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TENSILE TEST
Theoretical review
The first tensile test was made by Leonardo da Vinci around 1495. He investigated the
strength of ropes. A bucket was hung up with a rope and Leonardo poured sand into the
bucket. The sand’s mass was measured as the rope broke. The rope’s strength was
proportional with the mass of the sand. He discovered that if the length of the rope was
increased its strength decreased. This discovery is well-known nowadays, because the
longer the rope is the more possible it is that there are more defects in the material.
The aim of the tensile test is to determine material properties. This data is
indispensable in designing. Several standards exist for the tensile test, which depends on
the temperature, the material of the specimen, etc.
Our specimen in our test is cylindrical with diameter S0, and measures length L0.
Force and elongation will be measured. In tensile test, the specimen has only one axis
tensile stress. There are several types of standard specimens, because you may only
have plate material, or the machine, which is used for the test, has only limited space.
Table 1 shows some examples for different standard specimens.
Test machines has 3 types: (electro) mechanical, (electro) hydraulic and electro -
dynamic. In mechanical machines the rotation of ball screw spindles creates the
displacement. In hydraulic machines the oil pressure creates the displacement, while in
the electro - dynamic the displacement is created by electricity with linear motors. It is
worth knowing that these machines can also be used for compression and bending.
The force is measured with load cell, and the elongation is measured with the
machine’s displacement register.
Figure 1 Cylindrical specimen with initial diameter (d 0), and measuring length (L0)
During the tensile test (constant speed) the force is measured as a function of the
elongation. Figure 2 shows a typical mild steel’s tensile diagram, while Figure 3 depicts a
typical tensile diagram of aluminum. Figure 4-6 show the specimen schematic shape for
the specific phases (I.-III.), while Figure 7 depicts a real aluminum sample tensile test.
Fracture
Fracture
Figure 5 Deformed shape of the specimen in the phase of constant plastic deformation
One of the most important numbers is the yield stress. It indicates the stress which is
needed to create plastic deformation. There are different types of yield stresses, but the
most widely spread is practically the conventional yield stress. This is the engineering
stress which can be measured at 0,2% of the plastic deformation (Fig. 9).
Fp 0.2 N
R p 0.2 (MPa) (Fig. 9)
S0 mm2
Fr 0.2 N
Rr 0.2 (MPa) (Fig. 11)
S 0 mm 2
FeH N
ReH (MPa) (Fig. 12)
S 0 mm2
FeL N
ReL (MPa) (Fig. 12)
S 0 mm 2
F F F
Fp0.2 Fr0.2
Ft0.5
l 1 l2 l3
0.2 % 0.5 % 0 .2 %
l0 l0 l0
l1 l2 l3
l l l
Figure 9 The definition of Fp0.2 Figure 10 The definition of Ft0.5 Figure 11 The definition of Fr0.2
Tensile strength:
Fm N
Rm (MPa) (Fig. 12)
S 0 mm 2
Relative contraction:
S0 S u
Z 100 (%)
%
S0
where S0 is the initial cross section of the specimen, while Su is the smallest cross section
after fracture.
Lu L0
A 100 (%)
% if L0 = 5 d 0 (𝐿0 = 5,65√𝑆0 )
L0
Lu L0
A 11.3 100 %
(%) if L0 = 10 d 0 (𝐿0 = 11,3√𝑆0)
L0
Lu L0
A 80 100 (%) if L0 = 80 mm
L0
where L0 the initial measuring length of the specimen, and Lu is the measuring length
after fracture.
These numbers can also be defined in the engineering system and the real system. In the
engineering system the stresses are calculated with the initial cross section while in the
real system with the current cross section.
In the equations l is the current length of the measuring length while l0 is the
initial length. S is the current cross section, and S0 is the initial cross section. The
engineering and the real stress – strain diagram can be calculated from the tensile
diagram (Fig. 13).
Figure 13 Stress – strain diagram in real system (σ-φ) and in engineering system (σm- ε) of an
aluminum specimen
In the real system the stress always increases until the fracture.
The fracture energy can be calculated from the stress–strain diagram. The specific
fracture energy (Wc) is the area under the stress–strain diagram (Fig. 14). It is important
that the strain must be calculated from the cross section change after point m.
u u
Wc ( )d ( ) d
m
(J/cm3)
0 0
Rm uv
Wc u (J/cm3)
2
References