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Introduction
As presented in the previous chapter, boilers can be classified by their combustion method, by
their application or by their type of steam/water circulation.
This chapter will describe the different types of steam/water circulation in boilers. It will not
discuss steam/water circulation for the applications listed in Figure 1 under “Others” (i.e.
nuclear, solar, and electric). [1]
Steam boilers
Combined
circulation
Figure 4: Schematic of the Höyrytys TTKV-fire tube hot-water boiler from Figure 2 [Hoyrytys].
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Fire tube boilers generally have tubes with a diameter of 5 cm or larger. They are usually straight
and relatively short so that the hot gases of combustion experience a relatively low pressure drop
while passing through them. The path of the flue gases goes from burners/grate, through one of
the chambers, to the other end of the chamber. There the flue gases turn to reverse direction and
return through the fire tubes and continue then to the stack (Figure 4).
Figure 5: Schematic of the Höyrytys TTK fire tube steam boiler from Figure 3 [Hoyrytys].
Fire tube boilers have a fairly large amount of contained water so that there is a considerable
amount of stored heat energy in the boiler. This also allows for load swings where large amounts
of steam or hot water are required in a relatively short period of time, as often happens in process
applications. Fire tube boilers can take a great deal of abuse and inattention and still function at
competent levels. Fire tube boilers have a life expectancy of 25 years or more. Boilers that are
older than 75 years are still known to be in operation. Consistent maintenance and careful water
treatment go a long way towards insuring the long life of these boilers.
Nowadays fire tube boilers are mostly used as district heating boilers, industrial heating boilers
and other small steam generators. Fire-tube boilers are not anymore used for electricity
production because of their upper limits (4 MPa steam pressure and about 50 kg/s steam mass
flow). The steam pressure limit is based on the fact that when the steam pressure in the boiler
rises, thicker fire tubes and chambers are needed – thus the price of the boiler rises. As a result of
this, boiler types where water/steam mixture is inside the tubes have lower prices for the same
steam capacity and pressure. Fire-tube boilers can reach thermal efficiencies of about 70 percent.
There are also special types of fire-tube boilers such as scotch marine boilers and firebox boilers,
but they will not, however, be discussed further here. The rest of this chapter concentrates on the
main types of water tube boilers.
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Water tube boilers
Introduction
As contrast to large volume boilers, in water tube boilers water/steam mixture is inside the tubes
and is heated by external combustion flames and flue gases. The water tube boilers are classified
by the way of the water/steam circulation: natural circulation, forced or assisted circulation,
once-through and combined circulation type boilers. All boilers for power generation are
nowadays water tube boilers.
General
The natural circulation is one of the oldest principles for steam/water circulation in boilers. Its
use has decreased during the last decades due to technology advances in other circulation types.
Natural circulation principle is usually implemented on small and medium sized boilers.
Typically the pressure drop for a natural circulation boiler is about 5-10 % of the steam pressure
in the steam drum and the maximum steam temperature varies from 540 to 560 °C.
The saturated water flows next from the steam drum through downcomer tubes to a mud drum
(header). There are usually a couple of downcomer tubes, which are unheated and situated
outside the boiler.
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The name "mud drum" is based on the fact that a part of the impurities in the water will settle
and this 'mud' can then be collected and removed from the drum.
The saturated water continues from the header to the riser tubes and partially evaporates. The
riser tubes are situated on the walls of the boiler for efficient furnace wall cooling. The rises
tubes are sometimes also called generating tubes because they absorb heat efficiently to the
water/steam mixture. The riser tubes forms the evaporator unit in the boiler.
After risers, the water/steam mixture goes back to the steam drum. In the steam drum water and
steam are separated: the saturated water will return to the downcomer tubes and the saturated
steam will continue to the superheater tubes. The purpose of this separation is to protect the
inside of the superheater tubes and turbine for impurity deposition.
The steam from the steam drum continues to the superheater, where it is heated beyond its
saturation point. After the last superheater stage the steam exits the boiler.
This type of circulation is called natural circulation, since there is no water circulation pump in
the circuit. The circulation happens by itself due to the water/steam density differences between
the downcomers and risers. [4]
• NC boilers are more tolerant on feed water impurities than other types of water tube
boilers
• NC boilers have lower internal consumption of electricity than other water tube boiler
types.
• NC boilers have a simple construction. Therefore the investment cost is low and the
reliability of the boiler high.
• NC boilers have a wide partial load range, practically even 0-100 % have the feature to be
held in a stand-by state, which means "warm at full pressure".
• NC boilers have constant heat transfer areas independent of boiler load, since the drum
separates the three heat exchangers - economizer, evaporator and superheater - from each
other.
• NC boilers have simpler process control, due to the big volume of water/steam side,
which behaves as a "buffer" during small load rate changes.
Natural circulation boilers have the following disadvantages compared to other circulation types:
• NC boilers have a high circulation ratio (between 5 and 100), which leads up to massive
dimensions of the evaporator as the amount of water circulating in wall tubes can be up to
100 times of the mass flow of steam generated. This increases the requirement for space
and steel.
• NC boilers need large diameters (large volume) of all tubes where the water/steam
mixture flows. This is because smaller diameters in tubes would cause pressure drop and
thus higher boilers would be needed for adequate pressure difference.
• NC boilers need more accurate dimensioning as compared to other boiler types.
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• NC boilers are quite slow in start-up and "stop" situations (also when the load rate
changes a lot) because of the large water/steam tube volume (about 5 times the
water/steam volume of a once through boiler).
• NC boilers are only suitable for subcritical pressure levels (practically for steam pressures
under 180 bar in the steam drum). This is due to the lack of density difference in
supercritical steam, and thus the lack of a driving force.
• NC boilers have problems with more frequently occurring tube damages, due to the
relative large diameter of the boiler tubes.
• NC boilers are sensitive to pressure variations. Sudden pressure drops or build-ups causes
increased rate of evaporation and thus the steam drum water level will also rise. This can
lead to water passing into the superheater tubes and water circulation problems that lead
to tube damages.
• NC boilers require a steam drum, which is a very expensive part of the boiler.
m& raisers
U= (1) Figure 7: The feedwater circulation
m& feedwater
construction of the recovery boiler using
natural circulation drum [3].
The variations in circulation ratio result from
the pressure level of the boiler, therefore high-
pressure boilers have low ratios and low-
pressure boilers have high ratios, respectively. Other parameters that affect the circulation ratio
are the height of the boiler, heating capacity of the boiler and tube dimension differences
between riser and downcomer tubes.
For certain natural circulation applications dimensioning the circulation ratio is very difficult.
The circulation ratio varies between 5 and 100 for natural circulation boilers. The circulation
ratio of forced circulation boilers is normally between 3 and 10. For La Mont type of boilers the
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normal values are between 6 and 10, for controlled circulation boiler between 4 and 5,
respectively. Once through boilers generate the same mass rate of steam as has been fed to
boiler, thus their circulation ratio is 1.
h ′′ − h ′
H boiling = ⋅ H evaporator (3)
∆h ⋅ U
where h” is the enthalpy [kJ/kg] of saturated steam, and h’ enthalpy of saturated water (at the
pressure of the steam drum), U is the circulation ratio, and ∆h is the enthalpy change caused by
the rise in evaporation pressure (because of the subcooling of water in downcomer tubes).
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Downcomers
Downcomer tubes have a relatively large
diameter because the entire water amount for
the evaporator flows through the downcomer
tubes before it is lead to wall tubes (riser
tubes). Normally the amount of downcomer
tubes is between one and six.
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Wall tubes
Pressure loss caused by wall tubes (or risers,
evaporator tubes) of a natural circulation boiler
should be at low level because of the natural
circulation principle. Thus, vertically installed
riser tubes in natural circulation boilers have a
larger diameter than riser tubes in forced
circulation boilers.
Special designs
There are some special applications of natural
circulation principle that are not currently
covered by this eBook, but can be found
elsewhere on the net. These specific boiler
types are:
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Assisted or forced circulation boilers
General
In contrast to natural circulation boilers, forced circulation is based on pump-assisted internal
water/steam circulation. The circulation pump is the main difference between natural and forced
circulation boilers. In the most common forced circulation boiler type, the Lamont boiler, the
principles of forced circulation is basically the same as for natural circulation, except for the
circulation pump.
Thanks to the circulation pump, the operation pressure level of forced circulation boiler can be
slightly higher than a natural circulation boiler, but since the steam/water separation in the steam
drum is based on the density difference between steam and water, these boilers are not either
suitable for supercritical pressures (>221 bar). Practically the maximum operation pressure for a
forced circulation boiler is 190 bar and the pressure drop in the boiler is about 2-3 bar.
In a forced/assisted circulation boiler, the circulation pump (Figure 20) provides the driving force
for the steam/water circulation. Since the pump forces the circulation, the evaporator tubes can
be built in almost any position. Greater pressure losses can be tolerated and therefore the
evaporator tubes in a forced circulation boiler are cheaper and have a smaller diameter
(compared to natural circulation evaporator tubes).
The saturated water flows next from the steam drum through downcomer tubes to a mud drum
(header). There are usually a couple of downcomer tubes, which are unheated and situated
outside the boiler. The headers that distribute the water to the evaporator tubes are equipped with
chokers (flow limiters) for every wall tube in order to distribute the water as evenly as possible.
The water continues to the riser tubes, where it evaporates.
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The steam is separated in the steam drum and continues through the superheaters, as in natural
circulation boilers.
This type of circulation is called forced circulation, due to the existence of a water circulation
pump in the circuit. The steam/water circulation is forced by the pump and does not rely on
density differences as in natural circulation.
Another possibility is to place small diameter tubes as mouthpieces in each riser tube and thus
increase the pressure losses. However, tubes utilizing orifices is a more common practice.
Boilers types
Lamont boilers
The most usual type of forced circulation boilers is the Lamont type, named after an engineer
who developed this boiler type. In this type of boilers the pump forces the steam/water
circulation. The operational pressures remain below 190 bar because with higher pressures the
share of the heat of evaporation becomes too low. The wall tube direction arrangement is not
limited for the Lamont type. The pressure loss in wall tubes is 2-3 bar.
• Customized boilers, where the boiler dimensions are determined e.g. by the building where
the boiler will be placed.
• Heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs) and boilers equipped with separate combustion
chambers
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Controlled circulation boilers
The controlled circulation principle is also known as thermal, pump-assisted circulation. It has
been developed mainly in the USA and it is one kind of modification of Lamont boiler. In this
type of boilers the pump merely assists the steam/water circulation. The benefit of controlled
circulation boilers is the less need of pumping energy because natural circulation principle is
partially used for circulation. Controlled circulation boilers are used for high subcritical
pressures up to 200 bar and usually for relatively large boilers.
• FC boilers can use tubes with smaller diameter than boilers based on natural circulation
due to the more efficient (pump-assisted) circulation.
• FC boilers have a wide suitability range of power plant sizes.
• An FC boiler gives also more freedom for placement of heat transfer surfaces and can be
designed in almost in any kind of position (thus forced circulation is very common in
HRSG:s, boilers in gas turbine based combined-cycle power plants).
• FC boilers have a low circulation ratio (3-10).
• Water circulation not reliable on density differences because circulation pump is taking
care of the circulation whenever the boiler is operated.
Forced circulation boilers have the following disadvantages compared to other circulation types:
• FC boilers have restrictions regarding the placement of the circulation pump, since it has
to be placed vertically below the steam drum. Otherwise the saturated water could boil
(cavitate) in the circulation pump.
• FC boilers have a higher internal electrical consumption. The circulation pump consumes
typically about 0,5-1,0 % of the electricity produced by the controlled circulation unit in
question.
• FC boilers need a higher level of water quality than boilers based on natural circulation.
• FC boilers require a mass flow rate of 1000-2000 kg/(m2s) for maximum pressure levels.
• FC boilers are only suitable for subcritical pressure levels (practically for operation
pressures under 190-200 bar). This is due to the lack of density difference in supercritical
steam, which is the principle for the operation of the steam/water seperation in the steam
drum.
• FC boilers require a circulation pump and flow limiting orifices, which increase the
capital cost of the boiler.
• FC boilers are sensitive to pressure variations. Sudden pressure drops or build-ups causes
increased rate of evaporation and thus the steam drum water level will also rise. This can
lead to water passing into the superheater tubes and water circulation problems that lead
to tube damages.
• FC boilers require control and regulation of the co-operation between the feed water
pump and circulation pump, which is difficult in controlled circulation units.
• A steam drum is required, which is a very expensive part of the boiler.
• Reliability of FC boilers is lower than that of natural circulation boilers, due to possible
clogging of orifices and failures in circulation pump operation.
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Once-through boilers
General
A once-through (or universal pressure) boiler
can be simplified as a long, externally heated
tube (Figure 22). There is no internal
circulation in the boiler, thus the circulation
ratio for once-through boilers is 1.
The once through boiler type is the only boiler type suited for supercritical pressures (nowadays
they can reach 250-300 bars). The available temperature range for once through type is currently
560-600 °C. Pressure losses can be as high as 40-50 bar.
Sulzer design
Sulzer monotube boiler was invented in
Switzerland by Gebrüder Sulzer Gmbh. The
Sulzer boiler uses a special pressure vessel,
called Sulzer bottle, for separating water from
steam (Figure 24). The steam is free from
water after the bottle. Therefore the point of
evaporation in a Sulzer boiler is always at the
bottle, and thus constant. Originally the bottle
was used for separating impurities
(concentrated salts etc.) from the steam.
Another typical feature for Sulzer type boilers
is the controlling the water flow of each tube
outgoing from a certain header with separate Figure 24: Sulzer design once-through boiler.
orifices for each tube. The separation bottle is marked with an arrow.
Ramzin design
The Ramzin boiler is a Russian design, which
is known for the coil-like formation of the
evaporator tubes surrounding the furnace
(Figure 25). Due to the tilted and bended water
tubes the construction of Ramzin boilers is
complicated and thus expensive.
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Spiral wall tubes
Once-through boilers use a special design on
water tubes. These are called spiral or rifled
wall tubes (Figure 26). The rifles in the tube
increase the wall wetting, i.e. improve the
contact between the tube wall and steam/water
mixture and thus improves the internal heat
transfer coefficient. The rifled wall tube is also
more resistant against dryouts. Due to the more
complex manufacture process of spiral tubes,
the spiral wall tube is more expensive than
regular smooth wall tubes.
• OT boilers can use tubes with smaller diameter than boilers based on a steam drum due to
their lack of internal circulation.
• OT boilers have a secure external water circulation (relies on process feed water pump)
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• Spiral (rifled) water wall tubes are more resistant against dryouts than smooth evaporator
tubes.
• OT boilers have a no internal circulation (circulation ratio = 1) and thus there are no
regulation or design needed for the internal circulation.
• The OT boiler is the only boiler able to operate at supercritical pressures, since there is no
density dependant steam separation needed (the Sulzer-bottle is not used for supercritical
steam values).
• OT boilers do not use a steam drum, which decreases boiler expenses.
Once-through (OT) boilers have the following advantages compared to other circulation types:
• OT boilers require high level of water control, since the steam/water goes directly
through the boiler and into the turbine.
• OT boilers require complicated regulation control, due to small water/steam volume (no
buffer for capacity changes), lack of steam drum, and the fact that the fuel,air and water
mass flows are directly proportional to the power output of the boiler.
• OT boilers require a large mass flow rate of 2000-3000 kg/(m2s) in furnace wall tubes.
• Spiral wall tubes are more expensive than smooth wall tubes due to a more complicated
manufacture process.
• OT boilers have no capacity buffer, due to the lack of a steam drum and their once-
through nature.
Operation
The basic difference between once through boiler types has traditionally been the point of total
evaporation in tubing. However, supercritical pressure range operation removes this clear
difference between water and steam states, and thus both Sulzer and Benson boilers are similarly
operated in supercritical pressures.
However, the development has led to constant point of evaporation also for Benson boilers
(thanks to improved process control) and nowadays the operational behaviour of once through
boiler is very similar. Today the biggest operational differences between Benson and Sulzer
types are the control system and heat-up procedures.
Overall, all once through boilers need certain special arrangements for heat-up procedure and
low capacity operation.
Most of the new capacity of conventional steam power plants is based on once through principle,
because it allows higher steam pressures and thus higher electricity efficiency.
A Sulzer boiler can be found e.g. at Naantali power plant in southwestern Finland (also at
Mussalo power plant). The boiler of the Meri-Pori power plant, situated in western Finland, is
based on a Benson type. Also Inkoo and Haapavesi power plants use Benson design boilers.
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Internet links
Here's a list of links to interesting reading regarding once-through boilers:
General
This boiler type is a combination of controlled
circulation boilers and once-through boilers.
Combined circulation (once-through with
superimposed recirculation) boilers can be
used for both subcritical and supercritical
steam pressure operation. Figure 28 shows a
simplified principle of the combined
circulation.
The main manufacturer of this type of boilers is ABB Combustion Engineering and other
companies with a license from ABB CE. However, Mitsubishi is practically the only license user
company outside USA.
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References
1. Esa Vakkilainen, lecture slides and material on steam boiler technology, 2001
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