................................................... 59
1.3.2 2D Crack Tip Elements (QPK8, TPK6, QNK8, TNK6, QXK8, TXK6)
................................................................................................................... 70
1.3.3 Enhanced Strain Elements (QPM4M, QPN4M, QAX4M) ................. 71
1.3.4 Incompatible Plane Membrane Element (PMI4) ............................... 78
1.3.5 2D Explicit Dynamics Elements ........................................................ 81
1.3.6 Two Phase Plane Strain and Axisymmetric Continuum Elements
(TPN6P, QPN8P, TAX6P and QAX8P) ..................................................... 92
1.3.7 Large-strain Mixed-type Elements (QPN4L, QAX4L) ....................... 95
1.4 Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements ............................................. 100
1.4.1 Standard Isoparametric Elements (HX8, HX16, HX20, PN6, PN12,
PN15, TH4, TH10) ................................................................................... 100
1.4.2 3D Crack Tip Elements (TH10K, PN15K, HX20K) ......................... 106
1.4.3 Enhanced Strain Element (HX8M) ................................................. 110
1.4.4 3D Explicit Dynamics Elements (HX8E, PN6E, TH4E) .................. 114
1.4.5 Composite Solid Elements – Tetrahedral (TH4S, TH10S) ............. 121
1.4.6 Composite Solid Elements - Pentahedral and Hexahedral
(HX8L,HX16L,PN6L PN12L) ................................................................... 128
1.4.7 Two Phase 3D Continuum Elements (TH10P, PN12P, PN15P,
HX16P and HX20P) ................................................................................. 133
1.5 Space Membrane Elements .................................................................. 136
1.5.1 Axisymmetric Membrane (BXM2, BXM3) ....................................... 136
1.5.2 3-D Space Membrane (SMI4, TSM3) ............................................. 141
1.6 Plate Elements ...................................................................................... 143
1.6.1 Isoflex Thin Plate (QF4, QF8, TF3, TF6) ........................................ 143
1.6.2 Isoflex Thick Plate (QSC4) ............................................................. 150
1.6.3 Isoparametric Thick Mindlin Plate (QTF8, TTF6) ........................... 153
1.7 Shell Elements ...................................................................................... 158
i
Table of Contents
ii
Notation
Notation
Standard matrix notation is used whenever possible throughout this manual and the
expressions are defined as follows:
Basic Expressions
Vector
| |
Determinant of a matrix
|| ||
Norm of a vector
bg
tr Trace of a matrix
bg T
Transpose of a vector of matrix
bg 1
Inverse of a matrix
db g Variation
b g Virtual variation
ch
Rate
b g Increment
b g Summation
iii
Notation
ch
Variables defined in local axes
Subscripts
cr Critical value
g Ground displacements, velocities and accelerations
g Gasous mixture (air+water vapour)
h Hydration
i Component i
max Maximum value
n Normal component in slideline analyses
o Initial components (initial strains)
t Thermal components (thermal strains)
T Temperature, thermal
v Water vapour
w Liquid water
x Tangential component in slideline analyses
x,y,z Components in the local x,y,z Cartesian system
X,Y,Z Components in the global X,Y,Z Cartesian system
Z Zienkiewicz constants
,x Differentiation with respect to x (or other variable)
Superscripts
i Iteration I
l Local quantities (co-rotational for continuum elements)
t Values at time t
iv
Notation
Scalars
aR Rayleigh damping coefficient (multiplies mass matrix M)
B Bulk modulus
C0 neo-Hookean constant
C1 , C2 Mooney-Rivlin constants
c Cohesion in friction based material models
c Wave speed
E Young’s Modulus
F Yield surface
g Initial gap for nonlinear joint models
G Shear Modulus
v
Notation
k Bulk modulus
kT Thermal conductivity
K Thermal conductivity
KI Intrinsic permeability
Kw Relative water permeability
l Length of local contact segment
m Water mass
M Moment
n Porosity
N Stress resultant
p Number of required eigenvalues
P Participation factor in spectral response analysis
P Axial force
P Pressure; Partial pressure for a gas component
Pc Capillary pressure
Psat Water saturation pressure
q Field variable flux in field analysis
q Number of starting iteration vectors for subspace iteration
Q Rate of internal heat generation in field analysis
Qh Heat of hydration
Q1,Q2 Constants for shock wave smoothing
vi
Notation
u Axial stretch
V Element volume
w Crack width in concrete model
W Work
X Normal penetration distance
vii
Notation
1
Root mean square of residuals convergence criterion
2
Maximum absolute residual convergence criterion
Degree of hydration
e Lode’s Angle
e Angle between old and new displacement vector in arch-length
method
e Angle of orthotropy
e Angle defining crack directions in concrete model
Load factor
i Eigenvalue (ith)
i Principal stretches
Friction coefficient
w Viscosity of water
p , p Ogden constants
Poisson’s ratio
viii
Notation
Mass density
Effective stress
Potential energy
Vectors
a Nodal displacement vector
g Gravity acceleration
J Flux
ix
Notation
q~ Euler parameters
v velocity
Pseudovector of rotation
i ,i Eigenvector
x
Notation
B Strain-displacement matrix
K Stiffness matrix
M Mass matrix
xi
Notation
R Rotation tensor
Matrix of eigenvalues
Density matrix
Matrix of eigenvectors
xii
Notation
xiii
Bar Elements
1 Element
Formulations
This section of the Theory Manual covers the basic theoretical assumptions made for
each element formulation. Appropriate references are included when full details of the
element derivation are not provided.
1
Element Formulations
The forces and strains are output in the local element coordinate system defined by
BAR2 and BAR3 elements
The element local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the
element nodes are specified (fig.7.1-3). The local y and z axes form a right-hand set
with the x-axis such that the y-axis lies in the global XY-plane and the z-axis is parallel
to the global Z-axis (up out of page).
BRS2 and BRS3 elements
The local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes
are specified (for a curved element it is tangent to the curve at the point concerned).
For a curved element the local xy-plane is defined by the element nodes (fig.7.1-4).
Local y is perpendicular to local x and +ve on the convex side of the element.
For a straight element parallel to the global x-axis, the local z-axis is defined by the
unit vector z = j x x where j is a unit vector defining the Global Y-axis and x is a unit
vector defining the local x-axis (fig.7.1-4).
For a straight element not parallel to the global x-axis, the local z-axis is defined by
the unit vector z = i x x where i is a unit vector defining the global X-axis (fig.7.1-4).
The local y-axis forms a right-hand set with the local x and z-axes for all three cases.
2
Bar Elements
x
LM OP
u 1 u
2
LM OP
1 v
2
N Q
x 2 x N Q
2 x
x
LM OP
u 1 u
2
LM OP
1 v
2
LM OP
1 w
2
N Q
x 2 x N Q
2 x N Q
2 x
3
Element Formulations
V
Y
V
BAR2 2
U U
V
3
V
U
U 2
1
V BAR3
1 U
X
Y V
U
BRS2 2 V
W
V
V 3 U
U
W
1
2 U BRS3
W V
W
U X
1
W
Z
4
Bar Elements
Continuum elements
2
Y y
x
y
x
y x 3
1
2
x
y
1 X
Fig 7.1-3 Local Cartesian System For BAR2 And BAR3 Elements
5
Element Formulations
Y
x-y plane
y
y x x
3
z
x z 2
y
1
z X
Z
(a) Curved Element
z
z
x x
1 2
y
y
Y y
x
2
z
y
x
1
z X
Fig. 7.1-4 Local Cartesian System For BRS2 And BRS3 Elements
6
Beam Elements
FT Px1, Py1, Pz1, Mx1, My1, Mz1, Px2, Py2, Pz2, Mx2, My2, Mz2
aT u1, v1, w1, x1, y1, z1, u2, v2, w2, x2, y2, z2
K
LMK 11
K
21
OP
MNK12
K
22 PQ
where submatrices are defined:
LM EA OP
Symmetric
MM L0 12EIz PP
MM d
L3 1 y i PP
MM 0 12EI y
PP
M
0
b
L 1 z
3
g PP
K
11 MM 0 0 0
GJ
PP
MM 0 6EI y
L
b4 gEI
z y
PP
b g Lb1 g
0 0
MM L 1 z
2
d4 iEI PP
z
MM 0 6EIz y z
d i Ld1 i P
0 0 0
N L2 1 y y Q
7
Element Formulations
LM EA OP
Symmetric
MM L0 12EIz PP
MM L 1 y
3
d i PP
MM 0 12EIy
PP
M
0
b
L 1 z
3
g PP
K
22 MM 0 0 0
GJ
PP
MM 0 6EI y
L
b4 gEI
z y
PP
b g Lb1 g
0 0
MM L 1 z
2
d4 iEI PP
z
MM 0 6EIz y z
d i Ld1 i P
0 0 0
N L2 1 y
Q y
LM EA 0 0 0 0 OP 0
MM L0 12EI z 6EI PP z
MM L d1 i
0
3
y
0 0
L d1 i P
PP
2
y
MM 0 0
12EI
L b1 g 3
y
0
6EI
L b1 g
2
y
0
PP
M
z z
K KT
12 21 MM 0 0 0
GJ
0 0 PP
MM 0 6EI y
L
b2 gEI
z y PP
b1 g Lb1 g
0 0 0
MM L 2
P
2 iEI P
z z
MM 0 6EI d P y z
Ld1 i P
z
L d1 i
0 0 0
N 2
y Q y
and where
12EIz 12EIy
y and z
GAsy L2 GAsz L2
Asy and Asz are the cross-sectional areas effective in shear about the respective
bending axis.
Element mass matrix
M AL
LMM 11
M
21
OP
MNM 12
M
22 PQ
where submatrices are defined
8
Beam Elements
LM 1 SymmetricOP
MM 03 13
6Iz PP
MM 35 5AL2
13 6Iy
PP
M
M0 0
35 5AL2 PP
M
11 MM 0 0 0
Jx
PP
MM 0 0
11L
Iy
3A
0
L2 2I y
PP
MM 11L I
210 10AL 105 15A
L2
2I P
P
MN 0 z
210 10AL
0 0 0
105 15A PQ
z
LM 1 SymmetricOP
MM 03 13
6Iz PP
MM 35 5AL2
13 6I y
PP
M
M0 0
35 5AL2 PP
M
22 MM 0 0 0
Jx
PP
MM 0 0
11L
Iy
3A
0
L2 2I y
PP
MM 11L I
210 10AL 105 15A
L2
2I P
P
MN 0 z
210 10AL
0 0 0
105 15A PQ
z
LM 1 0 0 0 0 OP
0
MM 60 9
6Iz 13L
I P
P z
MM 70 5AL2
0
6I y
0 0
Iy
420 10AL P
PP
M MT
MM 0 0
9
70 5AL2
0
13L
420 10AL
0
PP
21 12 MM 0 0 0
Jx
0 0
PP
MM 0 0
13L
Iy
6A
0
L2
Iy
0 PP
MM 13L I
420 10AL 140 30A
L 2
I P
MN 0 z
420 10AL
0 0 0
140 30A PQ
z
The lumped mass matrix contains terms only the following terms,
a f
,
M 11
AL
2
a f
M 2,2
AL
2
a f
M 3,3
AL
2
IyL
a f
M 4,4
JxL
2
a f
M 5,5
2
a f
M 6,6
IzL
2
9
Element Formulations
Fx , Fy and Mz - +ve forces and moments are in the directions of the positive local
Cartesian system.
The forces are output in the local Cartesian system which is defined as having its local
x-axis along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are specified.
The local y and z-axes form a right-hand set with the x-axis, such that the y-axis lies in
the global XY plane, and the z-axis is parallel to the global Z-axis (up out of page)
(fig.7.2.1-3).
The nodal forces F are evaluated directly using
F Ka
10
Beam Elements
Y
V
z U
V 2
z
U
1
Load
Load
y
x 2
11
Element Formulations
The displacement variations along the length of the beam are linear axial, linear
rotation and cubic transverse displacements. The stress resultant variations are constant
axial, and linear moment and linear shear.
The nodal forces due to the thermal strains are assumed to be constant within each
element, and are evaluated explicitly using
My EIyy LM T OP e
N dz Q
where (T dz)e is the average element value.
Fz , Mx and M y +ve forces and moments are in the directions of the positive local
Cartesian system.
The forces are output in the local Cartesian system which is defined as having its local
x-axis along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are specified.
The local y and z-axes form a right-hand set with the x-axis, such that the y-axis lies in
the global XY plane, and the z-axis is parallel to the global Z-axis (up out of page)
(fig.7.2.2-3).
The nodal forces F are evaluated directly using
F Ka
12
Beam Elements
y
y x
w
w 1
x X
Z
Y
X
Point
Load
X
Problem Defintion Finite Element Mesh
13
Element Formulations
y
x 2
The displacement variations along the length of the beam are linear axial, linear
rotation and cubic transverse displacements. The stress resultant variations are constant
axial, constant torsion, quadratic moment and linear shear.
The nodal forces due to the thermal strains are assumed to be constant within each
element, and are evaluated explicitly using
R| U|
R| F U| || EAaLTTfO ||
e
x e
S|M V| S|EI MN dz PQ V|
y yy
TM W | L T O |
z e
||TEI MN dy PQ ||W
zz
14
Beam Elements
The local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes
are specified. The local xy-plane is defined by the third element node and the element
x-axis. The local y and z-axes form a right-hand set with the local x-axis (fig.7.2.4-3).
The nodal forces F are evaluated directly using
F Ka
Y
Y
V
2
Y X
W Z
U
1 X
W Z
X
15
Element Formulations
3
Y
y
x 2
z 1
16
Beam Elements
17
Element Formulations
2v
z
x2
The elastic rigidity (resultant modulus) and modulus matrices are defined as
Explicit
LM
EA EIz OP
D
N
EIz EIzz Q
Numerically Integrated D z LMNh
Eb Eyb
Eyb Ey2b
OP
dy
Q
The thermal strain vector is defined as
18
Beam Elements
R| T U|
e j |S| daTf |V
|T dy LMN T ddT OPQ||W
0 t
Three options for interpreting the forces and moments within an element are available
The axial force and moment are computed at the two Gauss points using
numerical integration. The true nodal moments for a beam element between
supports is then obtained by adding the fixed end moments to the end node
values, and the sagging moment to the mid-node value (fig.7.2.4-7). This is the
default technique and must be used for nonlinear analyses.
The axial force and moment are computed at the two end nodes by using
Fend TT Ka
where T is the global-local transformation matrix. The values at the centre point
are then interpolated from these end values and the values at the Gauss points
assuming a cubic variation (fig.7.2.4-7). This method can only be used for linear
analyses and is invoked via OPTION 136.
19
Element Formulations
This method is similar to (b) except that the stress resultants at the centre node
are also computed by considering equilibrium and is invoked via OPTION 137.
x
LM OP
u 1 u
2
LM OP
1 v
2
N Q
x 2 x N Q
2 x
20
Beam Elements
V V
Z Z
U U
3 3
V
U
Z
U
2 2
V Y V
Y
Z Z
U U
1 1
X X
Quadrature Points
Quadrature points
coincide with
frame joints
21
Element Formulations
2 3
1 4
Element 1 or
2 3
Quadrilateral 1
1 2 3 4
Element 2 or Z
Quadrilateral 2
2 1 4 3
Element 3 or
Quadrilateral 3
1 4
22
Beam Elements
Y Y
Z Z
Y
y
x
y x
3
2
x
y
23
Element Formulations
UDL
Support
Mid-point moment
evaluated using
equilibrium
24
Beam Elements
Load
BM3
Axial Force
25
Element Formulations
w u w
y 0
x z x
and eliminating the local transverse translational and bending rotational freedoms at the
central node. The final degrees of freedom for the element are (fig.7.2.5-1)
2u
y
x2
2v
z
x2
2w
xy
xy
26
Beam Elements
2w
xz
xy
The elastic rigidity (resultant modulus) and modulus matrices are defined as
Explicit
LM EA EIy EIz 0 0 0 OP
MMEIEIy EIyy EIyz 0 0 0 PP
M
D z EIyz EIzz 0 0 0
PP
MM 0 0 0 GIyy 0 0
PP
MMN 00 0
0
0
0
0
0
GIzz 0
0 GA PQ
Alternatively, if Kt has a non-zero value in the element geometric properties data
section, the resultant torsional moduli GIyy and GIzz are replaced with GKt / 2 where
Kt is a torsional constant (typically, for circular cross-sections Kt J , the polar second
moment of area).
Numerically integrated
LM E Ey Ez 0 0 0 OP
MMEy Ey2 Eyz 0 0 0 PP
D zz h b
MMEz0
MM 0
Eyz Ez2
0
0
0
0 Gy
0
2
0
0
0
0
0 Gz2 0
dydz PP
PP
MN 0 0 0 0 0 G PQ
The thermal strain vector is defined as
27
Element Formulations
Fx axial force
Fy, Fz shear forces
My, Mz moments
Ty, Tz torques
x axial strain
y, z flexural strain
xy, xz torsional strain
The forces and strains are output in the local Cartesian system which is defined by
BS3 For a curved element the local xy-plane is defined by the three element
nodes. Local y is perpendicular to local x and +ve on the convex side of the
element. The local y and z-axis form a right-hand set with the local x-axis
(Fig.7.2.5-7a).
For a straight element parallel to the global X-axis, the local z-axis is given by
the unit vector z = j x x (j is a unit vector along the global Y-axis) (fig.7.2.5-7b)
For a straight element not parallel to the global X-axis, the local z-axis is given
the unit vector z = i x x (i is a unit vector along the global X-axis) (fig.7.2.5-7c)
The local y-axis forms a right-hand set with the local x and z axes.
BS4, BSX4 The local xy-plane is defined by all four element nodes which
are assumed to be coplanar. The local y-axis is perpendicular to the local x-axis
and +ve on the side of the element where the fourth node lies. The local y and z-
axis form a right-hand set with the local x-axis (fig.7.2.5-6)
Note. The torques are +ve for anti-clockwise rotations at first node and clockwise
rotations at third node.
Force and stress output may be obtained at either the nodes or element Gauss points.
Greatest accuracy is obtained at the Gauss points.
The element shear forces are computed directly from the Gauss point bending moments
via the relationship Fy dM z / dL and Fz dM y / dL
28
Beam Elements
x
u 1 u
LM OP2
LM OP
1 v
2
x 2 x N Q N Q
2 x
v w
yz
x x
with reference to the local element x-axis.
The force and strain output for a geometrically nonlinear analysis will be 2nd
Piola-Kirchhoff stress resultants and Green-Lagrange strains respectively,
referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative.
The initial assumptions in deriving the BS3, BS4 and BSX4 elements limit the
rotations to one radian in a Total Lagrangian (TL) analysis, and rotation
increments of one radian in an Updated Lagrangian (UL) analysis (Section 3.5).
29
Element Formulations
V V
Y Y
U U
W 3 X W 3 X
Z Z
V
Y u
U
2 2 X
W Z X
V V
Y Y
Y U Y U
1 1
X X
Z Z
W W
X X
Z Z
Quadrature Points
Quadrature points
coincide with
frame joints
30
Beam Elements
2 3
1 4
Element 1 or
2 3
Quadrilateral 1
1 2 3 4
Element 2 or Z
Quadrilateral 2
2 1 4 3
Element 3 or
Quadrilateral 3
1 4
31
Element Formulations
Y 3 x
z
x y
2
y
x
1 4
y
X
32
Beam Elements
Y
x-y plane
y
y x x
3
x 2 z
y
1
z X
Z
(a) Curved Element
z
z
x x
1 2 3
y
y
Y y
x
3
z
y 2
x
1
z X
33
Element Formulations
w u w
y 0
x z x
which provides four constraint equations and permits elimination of the two flexural
degrees of freedoms at these positions. The final degrees of freedom for the element are
(fig.7.2.6-1)
X at nodes 4 and 5
Note. The rotations at the 'loof' nodes are local, but are not relative rotations
(departures from linearity) as with the other LUSAS beam elements based on Kirchhoff
constraints.
The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is
u
x
x
2w
y
x2
2v
z
x2
34
Beam Elements
2w
xy
xy
2w
xz
xy
Note. xy xz z the total torsional strain The elastic rigidity (resultant modulus)
and modulus matrices are defined as
Explicit
LM
EA EI y EIz 0 0OP 0
MM
EI y EI yy EI yz 0 0 PP 0
D
0
MM
EIz EI yz EIzz
0
0
0 G I yy Ae2z e j 0
0
0 P
P 0
MM 0 0 0 0 GeI Ae j 0 P
P2
MN 0 0 0 0 0
zz
GAPQ
y
35
Element Formulations
The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in
(section 2.7).
Fx axial force
Fy, Fz shear forces
My, Mz moments
Ty, Tz torques
x axial strain
y, z flexural strain
xy, xz torsional strain
The forces and strains are output in the local Cartesian system which is defined by
BSL3
For a curved element the local xy-plane is defined by the three element nodes. Local y
is perpendicular to local x and +ve on the convex side of the element. The local y and
z-axis form a right-hand set with the local x-axis (fig.7.2.6-6a).
For a straight element parallel to the global X-axis, the local z-axis is given by the unit
vector z jx (j is a unit vector along the global Y-axis) (fig.7.2.6-6b).
For a straight element not parallel to the global X-axis, the local z-axis is given the unit
vector z ix (i is a unit vector along the global X-axis) (fig.7.2.6-6c).
The local y-axis forms a right-hand set with the local x and z axes.
BSL4, BXL4
The local xy-plane is defined by all four element nodes which are assumed to be
coplanar. The local y-axis is perpendicular to the local x-axis and +ve on the side of the
element where the fourth node lies. The local y and z-axis form a right-hand set with
the local x-axis (fig.7.2.6-7)
Note. The torques are +ve for anti-clockwise rotations at the first node and clockwise
rotations at the third node.
Force and stress output may be obtained at either the nodes or element Gauss points.
Greatest accuracy is obtained at the Gauss points.
The element shear forces are computed directly from the Gauss point bending moments
via the relationship Fy dM z / dL and Fz dM y / dL
36
Beam Elements
x
u 1 u
LM OP2
LM OP
1 v
2
x 2 x N Q N Q
2 x
37
Element Formulations
V V
Y Y
Y
U U
W Z 3 X W Z 3 X
5 5 X
X
Z
V V
U U
W 2 W 2
Y
V V X
Y 4
X Y 4
Z
Y U Y U
1 1
X X
Z Z
W W
X X
Z Z
QSL8 elements
BSL3 elements
38
Beam Elements
2 3
1 4
Element 1 or
2 3
Quadrilateral 1
1 2 3 4
Element 2 or Z
Quadrilateral 2
2 1 4 3
Element 3 or
Quadrilateral 3
1 4
39
Element Formulations
Y
x-y plane
y
y x x
3
x 2 z
y
1
z X
Z
(a) Curved Element
z
z
x x
1 2 3
y
y
Y y
x
3
z
y 2
x
1
z X
40
Beam Elements
Y 3 x
z
x y
2
y
x
1 4
y
X
U, V, W, X , Y , Z at each node.
All displacement and rotation variations along the length of the element are linear
while all internal forces and moments are constant.
Consistent and lumped mass matrices are available which are evaluated using the
procedures defined in section 2.7.1.
41
Element Formulations
Element strains and curvatures are also available but nodal values are not output. The
local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are
specified. The local xy-plane is defined by the third element node and the element x-
axis. The local y and z-axes form a right-hand set with the local x-axis. These axes are
consistent with those of the BMS3 element (fig.7.2.7-2).
The formulation is such that engineering strain measures are used in both linear and
geometrically nonlinear applications. These strains always relate to a local Cartesian
system.
The internal forces are computed using:
P D
Where P are the local internal forces, are the local strains and curvatures and D is
the modulus matrix given by (terms not shown are zero)
EA EAez EAey
GAsy GAsy ez
GAsz GAsz ey
D
GAsy ez GAsz ey G J xx Asy ez2 Asz ey2
EAez
E I yy Aez2 E I yz Aey ez
EAey EI yz Ae e
y z
E I zz Aey2
42
Beam Elements
computed at the end of one increment do not depend on the strains computed at the end
of a previous increment. Solutions obtained using this element will not be load step size
dependant. The local strains for the element are given by
o
x , y, z , Xx , Xy, Xz t
T
where:
x u / lo
e i
y 2 5 2
e i 2
z 3 6
X e i 10
x 4 1
X e i 10
y 2 5
X e i 10
z 3 6
Where, lo is the initial element length, u is the axial stretch measured in the co-rotated
frame, and i , i=1,6 are the local gradients at the nodes or 'curvature producing'
rotations relative to the co-rotated frame, (fig. 7.2.7-3).
The current local gradients at the nodes are computed from
24 q T e3 q T e2
2 3
25 q T e2 q T e1
1 2
26 q T e3 q T e1
1 3
Where ei are unit vectors defining the co-rotated base frame and t i , q , i=1,3 are the
i
cartesian sets at nodes 1 and 2 respectively defining the orientation of the beam cross-
section. These expressions may be thought of as being a means of computing an
'average' value for a local gradient at a node. This is easily visualised in two
dimensions where, for example, t1T e2 t2T e1.This is not true for the three
dimensional case and a stricter derivation of the expressions for local gradients would
43
Element Formulations
involve the polar decomposition theorem. The approach then taken is to decompose the
total rotation into a rigid body component and a local gradient. The expressions
described above are the result of applying these principles. The variation of these
expressions is used in the virtual work equation to relate variations in local strains to
variations in global nodal displacements.
The local frame ei , i=1,3 is easily established for a two dimensional problem. In three
dimensions defining the local frame is more difficult. The approach described by
Crisfield [C7] has been used for this purpose. The following expressions are used for
defining e 2 and e3 .
r2T e1
e2 r2
2
ne1 r1 s
r3T e1
e3 r3
2
n s
e1 r1
The local frame is established at the centre of the element and the vectors ri , i=1,3
represent the 'average' of the nodal cartesian sets, t i and q . These expressions are
i
approximations to the exact expressions for defining the 'smallest' rotation between
vectors r1 and e1 . These expressions have been used with a view to obtaining less
costly derivatives in a consistent derivation of the tangent stiffness. This lack of
orthogonality has been shown to be 0.25 degrees for a local gradient of 15 degrees and
1.9 degrees for a gradient of 30 degrees [C7]. As these values actually represent the
'curvature producing' rotations in a single element the deformation would need to be
very severe to reach these values.
The axial stretch may be taken as
u ln lo
where ln is taken as the current element length (or chord length). By defining the
vectors
x21 x2 x1
d21 d2 d1
u
2 RS1
x d UV dT
T
ln lo 21 2 21 W 21
The vector x defines the nodes in the initial configuration while d21 is the 'net'
translational displacement vector, (fig. 7.2.7-4). The variation of this expression
reduces to
44
Beam Elements
u e1Td21
Differentiation of the above equations relating to axial stretch and local gradients
allows virtual variations of local strains to be related to virtual variations in global
nodal displacements via a strain displacement matrix B
B a
where a are the global nodal displacements. Using this expression in the virtual work
equation allows global internal forces at the nodes to be expressed in terms of local
internal forces as
P BT P
BT P R
The variation of this equation gives the tangent stiffness matrix. Assuming
conservative loading this gives
d BTdP dBT P
d BT DBda dBT P
The first term on the right hand side of this equation may be recognised as the material
or standard linear stiffness matrix. The second term gives rise to the geometric
stiffness.
Notes
This geometrically nonlinear formulation is consistently formulated and
displays a quadratic rate of convergence in the limit. A consequence of this
consistency is the ability of the element to cope with larger load increments.
The total strains are computed from the current configuration and local frame
only. Therefore, results obtained using this element are not load step size
dependant.
This element incorporates rotational degrees of freedom. As explained in section
3.5, large rotations in three dimensions are non-vectorial in nature and therefore
may not be summed as vectors. To overcome this problem the rotation variables
are never added to establish the current orientation of the element. A set of
Cartesian axes are established at each node to define the orientation of the beam
cross section. These axes, which are used in the computation of internal forces
and the stiffness matrix, are updated correctly using the iterative increments in
nodal rotations, section 3.5. The procedure for this operation is outlined as
45
Element Formulations
Extract the Euler parameters from the initial nodal Cartesian set.
Form an incremental Euler parameter from the iterative rotation increment.
Update the Euler parameter by manipulating the previous and incremental
parameter using quarternion algebra.
Form the updated Cartesian set from the updated Euler parameter.
In view of the non-vectorial nature of these rotations it should be noted that the
nodal rotation output represents approximate values which should be treated
with caution. However, the translational displacements and internal force
output will be correct for problems involving arbitrary large nodal rotations.
A nonsymmetric stiffness matrix will result if a follower load is specified. This
arises as additional terms are added to the stiffness matrix to account for the
variation in the load direction between iterations. Full details of the derivation
of these additional terms are given in [C6].
A more detailed derivation of this element formulation may be found in [C6]
and [C8].
Q Q* Q
m
where dm and Q define the displacement vector and rotation matrix of the master
m
node, and d and Q define the displacement vector and rotation matrix of the
disconnected (at least partially) slave node. It should be noted that, following
conventional beam theory assumptions, the origins of the vectors dm and d coincide,
with the gap in (fig.7.2.7-5) drawn for illustrative purposes only.
The columns of the rotation matrices Q and Q consist of orthonormal base vectors
m
q ,q ,q and q , q , q (fig.7.2.7-5):
m1 m2 m3 1 2 3
46
Beam Elements
Q q ,q ,q
m m1 m2 m3
Q q , q , q
1 2 3
The rotation matrix Q* is the matrix that defines the rotation of the master triad Q , on
m
to the slave triad Q.
When modelling different types of joints, the master variables, dm and Q , are
m
generally not entirely independent from the slave variables, d and Q . Depending on the
type of joint, some of the components of the displacement vectors, dm and d , and/or
parameters of the rotation matrices Q and Q , can be the same. Different types of
m
joints are defined by releasing displacements and/or rotations around chosen axes. In a
geometrically nonlinear analysis these axes rotate together with the structure. For
translational joints, the 'difference vector', (with local components), between the
master and slave variables is, when transformed into coordinates defined by the master
triad, equal to the vector of released displacements (fig.7.2.7-6):
s QT
m
QT *
m
Using these equations a relationship can be established between the variations of the
master, slave and released freedoms. This relationship can then be used to derive a
modified stiffness matrix and internal force vector which accounts for any released
freedoms. Full details of this derivation can be found in [J2] while (fig.7.2.7-6) and
(fig.7.2.7-7) illustrate a prismatic (sliding) and revolute (hinge) release.
47
Element Formulations
Y
Y
V
2
Y X
W Z
U
1 X
W Z
X
3
Y
y
x 2
z 1
48
Beam Elements
q2
6 4
q1
q3
e2 5
e1
e3
t1
1
t2
t3
Y 3 2
Final Configuration ln
d2
lo
d1
x21
Y x2 Initial Configuration
x1
X
Z
49
Element Formulations
e3
e2
e1 q3
d
q2
dm
q1
qm3
qm2
qm1
e3
e2
e1
qm3
qm2
qm1
50
Beam Elements
e3
e2 qm3
q3
q2
e1
qm2
qm3= q1
51
Element Formulations
U, V, W, X , Y , Z at each node.
where the rotations on the beam reference line in local coordinate system
52
Beam Elements
The elastic rigidity (resultant modulus) and modulus matrices are defined as
Explicit
torsion constant
, , and are the second moments of area and torsion constant with
respect to its central line. Note that the shear areas Asz and Asy are used in , and .
Numerically integrated
For the BMI21element, the residual bending flexibility (RBF) correction can be
introduced by modifying the shear areas as
53
Element Formulations
The consistent and lumped mass matrices are available which are evaluated using the
procedures defined in section 2.7.1. Beam inertia matrix for the mass matrix is
Note that only the total area is used in all terms in the beam inertia matrix.
54
Beam Elements
axial force
, shear forces
torque
, moments
axial strain
, shear strains
torsional strain
The forces and strains are output in the local Cartesian system which is defined by
BMI21, BMX21 The local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in
which the element nodes are specified. The local xy-plane is defined by the third
element node and the element x-axis. The local y-axis is perpendicular to the local
x-axis and +ve on the side of the element where the third node lies. The local z-axis
forms a right-hand set with the local x and y axes. These axes are consistent with
those of the BMS3 and BTS3 elements (fig.7.2.8-4a).
BMI31, BMX31 The local x-axis at each node lies along the tangential in the
direction in which the element nodes are specified. The local xy-plane is defined by
the fourth element node and the local x-axis. The local y and z axes form a right-
hand set with the local x-axis (fig.7.2.8-4b).
BMI22, BMX22 The local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in
which the element nodes are specified. The local xy-planes at the 1st and 2nd end
nodes are defined by the 3rd and 4th element nodes respectively, and the element x-
axis.The local y and z axes form a right-hand set with the local x-axis (fig.7.2.8-4c).
BMI33, BMX33 The local x-axis at each node lies along the tangential in the
direction in which the element nodes are specified. The local xy-planes at the 1st,
2nd and 3rd nodes are defined by the 4th, 5th and 6th orientation nodes respectively,
and the local x-axis. The local y and z axes form a right-hand set with the local x-
axis (fig.7.2.8-4d).
Note. The torques are +ve for anti-clockwise rotations at the first node and clockwise
rotations at the last node.
Force and stress output may be obtained at either the nodes or element Gauss points.
Greatest accuracy is obtained at the Gauss points.
55
Element Formulations
Notes
BMI21, BMI31, BMI22 and BMI33 may be used in conjunction with the stress
resultant plasticity model (section 4.2). BMX21, BMX31, BMX22 and BMX33
may be used with the continuum based plasticity models (section 4.2).
All continuum based nonlinear material models do not consider nonlinear
torsional effects.
V
Y
Z U
V X
2
Y
Y W
Z U
1 X
W
Z
(a) BMI21/BMX21 and BMI22/BMX22 elements
56
Beam Elements
V
V Y
Y
Z U
V 3 X
U
YZ 2
Y X W
W
Z U
1 X
W
Z
(b) BMI31/BMX31 and BMI33/BMX33 Elements
Fig.7.2.8-1 Nodal Freedoms For (a) BMI21/BMX21 And BMI22/BMX22, And (b)
BMI31/BMX31 And BMI33/BMX33 Elements
2 3
1 4
57
Element Formulations
y
x
2 3 z
3
y 4 2
x x
y
1
z 1 z
4 6
y y
x
x
5 x 3
2 z y z
3
y 4 2 z
Y x
x y
1 z
z 1
(c) BMI22/BMX22 (d) BMI33/BMX33
Z
Fig.7.2.8-4 Local Cartesian System For (a) BMI21/BMX21, (b) BMI31/BMX31, (c)
BMI22/BMX22, And (d) BMI33/BMX33 Elements
58
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
n
geometry X Ni b, gXi
i 1
b g
where Ni , is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of nodes.
Fig.7.3.1-1 shows the nodal configurations available within LUSAS.
The nodal degrees of freedom are U and V.
All the isoparametric elements described in this section must be defined using only X
and Y coordinates. For 3-D plane membrane elements see section 7.5 on space
membrane elements A complete description of their formulation is given in [H1,B2].
The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in
(section 2.7).
The plane stress elements are suitable for analysing structures which are thin in the out
of plane direction, e.g. thin plates subject to in-plane loading (fig.7.3.1-2).
Note. The thickness of the material is defined at each node and may vary over the
element.
The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is defined as
U
X
X
V
Y
Y
U V
XY
Y X
59
Element Formulations
LM1 0
OP
Isotropic D
E M P
e1 j MM0 a f PP
1 0
2
1
N 0
2 Q
LM 1 / E x xy / Ex 0 OP 1
Orthotropic D M / E 1 / Ey 0 PP
MN 0 xy x
0 1 / Gxy Q
where yx has been set to xyEy / Ex to maintain symmetry.
d
xy Ex / Ey i
1/ 2
z
E
d
x y i for isotropic materials
xz yz
z x y for orthotropic materials
Ex Ey
LM(1 ) 0
OP
isotropic D
E
(1 )(1 2) M
M (1 ) 0 PP
MN 0 0
(1 2)
2
PQ
T
Orthotropic (0 )t T x , y, xy
The plane strain elements are suitable for analysing structures which are thick in the out
of plane direction, e.g. dams or thick cylinders (fig.7.3.1-3). The infinitesimal strain-
displacement relationship is defined as
U
X
X
60
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
V
Y
Y
U V
XY
Y X
The isotropic and orthotropic elastic modulus matrices are
LM(1 ) 0
OP
Isotropic D
E
(1 )(1 2) M
M (1 ) 0 PP
MN 0 0
(1 2)
2
PQ
LM E E z
2
xz x xyEz xz yzEy
0
OP 1
MM E E x z E y Ez PP
DM PP
E E Ez 2yzEy
Orthotropic xy z yz xz x
MM E E x z E y Ez
0
PP
MM 0 0
1
PQ
N Gxy
d i d
Ey xyEz yzxzEx Ex xyEz xzyzEy i
Note. To obtain a valid material
d
xy Ex / Ey i1/ 2
b
xz Ex / Ez g
1/ 2
d
yz Ey / Ez i 1/ 2
Ez E
z xz yz z for orthotropic materials
EX Ey
Isotropic d i (1 )T , , 0
0 t
T
LM E ,
z OP T
d i TMM E PP
xz z x
x
Orthotropic 0 t
MN E
E
+ ,
z
y
yz z y xy PQ
61
Element Formulations
The isotropic and orthotropic linear elastic modulus matrices are defined as
LM(1 ) 0 OP
Isotropic D
E M
(1 )(1 2) M 0
(1 ) 0
(1 2) / 2
PP
MN 0
0
0
(1 )
PQ
LM 1 / E / E
x yx y 0 zx / Ez OP 1
DM PP
/ E 1/ E 0 zy / Ez
MM 0
xy x y
Orthotropic
MN
xz / E x
0
/E
yz y
1 / Gxy
0
0
1 / Ez
PPQ
where yx, zx and zy are defined by
62
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
to maintain symmetry.
Note. To obtain a valid material
d
xy Ex / Ey i
1/2
b
xz < Ex / Ez g
1/2
d
yz Ey / Ezy i
1/ 2
Isotropic d i T , , 0,
0 t
T
Orthotropic d i T , , ,
0 t x y xy z
T
63
Element Formulations
The sign convention for stress, stress resultants and strain output is shown in fig.7.3.1-
6.
The Gauss point stresses are usually more accurate than the nodal values. The nodal
values of stress and strain are obtained using the extrapolation procedures detailed in
section 6.1.
N Q
X 2 X N Q
2 X
V 1 L U O 1 L V O
2 2
X 2 MN Y PQ
M P
2 N Y Q
Y
U V U U V V
XY
Y X X Y X Y
Plane Strain
X
LM OP
U 1 U
2
LM OP
1 V
2
N Q
X 2 X N Q
2 X
V 1 L U O 1 L V O
2 2
X 2 MN Y PQ
M P
2 N Y Q
Y
U V U U V V
XY
Y X X Y X Y
64
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
Axisymmetric
X
LM OP
U 1 U
2
LM OP
1 V
2
N Q
X 2 X N Q
2 X
V 1 L U O 1 L V O
2 2
X 2 MN Y PQ
M P
2 N Y Q
Y
U V U U V V
XY
Y X X Y X Y
Z LM OP
U 1 U
2
symmetry about the Y axis
N Q
R 2 R
LM OP
2
V 1 V
or symmetry about the X axis
R 2 NRQ
Z
The output is now in terms of the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and Green-Lagrange
strains referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative.
An Updated Lagrangian formulation, which takes account of large
displacements and moderately large strains provided that the strain increments
are small. The output is now in terms of the true Cauchy stresses and the strains
approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading approximates to being non-
conservative.
An Eulerian formulation, which takes account of large displacements and large
strains. The output is in terms of true Cauchy stresses and the strains
approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading is non-conservative.
65
Element Formulations
3 5
6
4
1 1 2
2 3
3 6 5
4 7
4
8
2 2 3
1 1
66
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
67
Element Formulations
Problem Definition
QPN8 elements
TPN6 elements
QPN4 elements
68
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
QAX4 elements
QAX8 elements
69
Element Formulations
XY
X X
XY
Y X
70
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
1.3.2.2 Formulation
The formulation is identical to that described for the standard 3 crack tip elements in
section 7.4.2.
Notes
Notes are identical to those listed in section 7.3.1.
5 6 5
7
4 4
6
8
3 3
1 2 1 2
71
Element Formulations
1.3.3.1 Formulation
The formulation requires that the total strain is expressed as the sum of a 'compatible'
strain and an 'enhanced' strain
c e
The compatible strain is directly related to the displacements of the element nodes in
the standard manner. The enhanced strain is related to internal degrees of freedom
which are eliminated using static condensation at the element level. The enhanced
strains are therefore discontinuous between elements. The weak form of the three field
variational equations for equilibrium, compatibility and constitutive relationship may
be expressed as
z
T
c d RTa 0
z
T
e d 0
z
T LM
N
W
OP
d 0
Q
where R is the applied loading, W is the strain energy density, a are nodal
displacements and is the stress vector.
By enforcing the so called L2 orthogonality condition between stress and enhanced
strain, terms involving T e will disappear. This allows the stress field to be
eliminated from the formulation.
The compatible and enhanced strains are computed from
c Ba
e Ge
where G operates on the assumed strain parameters e to provide the enhanced strains.
Substitution of these expressions into the two remaining field variational equations
yields
72
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
z
T
{ }
c D Bda Gde RTa d z
T
{ }
e D Bda Gde d 0
The following matrices are defined for use in discretising this equation
Kakf z
BT D B d ( nel * nel matrix)
n el is the dimension of the element displacement field, mel is the number element
enhanced strain modes. D is the modulus matrix at loadstep k.
Pakf z
BakfT akf d
hk af z Ga kfT a kf d
where h(k) is the internal force vector relating to the incompatible modes which is
subsequently eliminated at the element level.
Using standard finite element techniques for assembling the system of equations gives
where
K
akf Kakf akfT Hakf 1akf
akf R P
a kf
73
Element Formulations
P
akf Pakf akfT Hakf 1hakf
In nonlinear analyses, the enhanced strain parameters are updated as
bg
U N1 1 N2 2 af
where
b g 12 e1 j,
N1 2
a f 12 e1 j
N2 2
l q T
1 u1, v1 , 2 u2 , v2 l q T
The covariant base vectors associated with the isoparametric space are
R|x N, U| |Rx a |U |Rx h|U g g
T T T
g S|y N, V| ST|y a VW| ST|y hVW|
1 0
T WT
T
1
T 1
S
R|x N, U|V R|Sx a U|V R|Sx hU|V g g
T
T
2
T
0
T|y N, W| T|y a W| T|y hW|
g
T
T T 2
2
where
N a0 a1 a2 h
and
74
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
1 T
a0 1 1 1 1
4
1 T
a1 1 1 1 1
4
1 T
a2 1 1 1 1
4
1 T
h 1 1 1 1
4
T
x x1 x2 x3 x4
T
y y1 y2 y3 y4
R| eu, j g U|
T
i S
| du, i g |V T
||
|
d|T u, i g eu, j g ||W
T
T
R| g U|T
1
0
| g ||
1
T 0
LM 0 O|
2
0 0 0 2
MM
0 0 0 0 PPS
| g |V E
T
1
0
2 i i
PQ|
|| g |||
e
g T 0
N
0 0 2 2 2
T
1
|T g |W
1
T
2
The stress field for the element is derived from the linear uncoupled stress field [P2]
R| U| L1 OP
V| MM
x
S 1 P
|Txy
y
W MN 1 PQ
The introduction of four internal degrees of freedom allows four of the nine stress
parameters () to vanish. The remaining terms satisfy the equilibrium equations. By
basing the formulation on natural coordinates the element is less sensitive when
distorted and possesses no zero-energy deformation modes. Full details of the
elimination of the four stress parameters is described in [P2] for a hybrid element. The
final contravariant stress field using five parameters is defined as
75
Element Formulations
R| U| L1 0 0 0 OP
S|
V| MM0 1 0 0 PP
|T
|W MN0 0 1 0 0 Q
To satisfy the L2 orthogonality condition , L2
zz1 1
1 1
r T dd 0
This condition is violated if the six initial enhanced strain parameters () are used.
However, the condition is satisfied if
5 6
Forcing this equality, and hence L2 orthogonality, gives the final enhanced strain
interpolation matrix as
LM
0 0 0 OP
MM
E 0 0 0 PP
N
0 0 2 2 Q
This matrix is used in linear analyses but for nonlinear applications four enhanced
strain parameters are used with the final column of E deleted [S8]. The final
interpolation functions E also allow condition (III) to be satisfied. This is a
requirement for passing the patch test [S8] and is implied in the sense that:
zz1 1
1 1
E dd 0
For the axisymmetric case, a factor r(,) will be included in the integrand for
enforcing orthogonality
76
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
zz1 1
1 1
r T dd 0
where
T
, 2
r rT N
z zT N
r r1, r2 , r3, r4
z z1, z2 , z3, z4
Inclusion of the factor r( ,) means that the orthogonality condition is violated using
this interpolation matrix. Simo and Rifai [S8] have derived interpolation functions
which account for the factor r and satisfy this condition
E Ei
zz 1 1
1 1
1
r dd
zz
1 1
1 1
Ei r dd
LM 0 0 0 0 OP
MM PP
0 0 0 0
MM 00 0 0
PP
N 0 0 0 Q
where
1 r T a1 1 rT a 1 rT h
T , T 2 , = T
3 r a0 3 r a0 9 r a0
77
Element Formulations
is replaced with
n 2
U Ni b, gUi Pi b, gai
i 1 i 1
where
b g
P1 , 1 2 and b g
P2 , 1 2
and a i are nodeless degrees of freedom which are condensed out before element i
assembly. The nodal configuration and non-conforming shape functions are shown in
fig.7.3.3-1.
The element passes the patch test (ensuring convergence as the mesh is refined) and the
displacement field is approximately an order higher than the QPM4 element (i.e.
quadratic displacement accuracy).
The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is the same as QPM4, i.e.
U
X
X
V
Y
Y
U V
XY
Y X
The isotropic and orthotropic elastic modulus matrices are defined as
LM1 0
OP
Isotropic D
E M P
e1 j MM0 a f PP
1 0
2
1
N 0
2 Q
78
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
L 1 yx / Ey OP 1
D MM / E
0
Orthotropic
MN 0
xy x 1 / Ey 0 PP
0 1 / Gxy Q
where yx is set to xyEx / Ey to maintain symmetry.
d
Note. For a valid material xy Ex / Ey i
1/ 2
Isotropic d i T , , 0
0 t
T
Orthotropic d i T , ,
0 t x y xy
T
The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.3.3-4. The
stress resultants are evaluated directly at the nodes.
79
Element Formulations
3
4
2
1 P1 = 1-2 P2 = 1-2
X,U
Fig.7.3.3-1 Nodal Configuration And Non-Conforming Shape Functions For The PMI4
Element
80
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
Y
4
2
y
x
1
XY
X X
XY
Y X
81
Element Formulations
The mass lumping formulations for higher order elements are currently
impractical for modelling shock wave propagation since the resulting numerical
noise pollutes or destroys the solution.
The combination of mass lumping with linear elements, when applied in
conjunction with the central difference operator, increases accuracy in solutions
by virtue of their respective compensatory spectral errors.
The linear explicit dynamics elements have been implemented to take advantage of
these benefits. They are for use only with the explicit central difference time integration
scheme.
The explicit dynamics elements are based upon the isoparametric approach in which
the same shape functions are used to interpolate both the displacements and the
geometry, i.e.
n
displacement U Ni b, gUi
i 1
n
geometry X Ni b, gXi
i 1
b g
where Ni , is the element shape function for node and n is the number of nodes.
Fig.7.3.1-1 shows the nodal configurations available within LUSAS. The nodal degrees
of freedom are U and V. All the explicit dynamics elements described in this section
must be defined using only X and Y coordinates.
The plane stress elements are suitable for analysing structures which are thin in the out
of plane direction, e.g. thin plates subject to in-plane loading (fig.7.3.4-2).
Note that the thickness of the material is defined at each node and may vary over the
element.
A rate relationship is used to define the strain-displacement characteristics as
t U
t x
X
t
t V
t y
Y
t
82
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
t V
t U
t XY t t
Y X
t z
LM U V OP
t t
MN X Y PQ
t t
LM1 0
OP
Isotropic D
E M P
j MM0 a f PP
1 0
e
1 2 1
N 0
2 Q
LM 1 yx / Ey 0 OP 1
Orthotropic D M / E 1 / Ey 0 PP
MN 0
xy x
0 1 / Gxy Q
where yx is set to xyEy / Ex to maintain symmetry.
Isotropic d i T , , 0
0 t
T
Orthotropic d i T , ,
0 t x y xy
T
The plane strain elements are suitable for analysing structures which are thick in the out
of plane direction, e.g. dams or thick cylinders (fig.7.3.4-3).
A rate relationship is used to define the strain-displacement characteristics as
t U
X
t
X
t
t V
Y
t
Y
t
83
Element Formulations
t
t V
t U
XY t t
Y X
Y 0
t
LM(1 ) 0 P
O
D
E MM (1 ) 0 PP
a f
1 (1 2)
MM 0 0 a1 22f PP
N Q
LM E E
z
2
xz x E
xy z xz yz Ey
0
OP 1
MM E E x z E E y z PP
DM PP
E E E E 2
Orthotropic xy z yz xz x z yz y
MM E Ex z E E y z
0
PP
MM 0 0
1
PQ
N Gxy
d i d
Ey xyEz yzxzEx Ex xyEz xzyzEy i
The initial thermal strain is defined by
Isotropic d i a1 fT , , 0
0 t x y
T
Orthotropic d i a1 fT , ,
0 t x y xy
T
84
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
The axisymmetric elements are suitable for analysing solid structures which exhibit
geometric symmetry about a given axis, e.g. thick cylinders or circular plates (fig.7.3.4-
4).
The elements are defined in the XY-plane and symmetry can be specified about either
the X or Y axes.
Standard axisymmetric isoparametric elements are formulated with the Galerkin
weighted residual method, in which the governing differential equation is utilised
directly to form a weighted residual statement, where the weighting functions are
generally the element shape functions. For large strain axisymmetric analyses, the use
of elements based on the Galerkin method leads to computational difficulties near the
axis of symmetry. These difficulties may be overcome by formulating the elements
with the Petrov-Galerkin method [G2]. This method is also a weighted residual
method, however, the weighting functions are taken to be the product of the element
shape functions and the inverse of the radius, i.e. eliminating the radial weighting in the
governing equations.
The use of this particular formulation produces a time dependent mass matrix and as
such must be computed each time.
A rate relationship is used to define the strain-displacement characteristics as
t U
X
t
X
t
t V
Y
t
Y
t
t V
t U
XY
t
t t
Y X
t
U
Z
t
(symmetry about the Y axis)
R
t
V
or Z
t
(symmetry about the X axis)
R
The isotropic and orthotropic linear elastic modulus matrices are defined as
Isotropic
LM(1 ) 0 OP
D
E
(1 )(1 2)
MM 0 (1 ) 0
(1 2) / 2
PP
MN 0
0
0
(1 )
PQ
Orthotropic
85
Element Formulations
LM 1 / E x yx / Ey 0 zx / Ez OP 1
DM PP
/ E 1 / Ey 0 zy / Ez
MM 0
xy x
MN / E xz x
0
yz / Ey
1 / Gxy
0
0
1 / Ez
PPQ
in which symmetry is maintained by defining
yx xyEy / Ex zx = xzEz / Ex zy yzEz / Ey
d
xy Ex / Ey i 1/2
b
xz < Ex / Ez g yz Ey / Ezy d i
1/ 2
Isotropic d i T , , 0,
0 t x y z
T
Orthotropic d i T , , ,
0 t x y xy z
T
86
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
4
fik 1 / 4 Qhg A1/2 c dhij jk i
j1
in which A is the current element area, Qhg is a constant which is modified via the
SYSTEM command and is usually set to a value between 0.05 and 0.15, and x ik is the
nodal velocity of the kth node in the ith direction. is the current element density, while
c, the material sound speed is defined from
c2
a f
E 1
a fa f
1 1 2
The hourglass base vectors for the four node quadrilateral are defined as:-
i 1 -1 1 -1 T
these viscous forces are included directly into the element force vector.
q Lc Dkk Q1 Lc Dkk Q2 c
where Q1 and Q2 are dimensionless constants which default to 1.5 and 0.06
respectively, and may be modified as necessary via the SYSTEM command. Dkk is
the trace of the velocity strain tensor and Lc is the characteristic length of the element
which is related to the smallest element diagonal as
2A
Lc
LD
where
e 2 2 2
LD MAX 1 / 2y24 1 / 2x42 , 1 / 2y31 1 / 2x13
2
j
in which the distance between any two nodal points i,j is given as
87
Element Formulations
xij xi xj
The quadratic term in strain rate is chosen to be small except in regions of very large
gradients. The linear term, however, is included to control the small spurious
oscillations following the shock waves in which the gradients are insufficient to make
the quadratic term effective. Care should be taken with the linear term since there is a
danger of distorting the solution.
In converging geometries, the centred strain rate term is negative and the q term is then
non-zero. This occurs even though no shocks are generated and results in a non-
physical generation of pressure. In view of the abundance of excellent results, however,
it is generally agreed that the effect is negligible.
The contribution to the force vector due to the element stresses is evaluated from the
equilibrium equations of Timoshenko as
b
Fx x / x xy / y r / r 0 g
Fy y / y xy / x xy / r 0
Note that the terms r r and xy r from these two equations are not typically included
in static analyses and occur as a result of the inertial effects. The hourglass forces are
included to give the final force vector. The mass matrix is computed as each node i as
e j
t Mx 1 / 4t t A 1 / 4o t A t v/ ov
i
t My 1 / 4 A 1 / 4 Ae v/ vj
t t o t t o
i
88
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
89
Element Formulations
Cauchy stresses and the strains approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading
is non-conservative.
3
3 4
2
2 1
1
90
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
Thick Cylinder
Thick Cylinder
91
Element Formulations
XY
X X
XY
Y X
n
geometry X Ni b, gXi
i 1
92
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
b g
where Ni , is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of nodes.
However, for consideration of stability, the pressures are only interpolated using the
corner nodes
N b, gP
ncorner
pressures P i i
i 1
where ncorner is the number of corner nodes. Fig.7.3.5-1 shows the nodal configurations
available within LUSAS.
The nodal degrees of freedom are U, V and P at the corner nodes and U and V at the
midside nodes.
The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in
(section 2.7).
The assumptions and details of elastic modulus matrices applicable for plane strain and
axisymmetric elements are described in section 1.3.1.2 and 1.3.1.3, respectively.
These elements are used to model the behaviour of a two phase medium such as soil. In
this instance the two phases comprise the soil skeleton and the pore water fluid.
Separate equations are derived for each phase, coupled by the interaction of the pore
pressure and the soil deformation. The soil skeleton is analysed in terms of effective
stress (total stress minus pore water pressure), taking into account the loading due to
the pore pressure; whilst the pore fluid analysis takes account of the volumetric strain
due to the soil skeleton deformation.
The finite element method is used to solve the coupled equations in terms of nodal
displacements and pore pressures. Triangular and quadrilateral plane strain (TPN6P
and QPN8P) and axisymmtric (TAX6P and QAX8P) elements based on a mixed
displacement-pressure formulation are available in LUSAS to solve these problems.
K z
v
BT D' B dv
z
L - BT mN dv
v
93
Element Formulations
S - z
v
1 T
Ke
N N dv
LMK 0 UOPRS UV RS
ext
Fint F UV
N0 I P QT W T 0 W
where I is a unit matrix block.
LMK L U OPRS UV
LMK L OPRSUUV RSF UV
MNL
T
TH P PQT Wt t MNL T
(1 )THPQTP W TQW
t
where:
F is the incremental load
Q the incremental flow
the time stepping scheme parameter (set to1.0 for backward Euler scheme)
H the permeability matrix
The permeability matrix H is defined in terms of the shape function derivatives and a
permeability matrix of the soil, K , as:
p
z
H NT K N dv
v
p
For nonlinear consolidation process, the coupled governing equations can be written as
LM K L OPRS UV R|S
U k
Fext n1 Fint
n+1 k k
U|V
NLT
QT W |T c
tH P k t n Q Q tHn+1 P k LT h c U Uh|W
n 1 k n
94
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
where the superscript on the left/right hand side represents the increment/iteration
number.
where:
Ke is the equivalent bulk modulus of the soil
Kf the bulk modulus of the pore fluid
Ks the bulk modulus of the solid soil particle
the porosity of the soil
In practical geotechnical applications it is usually difficult to determine Ks so a large
value is usually assumed.
95
Element Formulations
x
F
X
where X and x denote the material and spatial position vector of a material particle.
The elements are currently available with Hencky and Ogden matrial models described
in section 4.10, so that the principal Kirchhoff stresses i i [C16] are obtained
i
from the corresponding stored-energy function as
i 2G ln i kJ J 1 a f
for the Hencky material model, where G is the shear modulus, k is the bulk modulus
and i i / 3 J are the “deviatoric” stretches, and as
N
i p[i
p 1
a f
(1 p 2 p 3 p )] kJ J 1
3
p1
for the Ogden material model, where N is the number of pairs of Ogden parameters p
and p , while k and i have the same meaning as for the Hencky model. By
introducing the independent pressure variable as
a f
p k J 1
and by transforming i from the principal directions the Kirchhoff stress tensor is
obtained as
2Gn ln nT pJ
for the Hencky material model, where is the diagonal matrix of deviatoric stretches
and n [n1, n2 , n3 ] is the Eulerian triad (spatial orientation of the principal directions)
and as
N
p [
p 1
n tr( p )I]nT pJ
p1
3
f z LMNa
V0
f kp OPQdV 0
J 1 0
96
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
where the first equation is the conventional nodal equilibrium equation, where R is the
vector of applied loading and P is the vector of nodal internal forces, and the second
a f
equation follows from p k J 1 . By expressing the stress tensor in the vector form,
the vector of nodal internal forces can be written as
P z
V0
T
bg
B x dV0
where, in line with the adopted spatial approach, x is the spatial and not the material
position vector. Note that the formulation is defined in terms of the Kirchhoff and not
the Cauchy stresses, hence integration is still performed over the initial rather than the
current volume.
where a is the vector of nodal displacements, and the entries in the tangent stiffness
matrix are obtained by the consistent linearisation of the element equilibrium.
In order to derive the subvector K12 and (in particular) submatrix K it helps to regard
11
the vector of nodal internal forces P as coming from the internal virtual power via
a T P z
V0
: dV0
da 1
where a is the time rate of the nodal displacements, and (L LT ) is the
dt 2
strain-rate tensor with
u
L d
x
u
with L being the so-called velocity gradient and d being only introduced for the
x
sake of convenience during the following derivation. Also : tr(T ) ijij , where
the repeated indices indicate summation over the dimension of the space. For
configuration-independent loads, a Tg is equal to a TP , hence
97
Element Formulations
11 z
a T (K a K12p) ( ijij ij
V0
ij
)dV
kl kl 0 z
V0
ij
ij
p
pdV0
ij
where, for both material models, Jij so, by introducing standard FE
p
matrix/vector notation whereby B(x)a , subvector K12 immediately follows as
z
K12 B (x)iJdV0
V0
T
R|1U| R|1U|
|1|
with i S1V for the plane strain element QPN4L and i S V for the axisymmetric
|T0|W ||0||
T1W
element QAX4L. By noting the relationship between Kirchhoff stress and second
Piola-Kirchhoff stress S via FSFT and bearing in mind that FF1 d we obtain
F(E SE)FT d dT d dT , or in indicial notation
T
ij
kl T,ij dik kj ikd jk Dijkl
tTK
kl dik kj ikd jk
kl
where is called the Truesdell rate of Kirchhoff stress (which is often used in rate-
T
dependent constitutive models; here it is introduced because it enables a
straightforward formation of the material part of the stiffness matrix) and Dijkl
tTK
is the
tangent constitutive matrix relating the strain-rate tensor to the Truesdell rate of
1
Kirchhoff stress. By using ij (d ij d ji ) and noting the symmetry of the Kirchhoff
2
ij
stress tensor ij ji , the product ij kl can be written as
kl
ij
ij kl ijDijkl
tTK
kl d ijdik kj d jidik kj
kl
By noting that the above-mentioned FF 1 d yields u dF , the variation of which
X
gives
uFG IJ dF , and by noting that the variation of the material position
X dF
X X H K
vector X is equal to zero, we obtain d dFF1 dd , which finally gives
1 1
ij (d ij d ji ) (d ikdkj d jkd ki )
2 2
98
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
so that, after noting the symmetry of the Kirchhoff stress tensor, the product ijij
reduces to
a T K a
11 z
V0
( ijDijkl
tTK
kl d ijkjdik )dV0
K [BT (x)D
11
V0
z tTK
B(x) GT (x) G(x)]dV0
where the tangent constitutive matrix D , which relates the strain-rate to the
tTK
Truesdell rate of Kirchhoff stress can be defined in different ways. An easy way to
define it is by rotating the constitutive matrix D , which relates the strain-rate with
tTKE
the Truesdell rate of Kirchhoff stress, where both of these are given with components
in the Eulerian frame, via
tTK
Dijkl nian jbnkcnldDabcd
tTKE
where nij denotes components of the Eulerian triad n . The components of the
constitutive matrix D follow from the stretches and the principal Kirchhoff
tTKE
stresses. By dropping the summation convention, the “normal” components are defined
as
i
tTKE
Diijj j 2iij
j
i 2
j pJ 2ij
j 3
99
Element Formulations
i pp p
N
1
j [3i ij (1 p 2 p 3 p ) i p j p ] pJ
j p1 3 3
2ji 2i j
tTKE
Dijij Dijji
tTKE
DtTKE
jiji D jiij
tTKE
2i 2j
F
i i i I
tTKE
Dijij Dijji
tTKE
DtTKE
jiji Djiij
tTKE
GH
2 i j
i JK
N
pp p
which returns the result i for the Hencky model and i for the
2 i
p1
Ogden model. Varying the second equilibrium equation gives
f K12
T a K p
22 z LMN
V0
J
p
k
OP
Q
dV0
K22 z
V0
dV0
k
n
geometry X Ni b, gXi
i 1
b g
where Ni , is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of i nodes.
Fig.7.4.1-1 shows the nodal configurations available within LUSAS. The nodal degrees
of freedom are
100
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements
(1 ) 0 0 0
(1 ) 0 0 0
(1 ) 0 0 0
D
E
(1 )(1 2 ) 0 (1 2 )
0 0
2
0 0
(1 2 )
0 0 0 0 0
2
0 (1 2 )
0 0 0 0
2
Orthotropic
LM 1 / E x yxEy zxEz 0 0 0 OP 1
MM // EE
xy x 1 / Ey
yz / Ey
zy / Ez 0 0 0 PP
DM PP
xz x 1 / Ez 0 0 0
MM 0 0 0 1 / Gxy 0 0
PP
MM 00 0 0 0 1 / Gyz 0
PQ
N 0 0 0 0 1 / Gxz
101
Element Formulations
to maintain symmetry.
Note. To obtain a valid material
d
xy Ex / Ey i
1/2
b
xz < Ex / Ez g
1/2
d
yz Ey / Ezy i
1/ 2
Isotropic d i T , , , 0, 0, 0
0 t
T
Orthotropic d i T , , , ,
0 t x y z xy yz , xz
T
Strain Output
X, Y, Z , XY, YZ , XZ the direct and shear strains
Principal stresses and strains and the corresponding direction cosines may also be
output.
The sign convention for stress and strain output is shown in fig.7.4.1-3.
The Gauss point stresses are usually more accurate than the nodal values. The nodal
values of stress and strain are obtained using the extrapolation procedures detailed in
section 6.1.
102
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements
X
LM OP 1 LM V OP 1 LM W OP
U 1 U
2 2 2
N Q 2 N X Q 2 N X Q
X 2 X
V 1 L U O 1 L V O 1 L W O
2 2 2
Y 2 MN Y PQ 2 MN Y PQ 2 MN Y PQ
Y
W 1 L U O 1 L V O 1 L W O
2 2 2
Z 2 MN Z PQ 2 MN Z PQ 2 MN Z PQ
Z
U V U U V V W W
XY
Y X X Y X Y X Y
V W U U V V W W
YZ
Z Y Y Z Y Z Y Z
U W U U V V W W
XZ
Z X X Z X Z X Z
The output is now in terms of the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and Green-
Lagrange strains referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is
conservative.
An Updated Lagrangian formulation, which takes account of large
displacements and moderately large strains provided that the strain increments
are small. The output is now in terms of the true Cauchy stresses and the strains
approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading approximates to being non-
conservative.
An Eulerian formulation, which takes account of large displacements and large
strains. The output is in terms of true Cauchy stresses and the strains
approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading is non-conservative.
103
Element Formulations
15
8 16
7 14 13
5
9 12
6 4 10
11
3 7
1 6
8
5
1 4
2 HX8 2 HX16
3
19 6
20
18
17 4
13 16
14 12
15 11 5 3
9 7
8 6
5 1
10 PN6
1 4
2
3
HX20
2
11 15 14
12 10 13
7 10 11 9
8 12
9 5 6 5
6 7
4 8 4
1 1
2 PN12
2 PN15
3 3
4
10 9
7 5
3 8 6
1 4
1 2
TH4 TH10
2 3
104
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements
Y
Arrows indicate +ve
stress directions
XY
YZ
XY
Y
YZ
X
XZ
XZ
Z
105
Element Formulations
1.4.2.1 Formulation
The motivation for crack tip elements can be traced to work by Henshell and Shaw
[H16], where it was shown that a singularity occurs in an isoparametric finite element
if the mid-side nodes are moved sufficiently from their usual centre edge positions. By
positioning the mid-side nodes such that the singularity occurs exactly at the corner
node of an element it is possible to obtain quite accurate solutions when studying stress
intensity at the tip of a crack [H16]. The following derivations prove that a singularity
occurs at a corner node when the mid-side nodes are moved to the quarter point
positions. Consider a standard 20 node hexahedral isoparametric element in space
with vertices at = -1,0,+1. For a crack tip element it is of interest to study the
behaviour of the mid-side nodes as they are moved away from their normal centre edge
positions. In order to facilitate this it is only necessary to study a one dimensional
quadratic element, as shown in fig 7.4.2-1.
1 2 3
h h
The position of the mid-side nodes can be defined in terms of = -1, 0, +1, or
alternatively r = 0, p, 2 where r is simply the ratio x/h. Note that for a standard element,
with nodes at the mid-side, p will equal 1. For the general case assumptions for the
transformation and displacement can be expressed as;
r a1 a2 a3 2
u b1 b2 b3 2
106
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements
where ai and bi are constants. Using the nodal values of r = 0, p, 2 and = -1, 0, +1
leads to 3 simultaneous equations from which the values of ai emerge as;
a1 p ; a2 1 ; a3 1 p
The expression for r can therefore be rewritten as;
r p (1 p) 2
and solved for to give;
1 1 4 p 4 p2 4(1 p)r
2 1 p
Since a value of is required in the range -1<=<=+1 the positive root of the above
equation is the correct solution. Taking the derivative of this root with respect to
gives;
d
1 4 p 4 p2 4(1 p)r 2
1
dr
The term inside the brackets vanishes or has a singularity when;
r
1 2 p
2
4( p 1)
At node 1 or the r 0 end of the element this singularity occurs when p 1 2 .
(Alternatively at node 3 or r 2 the singularity occurs when p 3 2 ). Using the
d
value of p 1 2 yields the following expressions for and ;
dr
1 2r
d 1
2r 2
dr
Using the standard shape functions for the one dimensional quadratic element shown in
fig 7.4.2-1 and noting that the displacement at any position along the element can be
expressed in terms of the nodal displacements and the shape functions as;
107
Element Formulations
n
u Naua
a 1
u
2 3 2r 2r u 2r 2 2r u 2r 2 2r u
1 2 3
2 2
It is the stresses that are of interest and these are proportional to strains. For the one
dimensional element the longitudinal strain is obtained by taking the derivative of the
above equation with respect to r to give;
du 3
1
1
1
1
1 2r 2 u1 2 2 2r 2 u2 1 2r 2 u3
dr 2 2
1
This shows that the singularity is of the order r as required by the Westergaard
2
solutions, which suggests the following simple rule. When elements with one mid-side
node are used at a crack tip the mid-side nodes should be moved from their normal
position at the centre of each side to the ¼ position, an example of which is shown in
fig 7.4.2-2. It is important to note that these elements are not special in any way and a
completely standard isoparametric element formulation is used throughout the mesh.
108
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements
Notes
Notes are identical to those listed in section 7.4.1.
10 12
14 13
11
15
9 8
8
9 10
3 3
5 4 5 4
7
7
2 2
6 6
1 1
TH10K PN15K
19
20 18
12
17
13
7
14 11
16
6
9 15
8 5
1
2 10
4
HX20K
109
Element Formulations
1.4.3.1 Formulation
The general approach taken to formulate this element is identical to that described for
the 2-D continuum elements in section 7.3.2.
bg bg
u N1 1 N2 2 N3 3 bg
where
b g 12 e1 j, N af 12 e1 j, N bg 12 e1 j
N1 2
2
2
3
2
l q T
l qT
1 u1, v1 , 2 u2, v2 , 3 u3, v3 , l q
T
The covariant base vectors associated with the isoparametric space are
110
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements
where
1 T
a1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8
1 T
a2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8
1 T
a3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8
1 T
h1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8
1 T
h2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8
1 T
h3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8
1 T
k 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8
T
x x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8
T
y y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6 y7 y8
T
z z1 z2 z3 z4 z5 z6 z7 z8
The enhanced strain field in isoparametric space can initially be expressed using 21-
parameter interpolation functions as follows
111
Element Formulations
R|eu, j g
T U|
||du, i g
T
||
||
||
S
|
e
T
u, j g
|
||du, i g eu, j g V||
i
T T
||eu, j g du, i g ||
T
T
||eu, j g eu, j g ||
T T
T W
LM 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 OP
MM00 0 0 00 00 00 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
0 i
PP
M PP
0
e
MM0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
0 0 0 2
0 0 2 0
2
PP
MM00 00 00 00 0 0 00 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 2
PQ
N 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 2 0 2
Ei ie
LM1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 OP
0
MM00 1 0 0 0 0
0
0 0 0PP
MM0 PP
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 12
MM0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 PP
MN0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 PQ
where the contravariant stresses are defined as
T
This stress field is similar to the assumed five stress field used by Pian [P2] for a
hybrid stress quadrilateral element. The field satisfies both equilibrium and symmetry
conditions.
The final enhanced strain interpolation matrix is assembled by enforcing the L2
orthogonality condition , L2
112
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements
zzz 1 1 1
1 1 1
T ddd 0
The final interpolation matrix involving eighteen parameters is
PP
MM00 0 0 2 2
2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
N 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 2 0 2 PQ
A further enhanced strain interpolation matrix is also derived which is similar to an
interpolation field defined in [S8] for planar elements. This matrix is based on nine a
parameters and is also orthogonal to the twelve stress field
LM 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 OP
MM00 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 PP
M PP
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
E
9
MM0 0 0 0 0 0 0
PP
MM00 0 0 0 0 0 0
PQ
N 0 0 0 0 0 0
Both the final interpolation functions E and E also allow condition III to be
9 18
satisfied. This is a requirement for passing the patch test [S8] and is implied in the
sense that
zzz 1 1 1
1 1 1
E ddd 0
113
Element Formulations
n
geometry X Ni b, gXi
i 1
b g
where Ni , is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of nodes.
Fig.7.4.3-1 shows the nodal configurations available within LUSAS. The nodal degrees
of freedom are U, V and W at each node.
t V
t y
Y
t
114
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements
t W
t z
Zt
t V
t U
t XY t t
Y X
t W
t V
t YZ t t
Z Y
t W
t U
t XZ t t
Z X
LMa1 f 0 0 0 P
O
MM P
a1 f 0 P
MM 0 0
PP
E MM a1 f 0 0 0 P
P
D
a1 fa1 2f M 0 0 0 a1 2f 0 0 P
MM PP
MM 0 0 0
2
0
a1 2f
0 P
MM 0 0 0
2
a1 2f P
P
N 2 PQ
0 0
Orthotropic
LM 1 / E x yxEy zxEz 0 0 0 OP 1
MM // EE
xy x 1 / Ey
yz / Ey
zy / Ez 0 0 0 PP
DM PP
xz x 1 / Ez 0 0 0
MM 0 0 0 1 / Gxy 0 0
PP
MM 00 0 0 0 1 / Gyz 0
PQ
N 0 0 0 0 1 / Gxz
d
xy Ex / Ey i 1/2
b
xz < Ex / Ez g
1/2
d
yz Ey / Ezy i
1/ 2
115
Element Formulations
Isotropic d i T , , , 0, 0, 0
0 t
T
Orthotropic d i T , , , ,
0 t x y z xy yz , xz
T
L O
dhij jk i MM1 100 Qhg dhij jk iPP
4 4
fik Qhg v2/3
e c/4
j1 N j1 Q
in which ve is the current element volume, Qhg is a constant which is modified via the
SYSTEM command and is usually set to a value between 0.05 and 0.15, and x ik is the
116
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements
nodal velocity of the kth node in the ith direction. is the current element density, while
c, the material sound speed is defined from
c2
a f
E 1
a fa f
1 1 2
The hourglass base vectors ij for the 8 node solid elements are given as
LM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 OP T
M PP
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ij
MM1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
PQ
N1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
these viscous forces are included directly into the element force vector.
q Lc Dkk Q1 Lc Dkk Q2 c
where Q1 and Q2 are dimensionless constants which default to 1.5 and 0.06
respectively, and may be modified as necessary via the SYSTEM command. Dkk is
the trace of the velocity strain tensor and Lc is the characteristic length of the element
which is related to the smallest element diagonal as
V
Lc
Af
where V is the current element volume and Af the current largest face area of the
element. The face area is evaluated by considering each face in turn and using
Af 4 J 0,0 a f
The surface Jacobian J may be evaluated from
a f
J 0,0
x x
*
117
Element Formulations
The direct stresses at time t+t are modified by the addition of the artificial viscosity
pressure q as follows
ii ii q
Strain Output
X, Y, Z , XY, YZ , XZ the direct and shear strains
118
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements
Principal stresses and strains and the corresponding direction cosines may also be
output.
The sign convention for stress and strain output is shown in fig.7.4.3-3.
The Gauss point stress is usually more accurate than the nodal values.
The nodal values of stress and strain are obtained using the extrapolation procedures
detailed in section 6.1.
8
7
5
6 4
3
1
2
HX8E
5 3
2
PN6E
2
TH4E
119
Element Formulations
HX8E Elements
PN6E Elements
Y
Arrows indicate +ve
stress directions
XY
YZ
XY
Y
YZ
X
XZ
XZ
Z
120
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements
n
geometry x Ni L xi
i 1
where Ni( ) is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of nodes. L =
[L1, L2, L3, L4] represent volumetric coordinates. The nodal configuration (Fig.7.4.4-1)
is the same as the corresponding solid elements available within LUSAS. The nodal
degrees of freedom are
u, v and w at each node
The 3D infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is defined as
121
Element Formulations
x 0 0
0
0
x y
y 0
0
z
ε z u Ba
xy
0
yz y x
zx 0
z y
0
z x
Each composite layer is assumed homogeneous, isotropic or orthotropic material. The
general linear elastic relationship between stresses and strains with initial stresses
0, initial strains 0, and thermal effects can be written as
σ Dε ε0 α σ0
where D is the elasticity matrix, vector of coefficient of thermal expansion, and a
temperature rise. The isotropic elastic modulus matrix
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 2
D
E 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 2
1 2
0 0 0 0 0
2
1 2
0 0 0 0 0
2
and the orthotropic elastic modulus matrix in the principal coordinates of orthotropy
122
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements
1
1 21 31
E 0 0 0
E2 E3
1
12 1 32
E E2
E3
0 0 0
1
13 23 1
0 0 0
E E2 E3
D 1
*
1
0 0 0 0 0
G12
1
0 0 0 0 0
G23
1
0 0 0 0 0
G13
where Ve represents the whole element, nply is the number of plies in the element,
i i
npartition (=1 or 2) is the number of partitions for layer i, V j represents the jth partition
of layer i. The superscript (i) indicates layer i.
123
Element Formulations
the elemental nodal force vector corresponding to initial stresses and initial strains
i
nply npartition
fssi e B Dε0dV e B σ0dV
e T T
BT Di ε0dV e BTσ0dV ,
V j
i
V V V
i 1 j 1
124
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements
Note that the contribution from body and face loading, and initial stresses is not
necessary to be integrated in the layer-wise manner.
The consistent mass matrix of the element is calculated as
i
nply npartition
M e N NdV
T
NT i NdV
V j
i
V
i 1 j 1
where is the density. Rayleigh damping defines the damping matrix C as a linear
combination of the mass and stiffness matrixes. However, for the viscous damping
i
nply npartition
C e N cNdV
T
NTci NdV
V j
i
V
i 1 j 1
L2 , L3 , L4 ) in Vj , we can first find its global coordinates (x, y, z). Then its local
i
coordinates (L1, L2, L3, L4) used to define matrices N and B can be obtained by
inverting the following relationship between the Cartesian and volumetric coordinates,
which is true for linear tetrahedral elements]:
1 1 1 1 1 L1
x x x4 L2
1 x2 x3
y y1 y2 y3 y4 L3
z z1
z2 z3 z4 L4
We can simplify slightly the above relation by using
L1 L2 L3 L4 1
and obtain
125
Element Formulations
x x4 x1 x4 x2 x4 x3 x4 L1
y y4 y1 y4 y2 y4 y3 y4 L2
z z z z z2 z4 z3 z4 L3
4 1 4
For higher order tetrahedral elements, we can write the residual from
n
r x Ni L xi
i 1
and calculate the corresponding local coordinates of a point with global Cartesian
coordinates x through the Newton-Raphson method. Note that
where = L1, = L2, = L3, the quadratic convergence can always be guaranteed,
unless the element is unreasonably shaped.
L JTr
In integration of element stiffness, mass and damping marices and load vectors, we
may not collect all the partitions for each layer and hence loop over layers. Instead, we
may give a label to each partition to identify the layer it belongs to, and loop over all
partitions directly for numerical integration.
The formulation above is only for infinitesimal deformation of linear elastic laminates.
Initial stresses/strains, shrinkage, thermal effects, geometric and material nonlinearities
can be taken into account in the same manner as the brick element.
126
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements
4
10 9
7 5
3 8 6
1 1 4
2
2 3
TH4S TH10S
Fig.7.4.4-1 Nodal Configuration For Tetrahedral Composite Solid Elements
Surfaces of
laminate ply
I I
I
a1 a1 c1
c1 a1
c1 b1
a2 c2 b1
J a2 J a2 J
c2 b1
K b2
K d2 b2
K
c2
b2 L L
L
Fig.7.4.4-2 Three possible configurations of the laminated tetrahedral element:
(a) Only one edge IK passes through all the layers; (b) Two edges IK and IL
pass through all the layers; (c) Three edges IJ, IK and IL pass through all the
layers, which are approximately parallel to the base JKL.
127
Element Formulations
Ni
1
4
b gb gb
1 i 1 i i i 1 g for corner nodes
Ni
1
2
e jb
1 2i 2 2i 1 i i g for mid-side nodes
The PN12L, HX8L, and PN6L elements use the equivalent shape functions for 6, 4 and
3 noded membranes. To form the complete shape functions for the brick element Nbr ,
linear interpolation is used between the functions for the top and bottom surfaces:
NTbr
1
2
b g b g
1 NTiabot f ; 1 NTibtopg
The in-plane and through-thickness shape functions can then be separated to give:
NTbr T T
where
1 T T
T N ;N
2 i i
128
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements
1
T NTi ; NTi
2
l
u u1, u2 ,.............. unq T
v lv , v ,.............. v q
T
1 2 n
w lw , w ,........... w q
T
1 2 n
T
RSu , v , w , u v , v w , u wUV
Tx y z y x z y z x W
The strain displacement relationship is given by:
Ba
LM
T T
0T 0T
OP
MM x x PP
T T
MM 0 T
y
y
0 T PP
MM 2 PP
M 0 PP
T 0T T
B M
c
MM
T T T
T
0 T PP
MM y y x
2 T
x
T PP T
MM 0 T
c
y
y P
P
MM 2 T P T
x PQ
T 0T
N c x
B can be split into two matrices combining in-plane and through thickness terms:
129
Element Formulations
B B B
1 2
where
LM T
0T 0T
OP LM T
0T 0T
OP
MM x PP MM x PP
T T
MM 0 T
y
0 P
P
T MM 0 T
y
0 P
T
PP
MM 2 PP MM
0 P
M0 PP M0 PP
T 0T T T 0T T
B M M
c
B
1
MM T T
0 P
P
T
2
MM T T
0 P
T
P
MM y x
2 T PP T MM y x
PPT
MM 0 T
c
y P
P MM 0
T 0T
y P
P
MM 2 P T
MM 0 P T
x PQ x PQ
T 0T T 0T
Nc N
The restriction of constant layer thicknesses provides an uncoupling between the in-
plane coordinates and the through-thickness coordinate. Consequently for the
transformation of the cartesian derivatives into the natural derivatives only a 2
dimensional Jacobian matrix is required.
R| U| LM x y OPR| U|
S| V| MM x PPS x V
PQ||T y ||W
y
|T |W MN
or inverted
1 1
J11 J12
x
1 1
J21 J22
y
where c is the depth of the element see figure 7.4.4-1. The differential of the volume is
given by
c
dV J dd
2
130
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements
K z
V
BT DB dV
to maintain symmetry.
As the matrices B and B are independent of , only D varies from layer to layer.
1 2
Therefore the strain-displacement matrices can be left out of the integration through the
thickness:
F LM OP
LM O I
GG B M T
nlay
z PQ
MN
D d B BT D dPB
PQ
nlay
z JJ
K zz GG N
1
n 1
lay
L
n
O
1
L
1
n 1
lay n 2
O JJ 2c J dd
GG
H
B M
T
MN
2
nlay
n 1 PQz
D dPB B M
layMN n 1
T
2
nlay
n 1
z
lay
D dPB J
2
PQ JK
n 2
131
Element Formulations
LMJ 1
T
1
J12
T
0T 0T
OP
MM 11
PP
T T
MM 0T 1
J21
1
J22
0T PP
MM 2 T PP
B M
M 0T 0T
c PP
1
MMJ 1
21
T
1
J22
T 1
J11
T 1
J12
T
0T PP
MM 2 T 1 T 1 PPT
MM 0T
c
J21
J22
P
P
MM 2 T T P T
PQ
1 1
0T J12
N c
J11
LMJ 1
T
1
J12
T
0T 0T
OP
MM 11
PP
T T
MM 0T 1
J21
1
J22
0T PP
MM PP
B M
M 0T 0T 0T
PP
2
MMJ 1
21
T
1
J22
T 1
J11
T 1
J12
T
0T PP
MM 1 T 1 PP T
MM 0T 0T J21
J22
P
P
MM T P T
PQ
1 1
0T 0T J12
N J11
132
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements
n
geometry X Ni b, gXi
i 1
133
Element Formulations
b g
where Ni , is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of nodes.
However, for consideration of stability, the pressures are only interpolated using the
corner nodes
N b, gP
ncorner
pressures P i i
i 1
where ncorner is the number of corner nodes. Fig.7.4.5-1 shows the nodal configurations
available within LUSAS.
The nodal degrees of freedom are U, V, W and P at the corner nodes and U, V and W
at the midside nodes.
The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in
(section 2.7).
The details of elastic modulus matrices applicable for these elements are described in
section 7.3.1.
These elements are used to model the behaviour of a two phase medium such as soil. In
this instance the two phases comprise the soil skeleton and the pore water fluid.
Separate equations are derived for each phase, coupled by the interaction of the pore
pressure and the soil deformation. The soil skeleton is analysed in terms of effective
stress (total stress minus pore water pressure), taking into account the loading due to
the pore pressure; whilst the pore fluid analysis takes account of the volumetric strain
due to the soil skeleton deformation.
The finite element method is used to solve the coupled equations in terms of nodal
displacements and pore pressures. Five 3D elements TH10P, PN12P, PN15P, HX16P
and HX20P based on a mixed displacement-pressure formulation are available in
LUSAS to solve these problems.
K z
v
BT D' B dv
z
L - BT mN dv
v
134
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements
S - z
v
1 T
Ke
N N dv
Under static fully drained conditions the coupled governing equations can be further
simplified as
LMK 0 UOPRS UV RS
ext
Fint F UV
N0 I P QT W T
0 W
where I is a unit matrix block.
LMK L U OPRS UV
LMK L OPRSUUV RSF UV
MNL
T
TH P PQT Wt t MNL T
(1 )THPQTP W TQW
t
where:
F is the incremental load
Q the incremental flow
the time stepping scheme parameter (set to 1.0 for backward Euler scheme)
H the permeability matrix
The permeability matrix H is defined in terms of the shape function derivatives and a
permeability matrix of the soil, K , as:
p
z
H NT K N dv
v
p
LM K L OPRS UV R|S
U k
Fext n1 Fint
n+1 k k
U|V
NLT
QT W |T c
tH P k t n Q Q tHn+1 P k LT h c U Uh|W
n 1 k n
135
Element Formulations
where the superscript on the left/right hand side represents the increment/iteration
number.
where:
Ke is the equivalent bulk modulus of the soil
Kf the bulk modulus of the pore fluid
Ks the bulk modulus of the solid soil particle
the porosity of the soil
In practical geotechnical applications it is usually difficult to determine Kf and Ks so a
large value of the equivalent modulus Ke is usually assumed, 1012> Ke >109.
136
Space Membrane Elements
D
LM OP
E 1
N Q
1 2 1
b g T ,
o t
T
The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in
(section 2.7).
Strain Output
x Meridional strain (+ve tension)
The element local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the
element nodes are specified. The local y and z axes form a right-hand set with the x-
axis such that the y-axis lies in the global XY-plane and the z-axis is parallel to the
global Z-axis (up out of page) (fig.7.5.1-4).
The Gauss point stresses are usually more accurate than the nodal values.
The nodal values of stress and strain are obtained using the extrapolation procedures
detailed in section 6.1.
137
Element Formulations
x
LM OP
u 1 u
2
LM OP
1 u
2
N Q
x 2 x N Q
2 x
LM OP
2
U 1 U
R 2 NRQ
x
The output is now in terms of the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and Green-
Lagrange strains referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is
conservative.
Y,V 1
2
1 BXM3
3
2
BXM2
X,U
138
Space Membrane Elements
139
Element Formulations
BXM3 elements
QAX8 elements
y
x
y
x
Y
y x 3
2
y 2
x
x
y
1
1
140
Space Membrane Elements
SMI4 PMI4
TSM3 TPM3
The nodal configurations are shown in fig.7.5.2-1. The nodal degrees of freedom are
U, V and W at each node
Only a lumped mass matrix is evaluated using the procedure defined in (section 2.7).
141
Element Formulations
3
3 4
Y, V
1
TSM3 2
2 1 SMI4
X, U
Z, W
142
Plate Elements
4
Y
z y
x
1
2
X
XY
X X
XY
Y X
143
Element Formulations
where and re the relative (departure from linearity) and absolute rotations of the
through-thickness normals after deformation. These rotations include the transverse
shear deformations (fig.7.6.1-2). An element with thin plate performance is then
produced by constraining the shear strains to zero at discrete points within the element.
These constraints provide extra equations that permit certain nodal degrees of freedom
to be discarded. The final nodal configurations are (fig.7.6.1-3)
where is the relative rotation about a tangent to the element edge. This removes 8
and 11 degrees of freedom for the 6 and 3 noded triangles and 11 and 15 degrees of
freedom for the 8 and 4 noded quadrilaterals respectively. This is achieved by using the
following constraints, originally proposed by Irons for the Semiloof shell [I1]
w
t y 0
x
At the points shown in fig.7.6.1-4, Where t is the through-thickness shear strain
tangential to the element edges. This provides 6 and 8 constraints respectively for the
triangles and quadrilaterals which are suitable for eliminating the mid-side translation
and normal rotation.
zA
XZdA 0 , z
A
YZdA 0
Where the integral is performed using 2*2 Gauss quadrature. This provides 2
constraints for both the triangles and quadrilaterals, which are suitable for removing the
rotations at the central node.
zS
ndS 0
Where n is the transverse shear strain normal to the element sides and the integral is
performed using 2-point quadrature along each side. This provides 1 constraint suitable
for removing the central translation of the quadrilaterals.
These constraints are sufficient for the higher order elements and the extra constraints
required for the lower order elements are provided by enforcing a linear variation of
tangential rotation along the element sides.
144
Plate Elements
U
X
X
V
Y
Y
U V
XY
Y X
The continuum displacements for plates of varying thickness are related to the original
degrees of freedom of the plate using
n
b g
z
U Ni , t i Yi
t i 1
n
b g
z
V Ni , t i Xi
t i 1
n
W Ni b, g Wi
i 1
where t and t i are the thicknesses of the plate at the integration and nodal points
respectively, and N() are the element shape functions. Therefore the discretised,
generalised, flexural strain-displacement relationship is
L 1 t N t i N1 OP
OP MM 1t Xt NX PPLM OP
i
LM 0
t X Wi
PP MM t Y Y
X n
N1
PPMM PP
t
MM Y
i i
Y
0 X i
N Q MM1 t N 1 t N
i 1
t
N1 t i N1 Yi N Q
Y PQ
XY ti
i i
N t Y X t X Y t Y t
where the terms involving t / X and t / Y are the small strain contributions due to
thickness variations. For flat plates
LM W OP
2
LM X OP MM XW PP 2
2
MM Y PP MM Y PP 2
N XY Q M2 W P 2
MN XY PQ
145
Element Formulations
The isotropic and orthotropic elastic resultant modulus or rigidity matrices are
Isotropic e j d(dzT) , , 0, 0, 0
0 t
T
Orthotropic e j d(dzT) , ,
0 t x y xy , yz , xz
T
Isotropic e j dadzTf , , 0
0 t
T
Orthotropic e j daTf , ,
0 t dz
x y xy
T
Strain Output
X , Y, XY the flexural strains in the global Cartesian system.
The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.5.2-6.
The Gauss point values are usually more accurate than the nodal values.
The nodal stress resultants are evaluated using the extrapolation procedures detailed in
section 6.1.
Note. Approximate shear forces evaluated by differentiating the moments may also be
output.
146
Plate Elements
W W
W
y y
y
6 5
7 x x
W
x y
W W 5
W x
y y
y W
W
9 4 y
8 x x 6
x y
x 4
W W x
W
Y y y Y
y W
W W
2 y y
1 x x
3 y
x
2 3
X 1 x x
x
Displacement of any
W / X point a distance z
along normal is
Y U = z Y
Z where
XZ W
Y XZ
X
Y
X
147
Element Formulations
W
x W
W y y
3
4 y
x x
x
W
W W W
y
y y y
2
1 x
x x x
QF4 TF3
W W
W
y 7 y
4 y
3
3
x x
x
8
6
6
5
W W
W
Z y y W
y
1 y
1 5 2
x x 4
x 2
x
Y QF8
TF6
1/ 3 1/ 3
2
1/ 3
1/ 3 1/ 3
2 2 1/ 3
1/ 3 1/ 3
1/ 3 1/ 3
2
2
Fig.7.6.1-4 Locations Where The Transverse Shear Strain Tangential To The Element
Edge Is Constrained To Zero
148
Plate Elements
QF4 elements
Y
X
(b) Finite Element Mesh
MXY
MY
MX
MX
MXY MXY
Z MY
Y
X
MXY
149
Element Formulations
where XZi and YZi are the transverse shear strains along the element sides and Pi are
linear interpolation functions defined in fig.7.6.2-1.
The extra higher order degrees of freedom are condensed out before assembly so that
the final nodal configuration is (fig.7.6.2-2)
LMD 0 OP
MN 0 PQ
D b
D
s
LM1 0 OP
Et 3
M 1 0 PP
12e1 j M
MN0 0 a1 2 f PQ
D 2
Et LM1 0OP
2.4a1 f N0 1Q
D
s
t M
L 1 / E / E
3 x xy x 0 OP 1
D M / E
1/ E 0 PP
12 M
b yx y y
N 0 0 1 / Gxy Q
t LG 0 O
and D
s . N
12 M 0 G PQ
yz
xz
150
Plate Elements
Isotropic e j dadzTf , , 0, 0, 0
0 t
T
Orthotropic e j daTf , , ,
0 t dz
x y xy yz , xz
T
Strain Output
X , Y, XY the flexural strains in the global Cartesian system,
The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.6.2-4.
The Gauss point values are usually more accurate than the nodal values. The nodal
stress resultants are evaluated using the extrapolation procedures detailed in section
6.1.
151
Element Formulations
3 4 3
1 2 1 2
P5 P66
4
3
1 1 2
2
P7 P8
W
x
W 3 y
4 y
x
x
W
W
y
y
Z 2
1 x
x
152
Plate Elements
MXY
MY
MX SY MX
MXY MXY
SX
SX MY
Z
Y
SY
X
MXY
153
Element Formulations
W, X , Y at each node
where X and Y are the rotation of the normals to the mid-surface and include the
effects of shear deformations. The infinitesimal, generalized, flexural strain-
displacement relationship is derived from the 3-D continuum strain-displacement
relationship by neglecting the out of plane strain, so that
Y
X
X
X
Y
Y
Y Y
XY
Y X
W
YZ X
Y
W
XZ Y
Y
The elastic resultant modulus or rigidity matrix is defined as
LMD 0 OP
MN 0 PQ
D b
D
s
Et 3
LM 1 0 OP1
D
b 12(1 2 ) MM 1 0 PP
N 0 0 (1 ) / 2 Q
and
154
Plate Elements
LM
t Gyz 0 OP
D
s 12
. N
0 Gxz Q
and for orthotropic materials
t3
LM
1 / Ex xy / Ex 0 OP1
D
b 12 MM
xy / Ex 1 / Ey 0 PP
0N 0 1 / Gxy Q
and
LM
t Gyz 0 OP
D
s 12
. N
0 Gxz Q
where yx has been set to xyEy / Ex to maintain symmetry.
Isotropic e j dadzTf , , 0, 0, 0
0 t
T
Orthotropic e j daTf , , ,
0 t dz
x y xy yz , xz
T
Both consistent and lumped mass matrices are available and are evaluated using the
procedures defined in section 2.7.
Strain Output
X , Y, XY - the flexural strains in the global Cartesian system,
The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.6.3-4.
The Gauss point values are usually more accurate than the nodal values.
155
Element Formulations
The nodal stress resultants are evaluated using the extrapolation procedures detailed in
section 6.1.
Displacement of any
W / X point a distance z
along normal is
Y U = z Y
Z where
XZ W
Y XZ
X
Y
X
W W
W
y y
y
6 5
7 x x
W
x y
5
W W x
y y W
W
8 4 y
x x 6 y
x 4
W W x
W
Y y y Y
y W
W W
2 y y
1 x x
3 y
x
2 3
X 1 x x
x
Z QTF8 TTF6
156
Plate Elements
MXY
MY
MX SY MX
MXY MXY
SX
SX MY
Y
Z
SY
X
MXY
157
Element Formulations
2v
x
x2
1 v
z cos
R x
158
Shell Elements
where R and are the radius and angle between the local and global Cartesian systems
(fig.7.7.1-2)
The elastic modulus and resultant modulus (or rigidity) matrices are defined as
LMD 0 OP
Explicit
MN 0 PQ
D m
D
b
where
Isotropic Et 1 LM OP Et3 LM1 OP
D
m 1 2 1 N Q D
b 12e1 j N 1Q
2
Orthotropic t LM E OP x xz
3
t LM E OP
x xz
D
m 1 2xz N E Q xz z
D
b 12e1 j N
2
xz xz E Q
z
Numerically Integrated
LM 1 y y OP
D z E
t 1 2
MM y
MNy
1 y
y y2
y
y2
y y2 y2
dy PP
PQ
The thermal strain vector is defined as
LM T OP
MM daTTf PP
Isotropic e j M dy P
0 t
MM daTf PP
MN dy PQ
LM T OP x
MM daTTf PP z
Orthotropic e j M dy P
MM daTf PP
0 t x
MN dy PQ z
159
Element Formulations
The forces and strains are output in the local Cartesian system, defined as having its x-
axis lying along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are
specified. The local y and z-axes form a right-hand set with the x-axis, such that the y-
axis lies in the global XY plane, and the z-axis is parallel to the global Z-axis (up out of
page) (fig.7.7.1-4).
The top fibre lies on the +ve local y side of the element and +ve values define tension.
The forces have greatest accuracy at the Gauss points.
Note Layer stress output is also available when the nonlinear continuum plasticity
model is utilised.
160
Shell Elements
x
u 1 u
LM OP 2
LM OP
1 v
2
x 2 x N Q N Q
2 x
u v u2 v2 uv
z cos sin 2 cos2 2 sin2 2 sin 2
R R 2R 2R 2R
2v u 2v v 2u
x
x2 x x2 x x2
1 v u v v v
z cos 2 cos2 2 cos sin
R x R x R x
where R is the radius and is the angle between the local and global Cartesian
systems.
The forces and strains output with the geometrically nonlinear analysis will be
the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff forces and Green-Lagrange strains respectively,
referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative.
Or
V V
Z Z
U U
3 3
V
U
Z
U
2 2
V Y V
Y
Z Z
U U
1 1
X X
161
Element Formulations
Axis of
v, y
Revolution
u, x
162
Shell Elements
A A
Plan
Section A - A
163
Element Formulations
y
x
y x
Y
x
y
z
x
Y y
z
x
Mx Mz
Nz Nx
164
Shell Elements
plate elements (QF4,TF3). The xy-plane of the local Cartesian system is evaluated
using a least squares fit through the element nodes. The membrane and bending
stiffnesses are then formed independently, and combined to give
Table 7.7.2-1 Primary Elements Used To Form Flat Thin Shell Elements
LM 1.0 1 / 3 1 / 3 OP
1 / 3
The strain-displacement relationship is defined in section 7.3 (in-plane) and section 7.6
(bending).
Note. The incompatible terms in the strain-displacement matrix are not used to
evaluate nodal loads due to initial Gauss point stresses, e.g. thermal loading, initial
stresses.
165
Element Formulations
For further details of the element formulation see section 7.3, section 7.6, [Z1,L2]
A lumped mass matrix is evaluated using the procedures presented in section 2.7.
The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.7.2-3.
The xy-plane of the local Cartesian system is evaluated using a least squares fit through
the element nodes. The local x-axis is defined as being a line joining the first and
second element nodes, and the local y and z-axes are defined by a right hand screw rule
(fig.7.7.2-4)
The nodal stress resultants are evaluated by extrapolating the strain-displacement
relationship at the Gauss point to the nodes. The nodal stress is computed at each node
directly.
The stress resultants are most easily interpreted if the local Cartesian axes are all
parallel. Average nodal stresses are in the global Cartesian system.
166
Shell Elements
W W W
z W z z
z
y y
Z y 1 V
V V
1 V y 2
U x 2 U x U x
U x
QS4/QSI4 TS3
Y
Fig.7.7.2-2 Cylindrical Roof Example Illustrating Use Of Thin Flat Shell Elements
167
Element Formulations
MXY
MY
MX
MX
Stress Resultants MXY MXY
Y
MY
Z
X
MXY
X, Y +ve tension
XY +ve into XY quadrant
Y
Y
XY
Stresses
X X
XY
Y X
4 y
3 1
x
z
z
y
Z x 2 2
3
Y
168
Shell Elements
where x and y are the rotations of the through-thickness normals. These rotations
include transverse shear deformations.
An element with thin shell performance is then produced by constraining the shear
strains to zero at discrete points within the element, i.e. by ensuring that [I1]
w
t y 0
x
at the points shown in fig.7.7.4-2. Where t is the through-thickness shear strain
tangential to the element edges. This provides 6 and 8 constraints respectively for the
triangles and quadrilaterals which are suitable for eliminating the tangential rotations at
the loof nodes.
z A
xzdA 0, z
A
yzdA 0
where the integral is performed using 2*2 Gauss quadrature. This provides 2
constraints for both the triangles and quadrilaterals which are suitable for removing the
rotations at the central node.
z S
ndS 0
where n is the transverse shear strain normal to the element sides and the integral is
performed using 2-point quadrature along each side. This provides 1 constraint suitable
for removing the central translation of the quadrilaterals.
These constraints provide extra equations that permit certain nodal degrees of freedom
to be discarded. The final nodal configurations are (fig.7.7.4-3)
U, V, W - at the corner and mid-side nodes,
169
Element Formulations
2w
x
x2
2w
y
y2
2w
xy 2
xy
The isotropic and orthotropic modulus and resultant modulus (rigidity) matrices are
defined as
Explicit
LMD 0 OP
MN PQ
membrane
D
0 D
bending
LM1 0 OP
E M
0 P
1 M
1
a1 f P
D 2
MN0 0 2 PQ
membrane
LM1 0 OP
Et 3
M 1 0 PP
12e1 j M
MN0 0 a1 2 f PQ
D 2
bending
170
Shell Elements
LM 1 / E x xy / Ex 0 OP 1
D M / E 1 / Ey 0 PP
membrane
MN 0 xy x
0 1 / Gxy Q
t M
3
L 1/ E x xy / Ex 0 OP 1
D M / E 1 / Ey 0 PP
12 M
bending xy x
N 0 0 1 / Gxy Q
where yx has been set to xyEy / Ex to maintain symmetry.
Notes
Numerically Integrated
LM 1 0 z z 0OP
MM 1
a f
0
1
z z
a f PP
0
1 z
D z E
t 1 2
MM 0
MMzz z
z
0
2
0
0
z
0
z
2
2
0
z2
z2
2
0
0
PP
PP
dz
MM 0 a f
1 z a f PP
1 z2
N 0
2
0 0
2 Q
The thermal strain vector is defined as
LM T OP
MM 0T PP
Isotropic e j MM dadzTf LMN T ddT OPQPP
0 t
MM daTf L d OPP
MM dz MN T dT PQPP
N 0 Q
171
Element Formulations
LM x T OP
MM y
T
T PP
MM daTf L xy
d O PP
e j MM dz MN
dT PQ P
T x
Orthotropic x
daTf L d O P
0 t
MM dz MN T dT PQ PP
y
y
MM daTf L T d OPP
MN dz MN dT PQPQ
xy
xy
The local Cartesian system varies over the element for curved elements. For the
quadrilateral element, the local y-axis, at any point within the element, coincides with
the curvilinear line = constant (fig.7.7.4-8). The local x-axis is perpendicular to the
local y-axis in the +ve direction and is tangential to the shell mid-surface. For the
triangular element, the local Cartesian system is formed by orientating the local y-axis
172
Shell Elements
parallel to a line joining the mid-point of the first side with the 5th node. The x-axis is
then formed perpendicular to the y-axis and tangential to the shell mid-surface, with the
+ve direction defined by the +ve direction. The local z-axis forms a right-handed set
with the x and y-axes. The +ve z-axis defines the top surface.
The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.7.4-9.
The nodal stress resultants are evaluated using the extrapolation procedures detailed in
section 6.1.
Notes
The Gauss point stresses are converted to the global Cartesian system before
extrapolation.
The average nodal stresses are in the global Cartesian system.
x
LM OP 1 LM v OP 1 LM w OP
u 1 u
2 2 2
N Q 2 N x Q 2 N x Q
x 2 x
v 1 L u O 1 L v O 1 L w O
2 2 2
y M P M P M P
y 2 N y Q 2 N y Q 2 N y Q
u v u u v v w w
xy
y x x y x y x y
2w
x
x2
173
Element Formulations
2w
x
y2
2w
xy 2
xy2
The output is now in terms of the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and Green-Lagrange
strains referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative.
or
An Updated Lagrangian formulation, which takes account of large
displacements and moderately large strains provided that the strain increments
are small. The output is now in terms of the True Cauchy stresses and the strains
approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading approximates to being non-
conservative.
The initial assumptions used in deriving the shell elements limit the rotations to
one radian in a Total Lagrangian analysis, and rotation increments of one radian
in an Updated Lagrangian analysis (section 3.5).
174
Shell Elements
V V
V
7 x x 5
U U
6 U
W W
y y
W
x
y
y
x
W
V V
y
8
U U
W x W 4
x
y y
V x
V y V
U y
Y
U W 2 x U
x
W 1 W 3
X
(a) QSL8 V
Z 5
U
x W
y
y
V
x
V
6 U
W U
x 4
W
y
y
V x
V y V
U y
Y
2
U W x U
1
x 3
W W
X (b) TSL6
175
Element Formulations
1/ 3 1/ 3
1/ 3
2
1/ 3
(a) QSL8
2
1/ 3
1/ 3
2 1/ 3
1/ 3
1/ 3 1/ 3
(b) TSL6
176
Shell Elements
V V
V
7 5
U U
6 U
W W
2 1
W
2
1
W
V V
y
8
U U
W x W 4
2 1
V
V 1 V
U 2
Y
U W 2 U
W 1 W 3
X
(a) QSL8 V
Z 5
U
W
2
1
V
V
6 U
W U
4
W
2
1
V
V V
U
Y
2
U 1 W 2 U
1 3
W W
X (b) TSL6
177
Element Formulations
Fig.7.7.3-4 Tubular Joint Example Illustrating Use Of QSL8 And TSL6 Elements
178
Shell Elements
QSL8 elements
BSL3 elements
Fig.7.7.3-6 Stiffened Shell Illustrating Coupling Between QSL8 And BSL3 Elements
179
Element Formulations
z
4
x
6 y
7 2
z
x
y 4
5
3
6 2
180
Shell Elements
XY
X X
XY
Y X
Stresses
XY
X X
XY
Y X
MXY
MY
MX
MX
MXY MXY
Z
Y MY
X
MXY
Stress Resultants
181
Element Formulations
and are the rotations of the through-thickness normals. These rotations include
transverse shear deformations and relate to a set of 'local' axes set up at each node. To
avoid singularities, the direction of these axes is dictated by the direction of the nodal
normal. One of the global axes is chosen to define the rotation, the axis chosen
corresponds with the smallest component of the nodal vector. The cross product of this
axis and the nodal vector defines the second axis of rotation for (fig.7.7.4-1). This
definition of the rotations is used when a smooth surface configuration is to be
modelled (fig.7.7.4-2). In the event of a discontinuity, connection with a beam element,
or a branched shell junction, these rotations are transformed to relate to global axes, x ,
y , z (fig.7.7.4-1).
The location of the transverse shear sampling points for defining the assumed strain
fields are shown in fig.7.7.4-3. For the four noded quadrilateral (QTS4) the factors for
interpolating from the sampling points to the gauss points are
R1
1
2
a f
1
R2
1
2
a f
1
while for the eight noded element (QTS8) the factors are
R1
1LM OPa f
1
1 1 R5
4 N Qa 4
1 L O
M1 Pa1 f R
1
4 N aQ
R2 5
4
182
Shell Elements
R3
LM OPa f
1 1
1 1 R5
N Q
4 a 4
1 L O
M1 Pa1 f R
1
4 N aQ
R4 5
4
1 L LO O
2
M1 M P Pe1 j 2
4 MN N a Q PQ
R5
where
a 1 / 3
and
Si (, ) Ri (, )
The covariant transverse shear strains at the gauss points are then given by
n
Ri b, g i
i 1
n
Si b, g i
i 1
where and are the covariant transverse shear strains at the gauss points and
i
e1 G / G
e j
e 3 e1 x G / e1 x G
e 2 e 3 x e1
183
Element Formulations
b g
Strains in the curvilinear system lm may then be transformed to strains in the
d i
ij by using the contravariant base vectors
orthogonal local system
d i dG e ieG e j
ij lm
1
i
m
j
The elements are formulated using the plane stress hypothesis so that zz in the
thickness direction is set to zero. The continuum strains are evaluated at integration
points through the thickness, and for the geometrically linear case these strains are
given by
xx u
x
yy v
y
u v
xy
y x
v w
yz
z y
u w
yz
z x
Material properties are specified in the local orthogonal axes. For a thick shell the
modulus matrix is condensed so that the plane stress hypothesis is observed.
The isotropic modulus matrix is given by [Z1]
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
1
E 0 0
D 2
1 2 1
2k
0
Symm. 1
2k
184
Shell Elements
Ex Ex yx
0
1 xyyx
0 0
1 xyyx
Ey
1 xyyx
0 0 0
D
Gxy 0 0
G yz
0
k
Gxz
Symm.
k
where k accounts for the non-constant distribution of the transverse shear stresses,
which has been assumed when the through thickness integration is performed. For a
homogenous isotropic material the true distribution is parabolic and k=1.2. For
laminated composite shells its calculation is more complicated and it involves the in-
plane stiffness of each layer, [H9]. In general, there would be a coupling between the
two transverse shear terms, which, for simplicity, is not presented above.
Residual bending flexibility correction (RBF). The introduction of RBF can
significantly improve the performance of TTS3 elements. The modulus matrix can be
decomposed into a modulus matrix relating in-plane stresses and strains, and a
modulus matrix relating out-of-plane shear stresses and strains
where I is a 2×2 unit matrix, is the area of the element on the reference surface,
is the shear rigidity matrix, and
with t the thickness, the bubble function, the shape function matrix composed
of for bubble mode enhancement of rotations, and the differential operator.
185
Element Formulations
As the material properties are specified in local element directions and the element
formulation is based on covariant components of strain, the modulus matrix must be
transformed.
The required transformation of the modulus matrix is
d id id id i
Cijkl Gi ea G j eb Gk ec Gl ed D
abcd
Full details of the element formulations may be found in [D4],[H9] and [S7].
Both consistent and lumped mass matrices are available and are evaluated using the
procedures defined in (section 2.7).
186
Shell Elements
The local cartesian systems are set up at the element reference surface. For curved
elements, the local Cartesian system will vary over the reference surface. The local x-
axis, at any point within the element, coincides with the curvilinear line = constant in
the direction of increasing (fig.7.7.5-4). The direction of the local z-axis is defined by
the vector product of the local x-axis and the curvilinear line = constant (in the
direction of increasing ). The local y-axis is defined by the vector product of the local
z and local x-axes. The +ve z-axis defines the element top surface. The position of the
origin of the curvilinear system for each element together with the directions of
increasing values are shown in (fig.7.7.5-5).
The sign convention for stress and strain output is shown in fig.7.7.5-6 and fig.7.7.5-7.
The nodal stresses and strains are evaluated using the extrapolation procedures detailed
in section 6.1.
Notes
The Gauss point stresses are converted to the global Cartesian system before
extrapolation.
The average nodal stresses are in the global Cartesian system.
x
LM OP 1 LM v OP 1 LM w OP
u 1 u
2 2 2
N Q 2 N x Q 2 N x Q
x 2 x
v 1 L u O 1 L v O 1 L w O
2 2 2
y M P M P M P
y 2 N y Q 2 N y Q 2 N y Q
u v u u v v w w
xy
y x x y x y x y
187
Element Formulations
v w u u v v w w
yz
z y z y z y z y
u w u u v v w w
xz
z x z x z x z x
The output is now in terms of the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and Green-Lagrange
strains referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative.
V
Z,w
V
X,u
Z,w
z
y
Y,v
x
X,u
188
Shell Elements
V2
V1 V3
2
1 3
Element 1 Element 2
V21 V22
V1 V3
2
1 Element 1 Element 2 3
189
Element Formulations
2
4 3 4 3
1 2
1 2 1 2
1
(a) QTS4
3 4
7 6 5 7 6 5
a a
3 4
a a
8 8 4
5 5
a a
1 2
a a
1 2 3 a = 3-1/2 1 2 3
1 2
Shear Shear
(b) QTS8
190
Shell Elements
4
z 3 = constant
y
5
x
2
= constant
5
= constant
= constant
6
z 4
y
x
7
3
8 2
191
Element Formulations
2 3
5 2
3
1 1
3 5
4 4
7
2 8 3
1 1
(c) QTS4 (d) QTS8
192
Shell Elements
y
y
xy
x x
xy
y
x
z z
xz yz
xz yz
x y
193
Element Formulations
Y Y
Mxy
My Sx
Mx
Mxy Sy
Mxy
Mx Sy
Sx
My Mxy
Y
X X
Nx
Nxy Ny
Nxy
Nxy
Ny
Nxy
Nx
194
Field Elements
The nodal degree of freedom is the field variable . The cross sectional area of the
material is defined at each node and may vary over the element.
The gradient-field variable relationship is defined as
gx
x
where x represents the local x-direction of the element. The field gradient is related to
the flow by
qx k gx
gx field gradient
qx flow
The local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes
are specified.
The Gauss point values are generally more accurate.
195
Element Formulations
Y,V
1
2 BFD3
1
3
2
BFD2
X,U
Continuum elements
196
Field Elements
The nodal degree of freedom is the field variable . The gradient-field variable
relationship is defined as
gx
x
The field variable is related to the flow by
qx k gx
gx field gradient
qx flow
The local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes
are specified.
The Gauss point values are generally more accurate.
Y,V
1
2 BFX3
1
3
2
BFX2
X,U
197
Element Formulations
Problem Definition
Convection q hc (1 2 )
where K is the gap conductance. hc and h r are the convective and radiative heat
transfer coefficients.
198
Field Elements
Note that the material properties may be dependent on both the gap distance and the
temperature evaluated at the centre of the element.
The element stiffness matrix may be derived from the nodal flows which are defined as
b
Q1 Kt A 1 2 Q2 g
where Kt is the combined heat transfer coefficient for the element. The stiffness matrix
is then rewritten as
KK K
o 1
K Kt A
LM 1 1OP
o N1 1 Q
and K1 is the nonlinear contribution to the stiffness matrix defined as
LM K Ab g
t Kt
b g OP
A 1 2
K M P
1 2
2
MM K Ab g gPPQ
1
1
N
t
1
1 2
K
2
b
t A 1 2
gx field gradient
qx flow
The local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes
are specified.
The Gauss point values are generally more accurate.
199
Element Formulations
Y,V
2
LFD2
LFX2
LFS2
X,U
LFX2 elements
QAX8 elements
Fig.7.8-6 Thermal Analysis Of An Interface Fit Illustrating The Use Of Link Field
Elements
200
Field Elements
gX
X
gY
Y
The isotropic and orthotropic thermal conductivity modulus matrices are defined as
follows
Isotropic k
LMk 0OP
N0 k Q
Orthotropic
Lk 0 OP
kM
x
N0 k Q y
q X , qY flow
3 6
5
4 7
8 4
2
1 2 3
QFD4 1
QFD8
Y 5
1
4
6
2 2
1 3
3 TFD3 TFD6
201
Element Formulations
202
Field Elements
Isotropic k
LMk 0OP
N0 k Q
Orthotropic
Lk 0 OP
kM
x
N0 k Q y
q X , qY flow
203
Element Formulations
3 6
5
4 7
8 4
2
1 2 3
QXF4 1
QXF8
Y 5
1
4
6
2 2
1 3
3 TXF3 TXF6
Well
Flow
Point sink to
represent well
204
Field Elements
1.8.6 Solid Field (HF8, HF16, HF20, PF6, PF12, PF15, TF4,
TF10)
The solid field elements (fig.7.8-11) are formulated using the 3-D quasi-harmonic
equation (section 2.10). The nodal degree of freedom is the field variable .
The gradient-field variable relationship is defined as
gX
X
gY
Y
gZ
Z
The isotropic and orthotropic thermal conductivity modulus matrices are defined as
follows
LMk 0 0 OP
Isotropic k M0 k 0 PP
MN0 0 k Q
LMk x 0 0 OP
Orthotropic kM0 ky 0 PP
MN 0 0 kz Q
1.8.6.1 Element output
The element output consists of the gradients of the field variables or flows in the global
axis system at either the Gauss or nodal points, i.e.
gX , gY, gZ field gradient
q X , qY , q Z flow
205
Element Formulations
15
8 16
7 14 13
5
9 12
6 4 10
11
3 7
1 6
8
5
1 4
2 HF8 2 HF16
3
19 6
20
18
17 4
13 16
14 12
15 11 5 3
9 7
8 6
5 1
10 PF6
1 4
2
3
HF20
2
11 15 14
12 10 13
7 10 11 9
8 12
9 5 6 5
6 7
4 8 4
1 1
2 PF12
2 PF15
3 3
4
10 9
7 5
3 8 6
1 4
1 2
TF4 TF10
2 3
206
Field Elements
Beryllia heat
sinks
Silicon Chips
Stainless steel
side walls
Copper Base
207
Element Formulations
n
geometry x Ni L xi
i 1
where Ni( ) is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of nodes. L =
[L1, L2, L3, L4] represent volumetric coordinates. The nodal configuration (Fig.7.8-13)
is the same as the corresponding field elements available within LUSAS. The nodal
degrees of freedom are
at each node
The field gradient vector g is defined as
x
g BΦ
y
z
The element thermal stiffness or conductivity matrix
K K Kc Kr (1
in which
208
Field Elements
nply npartition
k
K B κB dV T
BTκk BdV
V j
k
V
k 1 j 1
Kc hc NTs Ns dS
Sc
Kr hr NTs Ns dS
Sr
x 0 0
κ 0 y 0 ,
0 0 z
hc and hr are the convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients respectively. V
k
represents the whole element, nply is the number of plies in the element, npartition (=1 or
2) is the number of partitions for layer k, V j k represents the jth partition of layer k.
The superscript (k) indicates layer k. Sc and Sr represent element boundary with
convective and radiative heat flux, respectively.
The applied flux vector
F Q Qcext Qrext
in which the applied heat flow
where q is the imposed heat flux on element boundary Sq, Q is the rate of internal heat
generation and Qcon is the concentrated nodal heat flux. The heat flow due to
convection
209
Element Formulations
nply npartition
k
For a linear steady state analysis, all quantities related to radiation, i.e. defined on Sr,
vanish.
For transient field analysis the specific heat matrix
nply npartition
k
C N ρc Φ NdV
T
NTρk ck Φ NdV
V j
k
V
k 1 j
where c is the specific heat and is the density. The specific heat matrix can be
computed using two approaches:
considering an average value for the specific heat over layers and integrating
over the element.
integrating the specific heat matrix for each layer using the layer specific heat.
Details for the numerical integration of element characteristic matrices and flow
vectors are the same as tetrahedral composite structure elements.
210
Field Elements
4
10 9
7 5
3 8 6
1 1 4
2
2 3
TF4S TF10S
Fig.7.8-13 Nodal Configuration For Tetrahedral Composite Field Elements
Ni
1
4
b gb gb g
1 i 1 i i i 1 for corner nodes
211
Element Formulations
Ni
1
2
e jb
1 2i 2 2i 1 i i g for mid-side nodes
The PF12C, HF8C, and PF6C elements use the equivalent shape functions for 6, 4 and
3 noded membranes. To form the complete shape functions for the brick element Nbr ,
linear interpolation is used between the functions for the top and bottom surfaces:
NTbr
1
2
b g b g
1 NTiabot f ; 1 NTibtopg
The in-plane and through-thickness shape functions can then be separated to give:
NTbr T T
where
1 T T
T N ;N
2 i i
1
T NTi ; NTi
2
T T lq
H
l
1, 2 ,..............n q T
gT
RS , , UV
T x y z W
The field gradient - variable relationship is given by:
g B
212
Field Elements
LM OP
T T
MM x x PP
T T
BM
MM y 2 y PPP
MMN c PPQ T
and ‘c’ is the overall depth of the element shown in figure 7.8-13.
B can be split into two matrices combining in-plane and through thickness terms:
B B B
1 2
where
LM OP T
LM OP T
MM x PP T MMx PP
B M
MM2 y PPP
T
B M
1 2
MM 0y PPP T
MMN c PPQ T
MN PQ
The restriction of constant layer thicknesses provides an uncoupling between the in-
plane coordinates and the through-thickness coordinate. Consequently for the
transformation of the cartesian derivatives into the natural derivatives only a 2
dimensional Jacobian matrix is required.
R| U| LM x y OPR| U|
S| V| MM x
y
PPS x V
| |
T| W| NM QPT| y W|
or inverted
1 1
J11 J12
x
213
Element Formulations
1 1
J21 J22
y
where c is the depth of the element see figure 7.8-13. The differential of the volume is
given by
c
dV J dd
2
K z
V
BT k B dV
LMk x 0 0 OP
k M0 ky 0 PP
MN 0 0 kz Q
As the matrices B1 and B2 are independent of , only k varies from layer to layer.
Therefore the field gradient - variable matrices can be left out of the integration through
the thickness:
As the matrices B1 and B2 are independent of , only k varies from layer to layer.
Therefore the strain-displacement matrices can be left out of the integration through the
thickness:
Q JJ c T
K zz
1 lay n 1 1 lay n 2
n1 n1
GG B L k d OB B L k d OB JJ 2 J dd
MN z PQ MN z
PQ K
nlay nlay
T T
H
2
2 lay n 1 2 lay n 2
n1 n1
214
Field Elements
LM J 1 T 1
J12
T
OP LM J 1 T 1
J12
T
OP
MM 11
PP MM 11
PP
1 1 1 1
T T T T
B MJ J PP B MJ J PP
1
MM 21
2 T
22
PP
2
MM 21
0T
22
PP
MMN c
PQ MMN PQ
The through thickness dependency is condensed in the integration of the thermal
conductivity matrix which makes the assembly of the element thermal stiffness matrix
more efficient. The field gradient - variable matrices only have to be computed in-
plane. This is possible by restricting the element to a reasonably uniform thickness for
a single layer.
215
Element Formulations
where k and a are stiffness matrix and displacement vector in the local Cartesian
system.
Element strain output is evaluated in the local element system as
R| U| R| u u U|
x 2 1
S| V| S| v v V|
y 2 1 translational strain
T W Tw w W
z 2 1
R| U| R| U|
x x2 x1
and S| V| S| V|
y y2 y1 rotational strain
zT W T W
z2 z1
216
Joint Elements
Note. The joint element possess no geometrically nonlinear terms, however they may
be used as nonlinear support conditions in geometrically nonlinear analysis.
1 Springs
Rotational springs
y
x
3
2
z
Translational spring
Fig.7.9-2 Joint Element For Plate Bending Elements (One Translation And Two
Rotations)
217
Element Formulations
z
y
Z x
Y
y is given zero stiffness
to allow rotation
X
218
Joint Elements
y
Y x
3
1, 2
z y
4 x
Y
1, 2
219
Element Formulations
z1
1
qu dx q u1
N 2 z
1
1
2 z
LM 1 xax 1fdx u e1 x jdx + u
1
1
2
3 z
1 2
11
a f OPQ
x x 1 dx
= q M u u u OP
L 1 4 1
N3 3 3 Q
1 2 3
where the virtual work of the load is calculated from the perturbation of shape
functions particular to each node. From equilibrium, the nodal loads calculated must be
identical to the nodal loads developed by the discrete joint elements connected to the
nodes on the lower surface. Note, the nodal loads are different since the virtual work
arising from the perturbation of the mid-node is larger than that of the side nodes; there
is a corresponding difference in the internal strain energy associated with each virtual
perturbation.
If the elastic foundation has a stiffness per unit length of k, then the stress per unit
length is related to k by
q = ku
For a constant deflection u along the lower face, q may be substituted in each of the
nodal equilibrium equations resulting with discrete spring stiffnesses K of (see fig.7.9-
9)
1
At node 1 and 3 K k
3
4
At node 2 K k
3
If the beam is modelled by two or more elements, then the spring stiffness at
connecting nodes must be summed (fig.7.9-10).
For non-central midside nodes, the computer program may be used to calculate the
ratio of joint stiffnesses. If the appropriate boundary nodes are restrained, and a unit
face load applied, the resulting nodal reactions will correspond to the integrated shape
functions; these are also the ratio of spring stiffnesses to be used. With a little ingenuity
a variety of spring boundary conditions can be evaluated using appropriate loading and
the program to calculate equivalent reactions.
However, it is recommended that for nonlinear contact problems, linear elements
should be used if possible as higher order elements poorly represent the discontinuities
in the boundary conditions. This may result in either poor convergence or divergence
of the solution.
220
Joint Elements
l l
q
3 5
4
2 6
y
8 x
1 7
y
x
221
Element Formulations
2k/3
222
Fourier Elements
where N b, g are standard linear or quadratic isoparametric element shape functions
i
for node i and m is the number of nodes. The nodal degrees of freedom of the element
are
u,v,w at each node in the cylindrical coordinate system
223
Element Formulations
3 6
5
4 7
8 4
2
1 2 3
1
QAX4F QAX8F
5
1
4
6
2 3 2
1
3 TAX3F
TAX6F
Y,V
X,U
m m
v vsn cos n van sin n
n 0 n 1
224
Fourier Elements
m m
w wsn sin n wan cos n
n 0 n 0
n=0,1,..,m represents the range of harmonics considered and superscripts 's' and 'a'
denote the symmetric and asymmetric components. For each harmonic, the discretised
displacement is defined as
u N' a
LMN cos n
i 0 0 Ni sin n 0 0 OP
N' MM 00 Ni cos n 0 0 Ni sin n 0 PP
N 0 Ni sin n 0 0 Ni cos n Q
where Ni are the standard isoparametric shape functions.
225
Element Formulations
Isotropic
LMa1 f 0 O
0 PP
0 0
MM a1 f 0 0
0 P
MM a1 f a1 02f 0 P
E 0 P
D
a1 fa1 2f MM 0 0 0
2
a
0
1 2f
PP
MM 0 0 0 0 0 P
MMN 0 0 0
2
a1 2f PP
2 PQ
0 0
Orthotropic
LM 1 / E x yx / Ey zx / Ez 0 0 0 OP 1
MM // EE
xy x 1 / Ey
yz / Ey
zy / Ez 0 0 0 PP
DM PP
xz x 1 / Ez 0 0 0
MM 0 0 0 1 / Gxy 0 0
PP
MMN 00 0
0
0
0
0
0
1 / Gyz
0
0
1 / Gxz PQ
where for symmetry
xy yx xz zx yz zy
, ,
Ex Ey Ex Ez Ey Ez
In addition to the solid material definition of the element, a plane stress material model
may also be utilised. The constitutive relationship is,
LM 1 / E x yx / Ey 0 0 0 0 OP
MM 0/ E
xy x 1 / Ey 0 0 0 0 PP
DM PP
0 0 0 0 0
MM 0 0 0 1 / Gxy 0 0
PP
MMN 00 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 PQ
The use of this material model results in a reduction of the active stresses from
to
226
Fourier Elements
The plane stress material option is intended to allow the modelling of fan blades for
which the use of the full modulus matrix is inappropriate. Note that elements using this
material model should be adequately restrained in the tangential w direction.
A complete description of the element formulation is given in [C1].
227
Element Formulations
228
Fourier Elements
Pz
PZ
Py
PY
x Y
Pz
Px
PX
Y PZ X
229
Element Formulations
Assuming an arbitrary origin for the XYZ coordinate system (as shown in fig.7.10-3),
about which the angular accelerations and velocities are to be applied, results in the
following definition for the displacement vector r
d i d i d
r X x i Y r cos j Z r sin k i
where X, Y, Z define the shift in the global coordinate system.
r(X, Y, Z) with respect to a fixed system r' (X' , Y' , Z' ) is [S4]
b g
r' r 2xr x xr xr
where a dot signifies the derivative with respect to time and the vectors
X i Y j z k X i Y j z k
are the angular velocities and accelerations about the r'(X', Y', Z') axes and
r Xi Yj Zk
are the linear accelerations in the global X', Y' and Z' directions. Substituting for r gives
the accelerations with respect to the fixed system, X', Y' and Z'. To apply the resulting
inertial forces in the cylindrical coordinate system, the accelerations are resolved
(fig.7.10-4)
x x'
yL y' cos z' sin
zL y' sin z' cos
230
Fourier Elements
zl
Z
yl
x y
Z,Z
z
x r
x y
Z
o
X,X
Y,Y
Y
X
X Y
231
Element Formulations
where
c MM F 2e j I r PP
1 2
2H K
2 2
MM PP
1 Y Z X
N e jrX Q
LM e e 2 j jr
Y X Z
OP
c MMY b gdX xi e jY b gZPP
2 2
LM e e 2 j jr
Z X Y
OP
c MM Z b gdX xi b gY e jZ PP
2 2
L 0 O
c r MM PP
1 2 2
MN 2 PQ
4 Y Z
2
Y Z
1 M
L 0 OP
c r M 2 P
MN PQ
5 Y Z
2 2 2
Z Y
Using d'Alembert's principle, the inertia force may be included as part of the load
vector
Rb ze j e
v
N'
T
f j
x dv
Rb(f ) Rb(a)
where Rb(f ) is the element nodal and body forces and Rb(a ) is the inertial force vector
which includes the effects of angular velocities and accelerations
Rb(a) zzzbg
1 1 2
1 1 0
N'
T
x Y J d d
232
Fourier Elements
Strain Output
x, y, z, xy, yz, xz direct and shear strains
where x , y are the coefficients of the Fourier series expansion of the stresses and
strains. The principal stresses and strains are evaluated at = 0 only.
233
Element Formulations
234
Hygro-Thermal Elements
The displacement field u for these elements contains the bottom displacement ub and
the top displacement u t (number of components in ub and u t is two for the 2D
elements and three for the 3D elements) so that uT uTb uTt . The bottom and the top
displacements are interpolated as
ub Hp and ut Hp
b t
where p and p are the vectors of the bottom and the top nodal displacements. H is a
b t
matrix of shape functions, which for 2D and 3D takes the form
Lh OP LMh T 0T 0T OP
HM
T 0T
2D: 3D: H M0 T h T 0T PP
MN0 T hT PQ MN0 T 0T h T Q
where the ith component in vector h is the value of the ith shape function at a particular
point. The actual constitution of the interface element is defined in terms of the relative
displacements between the bottom and the top surfaces
ut ub B
R|Sp U|V Bp
b
|Tp |W
t
Examples of the form of the matrix B for IPN6 and IS16 are shown below:
B
LMh T hT 0T 0T OP
for IPN6 and
MN 0 T 0T hT hT PQ
LMh T h T 0T 0T 0T 0T OP
B M 0 T 0T hT hT 0T 0T for IS16. PP
MN 0
T 0 T 0T 0T h T h T Q
where R is the vector of applied loading and P is the vector of nodal internal forces.
The vector of nodal internal forces can be written in a standard form as
235
Element Formulations
z
P B dA
A
T
where the integration domain A is a line for the 2D elements and an area for the 3D
elements. For a given arbitrary constitutive relationship (note that is a relative
displacement between the element’s surfaces rather than a strain measure)
bg
where is a stress vector, the stiffness matrix in a geometrically linear analysis
follows as
z T
K B D BdA
A
t
i
where D is a tangent constitutive matrix, which follows from Dt,ij for a given
t j
material model. In order to eliminate spurious oscillations of the stress field along the
element [H13], the internal force vector and the stiffness matrix are integrated using a
Newton-Cotes integration rule rather than a reduced or full Gauss integration rule. The
interface elements can only currently be used with the delamination interface (non-
linear material model 25).
In a hygro-thermal analysis the model can be meshed with hygro-thermal elements only,
with the exception of thermal bars, which can be included.
Hygro impervious parts, where only heat transfer occurs, can be modelled with hygro-
thermal elements and isotropic thermal material properties. The ‘hygro’ properties will be
internally assigned appropriate values.
Thermal bar elements can be used to represent steel reinforcement in concrete. They must
connect nodes which already belong to hygro-thermal elements.
The finite element discretization of the governing partial differential equations in Section
2.17 results in the following system of ordinary differential equations
236
Hygro-Thermal Elements
where
Cij NC
ˆ NTd
ij
ˆ NTd
Kij NK
ij
F1
env
NT,env Tenv T d NQd
F2
Nv,env v,env iv1 d
env
and
T,env , v,env boundary convection heat and water vapour transfer coefficients
Boundary fluxes and internal water and water vapour generation are omitted for
simplicity of presentation.
The difference between Plane, Axisymmetric and Solid hygro-thermal elements is in
the domain of integration – element volume , and element boundary with the
specified boundary condition env . All elements are numerically integrated using the
fine integration scheme.
The hygro-thermal analysis of a concrete structure starting from casting can provide
results for the evolution of temperature and water saturation due to the hydration of
concrete and the drying through the exposed boundary surfaces. These results can be
used in a coupled analysis in which thermal and shrinkage strains, and possible
concrete cracking, will be calculated. The computed damaged material properties can
be used in a subsequent structural analysis to provide more realistic modelling.
One half of a concrete beam, modelled by plane hygrothermal elements QHT4, with
steel reinforcement modelled by thermal bar elements BFD2 is presented in Fig. 7.12.1.
237
Element Formulations
238
Hygro-Thermal Elements
Other
DH Degree of hydration,
TEFH Effective time of hydration
POR Porosity, n n
TC Thermal conductivity, kT
KI Krw
PMw Water permeability [m/s], Kw* w g
w
239
Element Formulations
240
Appendix A
Appendix A
Quadrature Rules
The locations and weights of the quadrature points used in integrating the element
matrices are listed in table A-1 to table A-7 and are shown in fig.A-1 to fig.A-7.
1 0.0000000000 2.0000000000
2 0.5773502692 1.0000000000
3 0.7745966692 0.5555555555
0.00000000000 0.8888888888
4 0.8611363116 0.3478548454
0.3399810436 0.6521451549
TABLE A-2 SAMPLING POINTS AND WEIGHTS FOR 5-POINT RULE FOR 2-D
QUADRILATERALS AND SHELLS
241
Element Formulations
A1 A2 A3
A1 A2 A3
V1 V2 V3 V4
242
Appendix A
i i i
TABLE A-6 - SAMPLING POINTS AND WEIGHTS FOR SPECIAL RULES FOR
3-D SOLIDS
243
Element Formulations
1
1 2
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 3 2
1 1 2 3 4 2
244
Appendix A
245
Element Formulations
3 3
3 1
1 2 2 2
1
(a) 1-Point Rule (b) 3-Point Rule
3 3
1
5
7 4
4
3 2 3 1
6
1 2 1 2
(a) 4-Point Rule (b) 7-Point Rule
1 2
1 2
246
Appendix A
1 3
2
(a) 1-Point Rule
4 2
1 3
1
2
(b) 4-Point Rule
6 2
3
5
3
1
4 1
2
(c) 6-Point Rule
247
Element Formulations
8 7
5
8 7
3 4 5
6
5 4
5 6
6
4 3
3
2 1
1 2
3
1 2 1 2
8 7 8 7
16 17 25 26 27
18
5 13 14 15 5
6 19 6 18
10 11 12
7 8 9
10 11 12 9
3 3
4 5 6
4 5 6
1 2 3
1 2
3
1 2 1 2
248
Appendix A
1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
249
Element Formulations
250
Appendix B
Appendix B
Restrictions On Element Topology
Mid-Length and Mid-Side Nodes
The mid-length and mid-side nodes of elements should be equidistant from the two end
nodes, and the element curvature must satisfy the following requirements
(i) |a - b|/(a + b) < 0.05
(ii) (a + b)/c < 1.02
where a, b and c are defined in fig.B-1.
a c
251
Element Formulations
252
Appendix C
Appendix C
Section Property Calculation for Tapered Sections
Interpolation options
The engineering properties at locations along a tapering beam are calculated in
different ways according to section type and the interpolation method that is either
permitted by the software or selected by a user. Two methods are available: Enhanced
and Linear.
1 1
2
1
Am A1 A2 ) A1 A2
2 2 2
and the moments of inertia and torsion constant at mid span are computed from
2
1 I I
Im Am 1 2
2
1A A
2
Note. Ixy which may be –ve so abs values should be used and the result should be
multiplied by the sign of Ixy1.
253
Element Formulations
Usage of Values
For beams defined using arbitrary sections of the same section shape at each beam end
the standard LUSAS section property calculator is used to calculate the values of A,
Iyy, Izz and Iyz. By default the enhanced interpolation method is used to calculate the
values of J, Asy and Asz, but the linear interpolation method is also available.
For beams defined using arbitrary sections with different section shapes at each beam
end, by default the Enhanced method is used to calculate all values but the linear
interpolation method is also available.
254
References
2 References
Contact support@lusas.com for details of all references stated in this manual.
255
References
256