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Gowtham Books 2 of 150

 Volume 19

INDUSTRIAL

INSTRUMENTATION - II

A.Gowthaman ME,MBA

Mail : professorgowtham@gmail.com

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 INSTRUMENTATION BOOKS SERIES

Volume 1 Pressure measurement in Petrochemical Industries

Volume 2 Flow measurement in Petrochemical Industries

Volume 3 Temperature measurement in Petrochemical Industries

Volume 4 Level measurement in Petrochemical Industries

Volume 5 Analytical Instrumentation in Petrochemical Industries

Volume 6 Control Valves

Volume 7 Control Valves Design

Volume 8 Digital Controllers

Volume 9 Distributed Control Systems

Volume 10 Programmable Logic Controller

Volume 11 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System

Volume 12 Vibration Systems

Volume 13 Interview Questions

Volume 14 Instrumentation in Process Industry

Volume 15 Logic Distributed Control Systems ( Anna University

Syllabus)

Volume 16 Fire and Gas Detectors in Petrochemical Industries

Volume 17 Process Control ( Anna University Syllabus)

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UNIT I VARIABLE HEAD TYPE FLOWMETERS

Variable head type flow meters:- Orifice plate, Venturi tube, Flow nozzle and DalI tube —
Installation of head flow meters — Pitot tube

1.1 Variable head type flow meters basics

Variable head flowmeters operate on the principle that a restriction (or obstruction) in the line (or
pipe) of a flowing fluid, introduced by the orifice plate or venturi tube or elbow, produces a
differential pressure across the restriction element which is proportional to the flow rate, as shown
in Fig. The proportionality is not a linear one but has a square root relationship in that the flow
rate is proportional to the square root of the differential pressure. This relationship was derived
from Bernouli’s theorem which states that in a flowing stream, the sum of the pressure head, the
velocity head and the elevation head at one point is equal to their sum at another point removed
in the direction of flow from the first point plus the loss due to friction between the two points.
Velocity head is defined as the vertical distance through which a liquid would fall to attain a given
velocity. Pressure head is the vertical distance through which a column of the flowing liquid would
rise in an open-end tube as a result of the static pressure.

The basic equations are given as,

=K

= AK

= AK when Temperature and

Pressure is compensated.

where, V = velocity of flowing fluid

Q = volume flow rate
w = mass flow rate
A = cross-sectional area of pipe through which fluid is flowing
h = differential head (pressure) across the restriction element
g = acceleration due to gravity
p = density of the flowing liquid

K= constant

where C = discharge coefficient

β = diameter ratio β = d (diameter of restriction element)

D (inside diameter of the pipe)

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Units of Flow

The units used to describe the flow measured can be of several types depending on
how the specific process needs the information.

Solids. Normally expressed in weight rate like Tonnes/hour, Kg/minute etc.

Liquids. Expressed both in weight rate and in volume rate. Examples: Tonnes/hour,
Kg/minute, litres/hour, litres/minute, m3/hour etc.

Gases. Expressed in volume rate at NTP or STP like Std m3/hour, Nm3/hour etc.
Steam. Expressed in weight rate like Tonnes/hour, Kg/minutes etc.

Steam density at different temperatures and pressures vary. Hence the measurement
is converted into weight rate of water which is used to produce steam at the point of
measurement.

In the variable head type flow meters, a restriction of known dimensions is

generally introduced into pipeline, consequently there occurs a head loss or pressure
drop at the restriction with increase in the flow velocity. Measurement of this pressure
drop is an indication of the flow rate.

V2 A2
A1
V1

Z1 Z2

P1 P2

Datum line

Schematic representation of a one dimensional flow system with a restriction

Head type flow measurement derives from Bernoulli’s theorem which states
that in a flowing stream, the sum of the pressure head, the velocity head and the
elevation head at one point is equal to their sum at another point in the direction

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of flow plus the loss due to friction between the two points. Velocity head is
defined as the vertical distance through which a liquid would fall to attain a given
velocity. Pressure head is the vertical distance which a column of the flowing liquid
would rise in an open-ended tube as a result of the static pressure.

To understand the DP type flow measurement, we need to understand some

basic parameters.

Pressure head = P P = Pressure

Velocity head = ρv2 ρ= density, v = velocity
Elevation head = ρgh g = acceleration due to gravity
h = height

So according to the law,

P++ ρv 2 + ρgh is constant in any part of the pipe line.

Refer the figure, which represents a restriction in a flow line. With this setup,
let us apply the Bernoulli’s theorem.

P1 + + ρv 12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρv22 + ρgh 2

Assuming, the pipe is horizontal, h1 = h2, which reduces the equation into

P1 + + ρv 12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρv22 + ρgh2

P1 + + ρv 12 = P2 + ρv22

We know, flow is velocity times area and flow through the pipe is constant.

V 1 A1 = V 2 A2

thus , V2 =

thus, P1 + + ρv 12 = P2 + ρ( )2

ρ( )2 - ρv 12 = P1- P2

ρ v 12 A12/ A2 2 - ρv12 = DP

ρ (v 1 2 A12/ A2 2 - v12 ) = DP

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 v 12 A12/ A2 2 - v12 = 2 DP / ρ

v 12 (A12/ A22 - 1) = 2 DP / ρ

v 12 = 2 DP / ( ρ (A1 2/ A2 2 - 1))

v1 = SQRT( 2 DP / ( ρ (A12/ A22 - 1)))

Flow = Velocity * Area

v 1 A1 = SQRT( 2 DP / ( ρ (A1 2/ A22 - 1))) A1

Q = SQRT( 2 DP / ( ρ (A12/ A22 - 1))) A1

Since all other parameters are constant,

Q = K * SQRT ( DP )

So flow can be calculated by the above equation, which is base for all DP type
flow measurements. This is equation for the ideal volume flow rate. For actual flow
conditions with frictional losses present, a correction to this formula is necessary.
Besides, the minimum area of flow channel occurs not at the restriction but at some
point slightly downstream, known as the ‘Venacontracta’. This in turn depends on
the flow rate. While the tapping positions are fixed, the position of maximum velocity
changes with changing flow rate.

 Ratio

Most variable head meters depend on a restriction in the flow path to produce a
change in velocity. For the usual circular pipe, the Beta ratio is the ratio between the
diameter of the restriction and the inside diameter of the pipe.
= d/D
where d = diameter of the
restriction
D = inside diameter of the pipe.

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 Laminar flow

Laminar flow is also known as streamline flow , occurs when the fluid flows in parallel layers, with no
disruption between the layers. In fluid dynamics (scientific study of properties of moving fluids),
laminar flow is a flow regime characterized by high momentum diffusion, low momentum
convection, pressure and velocity independent from time. Momentum diffusion refers to the spread
of momentum (diffusion) between particles of substances, usually liquids Laminar flow over a flat
and horizontal surface can be pictured as consisting of parallel and thin layers. Layers slide over each
other, thus the name ‘streamline’ or smooth. The paths are regular and there are no fluctuations

Three Conditions for laminar flow : Fluid moves slowly, Viscosity is relatively high, and
Flow channel is relatively small

Turbulent flow

Usually occurs when the liquid is moving fast. The flow is ‘chaotic’ and there are irregular fluctuations
Includes Low momentum diffusion, high momentum convection and rapid variation of pressure and
velocity of the fluid. This is a good way to transfer thermal energy. The speed of the fluid at a point
is continuously undergoing changes in both magnitude and direction.

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Reynolds Number

In practice, flow velocity at any cross section approaches zero in the boundary
layer adjacent to the pipe wall and varies across the diameter. This flow velocity profile
has a significant effect on the relationship between flow velocity and pressure difference
developed in the head meters.
Sir Osborne Reynolds proposed single, dimensionless ratio known as Reynolds
number, as a criterion to describe this phenomenon. This number, Re, is expressed as

R=

where V = velocity
D = Diameter of the pipeline
 = density
 = absolute viscosity.
Reynolds number expresses the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces. At a very
low Reynolds number, viscous forces predominate and inertial forces have little effect.
At high Reynolds number, inertial forces predominate and viscous effects become
negligible.

The Reynold’s number can be used to determine if a flow is laminar, transient or turbulent

Laminar when Re < 2300

Transient when 2300 < Re < 4000
Turbulent when Re > 4000

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 Discharge Coefficient (Cd)

Discharge coefficient, C is defined as the ratio between actual volumetric flow rate
and ideal volumetric flow rate.

Cd = qactual /qideal

where qactual = Actual volumetric flow rate

qideal = Ideal volumetric flow rate. (Theoretical)

Flow Coefficient (K)

K = Cd / 1  4

where K = Flow coefficient

Cd = discharge coefficient
 = ratio of diameters = d / D

where 1 / 1  4 is known as velocity approach factor Mva.

 K = Cd . Mva

Measuring fluid flow with an orifice and differential pressure manometer,

requires that the effect of the fluid over the manometer liquid be taken into account.
Furthermore, the pressure differential at the orifice is usually expressed in liquid-
column height. Then

P1 — P2 = (m — f)h
where h = differential at restriction, liquid column height
m = weight density of manometer fluid
f = weight density of fluid over the manometer fluid.

The flow rate is to be converted at the control room temperature at which the
fluid density is s.

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1.2 ORIFICE PLATE

Orifice plates are the simplest and cheapest form of primary elements and are used more frequently
than all other types. An orifice plate is inserted in the line and the differential pressure across it is
measured There are four types of orifice plates which are listed below:

1. Concentric orifice plate

2. Eccentric orifice plate
3. Segmental orifice plate
4. Quadrant edge orifice plate

Concentric Orifice Plate It is most widely used. It is usually made of stainless steel and its thickness
varies from 3.175 to 12.70 mm (1/8 to 1/2 in.), depending on pipe line size and flow velocity. It has a
circular hole (orifice) in the middle, and is installed in the pipe line with the hole concentric to the
pipe. It is also made from other materials such as nickel, monel, phosphor bronze, etc. to withstand
the corrosive effects of the fluid. The plate thickness at the orifice edge should not exceed any of the
following:

D/50
d/8
(D-d)/8
Where D = the pipe internal diameter
d = the orifice diameter or bore

Eccentric Orifice Plate It is similar to the concentric plate except for the offset hole which is bored
tangential to a circle, concentric with the pipe and of a diameter equal to 98% of that of the pipe.
Location of the bore prevents damming of solid materials or foreign particles and makes it useful for
measuring fluids containing solids, oils containing water and wet stream. The eccentric orifice plate
is used where liquid fluid contains a relatively high percentage of dissolved gases, and is installed
with the bore tangential to the upper surface of the pipe when the flowing material is liquid, and
tangential to the lower surface of the pipe when the fluid is a gas.

Segmental Orifice Plate This orifice plate is used for the same type of services as the eccentric orifice
plate. It has a hole which is a segment of a circle, the diameter of which is customarily 98% of the
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pipe diameter. It is installed with the dam horizontal and with the curved section of the opening
coincident with the lower surface of the pipe.

Quadrant Edge Orifice Plate This type of orifice plate is used for flows such as heavy crudes, syrups
and slurries, and viscous flows. It is constructed in such a way that the edge is rounded to form a
quarter-circle. The plate has a concentric opening with a rounded upstream edge rather than the
sharp, square edge normally used. It may be used when the line Reynolds numbers range from
100,000 or above, down to 3,000 to 5,000 (depending upon beta ratio) with a coefficient accuracy of
approximately 0.5%.

Sometimes, orifice plates are provided with an additional small hole for the passage of condensates
and gases. This hole is located at the bottom when gases are measured, to allow the condensate to
pass in order to prevent its building up at the orifice plate. When the fluid is a liquid, this hole is
located at the top so that the gases can pass and gas pockets cannot build up. The use of such a drain
hole may produce errors in measurements and thus is considered a disadvantage.

Advantages :

Its cost is low.

They can be used in a wide range of pipe sizes (3.175 to 18211.8 mm).
They can be used with differential pressure devices.
They are well-known and have predictable characteristics.
They are available in many materials.

Disadvantages and Limitations:

They cause relatively high permanent pressure loss.

They tend to clog, thus reducing use in slurry services.
They have square root characteristics.
Their accuracy is dependent on care during installation.
They have changing characteristics because of erosion, corrosion and scaling

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1.3 VENTURI TUBE

A venturi tube is used where permanent pressure loss is of prime importance, and where maximum
accuracy is desired in the measurement of high viscous fluids.

It consists of

(i) a straight inlet section of the same diameter as the pipe in which the high pressure tap is
located,
(ii) a converging conical inlet section in which the cross-section of the stream decreases and
the velocity head and decrease of pressure head,
(iii) a cylindrical throat which provides for the low pressure tap location of the decreased
pressure in an area where flow velocity is neither increasing nor decreasing
(iv) a diverging recovery cone in which velocity decreases and the decreased velocity head is
recovered as pressure head, as shown in Fig. The pressure taps are located one-quarter
to one-half pipe diameter up-stream of the inlet cone and at the middle of the throat
section.

The venturi tube can be used to handle a fluid which is handled by an orifice plate and fluids that
contain some solids, because these venturi tubes contain no sharp corners and do not project into
the fluid stream. It can be also used to handle slurries and dirty liquids that build up around other
primary elements, if the pressure taps are protected from plugging.

The venturi tubes are usually made of cast iron or steel. Venturi tubes are available in sizes from 100
mm to 813 mm with a flow coefficient value of 0.984 for all diameter ratios, and beta ratios between
0.3 and 0.75. Its overall accuracy ranges from +1/4 to ±3%. Venturi coefficient is less affected by a
decreasing Reynolds number.
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Advantages:

It causes low permanent pressure loss.

It is widely used for high flow rates.
It is available in very large pipe sizes.
It has well-known characteristics.
It is more accurate over wide flow ranges than orifice plates or nozzles.
It can be used at low and high beta ratios.
Disadvantages:

Its cost is high.

It is generally not useful below 76.2 mm pipe size.
It is more difficult to inspect due to its construction.
It has the limitation of a lower Reynolds number of 150,000, (Some data is however available
down to a Reynolds number of 50,000 in some sizes).

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1.4 FLOW NOZZLE

The flow nozzles are used for flow measurements at high fluid velocities and are more rugged and
more resistant to erosion than the sharp edged orifice plate. Basically, there are two types of flow
nozzles, the long-radius flow nozzles and the ISA. (International Federation of the National
Standardizing Associations) flow nozzle, A flow nozzle consists of a convergent inlet whose shape is
a quarter ellipse, and a cylindrical throat, as shown in Fig. Differential pressure measurement taps
are normally located one pipe diameter upstream and one-half diameter downstream from the inlet
faces of the nozzle. For a given diameter and a given differential pressure, it allows measurement of
flow rates almost 65% more than that of the orifice plate.

Flow nozzles are manufactured commonly from materials such as stainless steel or chrorne-moly
steel. They are made commercially in various configurations, viz. flange type, holding ring type, weld-
in type, and throat type.

Flow nozzles should be used at Reynolds numbers of 50,000 or above. However, data is available for
Reynolds number down to 6,000; so it is possible to use nozzles with more viscous fluids. Flow nozzles
have very high coefficients of discharge, typically 0.99 or greater, and a wide range of beta ratios of
0.2 to 0.8.

Advantages:

Its permanent pressure loss is lower than that for an orifice plate.
It is available in numerous materials.
it is useful for fluids containing solids that settle.
it is widely accepted for high-pressure and temperature steam flow.
Disadvantages:

Its cost is higher than orifice plate.

It is limited to moderate pipe sizes.
it requires more maintenance (It is necessary to remove a section of pipe to inspect or install
it).

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1.5 DALL TUBE

The dall tube is a modified form of venturi tube, a cross-section of which is shown in Fig. It consists
of two truncated cones, each with a relatively large cone angle. The throat is formed by a
circumferential slot located between the two smaller diameters of the truncated cones. The
differential pressure produced by a dall tube is much higher (about double) than that of venturi tube
or nozzle, having the same upstream and throat diameters with the same net head loss.

The dall tube can be used in circumstances where the velocity of flow through the pipe is such that,
with a specified head loss, it is not possible to design a venturi tube to generate a sufficiently large
differential head to operate a recording instrument. It also has an important application for use on a
bypass in circumstances where a long flow measuring range is required

Advantages

The dall tube has a low head loss.

It has a short lying length.
It is available in numerous materials of construction.
It has no upper line-size limit.
Disadvantages

Its pressure difference is sensitive to up-stream disturbances.

More straight pipe required in the approach pipe length.
It is not considered for measuring flow of hot feed water.

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1.6 PITOT TUBE

An obstruction type primary element used mainly for fluid velocity measurement is the Pitot tube.
Consider when a solid body is held centrally and stationary in a pipeline with a fluid streaming down,
due to the presence of the body, the fluid while approaching the object starts losing its velocity till
directly in front of the body, where the velocity is zero. This point is known as the stagnation point.
As the kinetic head is lost by the fluid, it gains a static head. By measuring the difference of pressure
between that at normal flow line and that at the stagnation point, the velocity is found out. This
principle is used in pitot tube sensors. The simplest pitot tube consists of a tube with an impact
opening of 3.125 mm to 6.35 mm diameter pointing towards the approaching fluid. This measures
the stagnation pressure. An ordinary upstream tap can be used for measuring the line pressure.

A common industrial type of pitot tube consists of a cylindrical probe inserted into the air stream, as
shown in Fig. Fluid flow velocity at the upstream face of the probe is reduced substantially to zero.
Velocity head is converted to impact pressure, which is sensed through a small hole in the upstream
face of the probe. A corresponding small hole in the side of the probe senses static pressure. A
pressure instrument measures the differential pressure, which is proportional to the square of the
stream velocity in the vicinity of the impact pressure sensing hole.

The velocity equation for the pitot tube is given by

v = Cp 2 g h

where Cp is the pitot tube constant.

The total pressure developed at the point where the flow is stagnated is assumed to occur at the tip
of a pitot tube or at a specific point on a bluff body immersed in the stream. The pitot tube causes
practically no pressure loss in the flow stream. It is normally installed through a nipple in the side of
the pipe. It is frequently installed through an isolation valve, so that it can be moved back and forth
across the stream to establish the profile of flow velocity.

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Certain characteristics of pitot tube flow measurement have limited its industrial application. For true
measurement of flow, it is essential to establish an average value of flow velocity. To obtain this with
a pitot tube, it is necessary to move the tube back and forth across the stream to establish the velocity
at all points and then to take an average. For high-velocity flow streams, it is required to provide
necessary stiffness and strength. A tube inserted in a high-velocity stream has a tendency to vibrate
and get broken. As a result, pitot tubes are generally used only in low-to-medium flow gas
applications where high accuracy is not required.

Averaging Pitot Tube (Annubar)

To obtain a better average value of flow, special two-chamber flow tubes with several pressure
openings distributed across the stream are available. These annular averaging elements are called
annubars. They consist of a tube with high- and low pressure holes with fixed separations.

An annubar flow sensor produces a differential pressure (ΔP) signal that is the algebraic difference
between the average value of the high-pressure signal (HP) and low-pressure single (LP). A high-
pressure profile is produced by the impact of the flow velocity profile on the upstream side of the
sensing tube. Inside the high-pressure chamber, an average high-pressure signal is obtained by
correctly placing the sensing ports in the tube. The flow that passes through the sensor creates a low-
pressure profile. This pressure profile is sensed by downstream ports directly behind the high-
pressure ports. Working on the same principle as the high-pressure side, an average low pressure
signal is produced in the low-pressure chamber.

Advantages
No pressure loss.
It is relatively simple.
It is readily adapted for flow measurements made in very large pipes or ducts.

Disadvantages
Poor accuracy.
Not suitable for dirty or sticky fluids and fluids containing solid particles.
Sensitive to upstream disturbances.

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1.7 INSTALLATION OF HEAD FLOW METERS

The head flow meter consists of a primary element such as an orifice, venturi, or pitot tube used with
a differential pressure meter to measure the differential head caused by the flowing fluid at the
primary element. The differential pressure meter may be any of the various meters such as the
enlarged leg-mercury manometer, the bell gauge, the hollow gauge, the diaphragm gauge, the tilting
U-type gauge or electronic differential pressure flow transmitters. The differential-pressure meter
and the primary element require careful connection and installation. It must be remembered that
the meter is used for the purpose of measuring differential pressure. Any extraneous or false head
introduced by the connecting piping causes a serious error.

Pressure Pipe Layout

Pressure piping is the pipe which connects the pipe tapping of the head
producers to the meter or the differential pressure transducers. The
important points to be carefully noted in laying the pressure piping in
order to avoid the false readings are :

1. Condensation of water vapour in the case of air or gas, and

2. Air or vapour locks in the case of liquids and steam.

Meter below the pipe

If the meter or the differential transducer is to be located below the level of the main or pipe line in
which the orifices is installed, the pressure pipe should be laid as follows.

Liquids and Steam :

Air and Gases :

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Installation of condensation Pots

Condensation pots should be used when flow rate of steam is to be measured

by means of differential pressure transmitters. The condensation pots secure
smooth column of condensate in both the impulse lines connecting the
differential pressure transmitters.

Two pots with identical volume are placed in the impulse line as shown. The chamber maintains equal
heads of the liquid on the two sides of the measuring instruments and provides a large surface area
(top of the liquid) to sense and send any changes to the transmitter. The chamber allows a larger
surface area for radiant losses to ensure a proper condensate level for the sensing lines. Without the
chamber, the condensate can evaporate at times and provide different liquid levels that affect flow
measurements.

Four types of condensation pots are manufactured to suit the various pressure ranges.
Made of cast iron for pressure upto 16 kg/cm2
Made of carbon steel for pressure upto 64 kg/cm2
Made of stainless steel for pressure above 64 kg/cm2 and below 100 kg/cm2.
Made of molybdenum steel for pressure upto 200 kg/cm2.

In the case of vertical steam mains, it is essential that both the condensation pots placed at the level
of the upper orifice connection. Its installation is illustrated in Fig.

A leg of large bore is used to convey the pressure from the lower connection to the appropriate
condensation pot. The bore should not be less than 14 mm throughout. If possible, for obtaining
better results, this pipe may be run in contact with the main within the main lagging.

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Installation of Sealing Pots

Sealing pot is intended for protecting primary instruments like, pressure gauges, pressure or
differential pressure transmitters etc. from the influences of chemically aggressive medium under
measurement.

They are also used in the metering of oils or tarry liquids, which are of low viscosity in the mains due
to high temperature ; but owing to atmospheric cooling in pressure pipes these become viscous and
as such make meter sluggish in response. The sealing pots transmit the orifice pressures to a second
and less viscous liquid, the separating surfaces occurring in parallel bore of the sealing vessels and
serving as friction less pistons. These are usually connected very close to the mains. The sealing liquid
must be noncorrosive and immiscible with the fluid to be metered. It should preferably be of
moderately low viscosity such as transformer oil, spindle oil, kerosene, paraffin oil, glycerine etc.

Factors to be considered in Piping Arrangement

1. The piping arrangement must be absolutely free of leaks.

2. The connecting lines must be clean and free from obstructions. Use as few fittings as possible.
3. The connecting lines must pitch a 50 mm to prevent gas packets and drainage.
4. The connecting lines should not be more than 15 m long, preferably less.
5. The connecting lines must be maintained at a temperature between 0 and 50°C.
6. The differential—pressure meter should be installed below the level of the primary element if
possible.
7. Drain legs should be installed at the meter when dirt and sediment exist in the connecting lines.
8. Condenser chambers used for steam lines must be in level.
9. Sealing chambers used for corrosive fluids must be in level and should be vented.

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