TIME ZONE 1

SCHOOL OF ENERGY, GEOSCIENCES, INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIETY

Institute of Petroleum Engineering

G11PG

GEOSCIENCE FOR PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

Semester 2 – 2015/16

Duration: 3 Hours

SOLUTIONS
Heriot-Watt University Geoscience for Petroleum Engineering G11PG – 2015/16

Question A1

Arrange the following geochronological terms in order of time (from oldest to youngest) and
also state which hierarchical rank each term belongs to (Era, Period or Epoch):
Paleozoic, Cretaceous, Permian, Carboniferous, Paleocene, Pleistocene, Mesozoic,
Tertiary.
(2 marks)

Solution A1

Youngest: Pleistocene (Epoch), Tertiary (Period), Paleocene (Epoch), Mesozoic (Era),

Cretaceous (Period), Paleozoic (Era), Permian (Period), Carboniferous (Period): Oldest.
[Fully correct 2, attempt 0.5, 1-1.5 for partially correct; era/period could be listed before or
after constituent periods/epochs]

Question A2

Draw a schematic diagram of the lithosphere, with labels for each layer.
(2 marks)

Solution A2

[Crust (both oceanic and continental) and mantle, plus diagram .5 each]

Question A3

How are unconformities created in sedimentary rock successions?

(2 marks)

Solution A3

Unconformties represent missing time [0.5]

Caused by erosion [0.5] or non-deposition [0.5], and (in the case of angular unconformities)
by tectonic movements of the older strata [0.5]

Question A4

What do the terms transgression and regression mean?

(2 marks)

Solution A4

Transgression is a landward movement of the shoreline generally assumed to be caused by

a relative rise in sea-level [1]. Regression is a basin-wards movement of the shoreline
generally assumed to be caused by a relative fall in sea-level [1].

Question A5

What stratigraphic principles would you use to determine the order of events in a rock
succession?
(2 marks)

Solution A5

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Law of superposition [0.5]

Law of original horizontality [0.5]
Law of original lateral continuity [0.5]
Processes act on materials, or cross-cutting relationships [0.5]

Question A6

What specific properties make up the texture of sedimentary rocks?

(2 marks)
Solution A6

Texture of the sedimentary comprises grainsize, sorting, shape, smoothness, packing, grain
alignment [0.5 each].

Question A7

How do the components of texture affect the porosity and permeability of sedimentary
rocks?
(2 marks)

Solution A7

Grainsize increase causes increase in permeability, and in rocks also of preserved porosity.
Sorting increase causes increase in porosity and also slightly of permeability.
Smoothness increase causes increase in both
Shape towards spherical causes increase in both
Packing inefficiently is better, grains in random orientation better. [0.5 each]

Question A8

How are megaripples formed? Draw a diagram to illustrate the shape, scale and internal
structure of a typical megaripple.
(2 marks)

Solution A8

Megaripples are larger scale (greater than 5 cm [0.5]) ripples, with stoss and lee sides, crest,
trough and asymmetric shape[0.5]. Internal structures consist of foresets, parallel to the lee
side[0.5]. Also called dunes.
Diagram [0.5]:

Question A9

In what way is timing important in the Petroleum Play?

(2 marks)

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Solution A9

Petroleum accumulations will only form if the various components of the petroleum play are
formed in the correct order in time [0.5] – the reservoir, seal and trap [0.5] need to be in
place before the generation and migration of petroleum [1]

Question A10

What is Primary Migration, and how does it differ from Secondary Migration?
(2 marks)

Solution A10

Primary migration is the expulsion of hydrocarbons from the source rock [1], caused by the
increase in pressure created during hydrocarbon generation. Secondary migration is what
occurs after the hydrocarbon has exited the source rock [1].

Question A11

Draw diagrams of normal faults and strike-slip faults, and indicate the hanging-wall and
footwall for each.
(2 marks)

Solution A11

Normal fault needs to show dip-slip motion, hanging wall moving down (either arrows or
displaced beds) [1]. Strike-slip fault needs to show direction of motion [0.5] and explanation
that with vertical faults there is no hanging or foot-wall [0.5].

Question A12

Would fractures increase or decrease reservoir permeability and why?

(2 marks)

Solution A12

Fractures could potentially both increase and decrease reservoir permeability [1], depending
on if the fracture is filled with impermeable material, filled with permeable material (of
different or same permeability as formation), or open space (porosity) [1].

Question A13

A succession of rocks being surveyed using reflection seismic has the following velocity
values:
Unit A – 1750 m/s, Unit B – 1650 m/s, Unit C – 1600 m/s, Unit D – 1850 m/s, Unit E – 2100
m/s.
Assuming that velocity is in this case directly related to impedance, what reflection type
(positive or negative) will be created by each unit boundary?
(2 marks)

Solution A13

A-B = negative
B-C = negative

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C-D = positive
D-E = positive [0.5 each]

Question A14

What is TWT? How is TWT converted to depth/elevation?

(2 marks)

Solution A14

TWT = two way time [0.5].

TWT is converted to depth using known velocity or estimated velocity model [0.5] and the
basic formula Velocity x OWT = Thickness where
OWT is the time for seismic wave to pass through an interval of rock (calculated using
differences between TWT on a seismic line at top and base of the interval divided by 2) [0.5]
Thickness is the thickness of the interval which can be summed cumulatively to gain depth
or elevation. [0.5]..

Question A15

Two siliciclastic successions consisting of sheet-like sediment bodies are being studied:
1) comprises orange coloured, large-scale cross-bedded units with a distinctive
hierarchy of erosional surfaces at multiple different angles, with variable current
orientations as indicated by the cross-bedding and no visible trend in grainsize or bed
thickness at outcrop,
2) comprises thin fining-upwards beds of fine sandstone grading upwards into
mudstone, with no trend in grainsize or bed thickness observable at outcrop.
What depositional environments would you suggest each succession has been deposited
in?
(2 marks)

Solution A15

1) Aeolian [1]
2) Deep marine (turbidites, deep sea fans etc) [1]

Question A16

What size, shape and distribution would you expect reservoir quality rock units to be in
meandering fluvial systems?
(2 marks)

Solution A16

Reservoirs = channels, point bars (levees, crevasse splays, floodplain sands) [0.5]
Channels = probably less than 500 m wide, elongate in downstream direction (ribbons),
sinuous, erosive base, ‘boat shaped’ in cross-section, could be stacked vertically or
horizontally to form larger sand bodies [0.5]. Fining up, heterogeneous.
Point bars = pod or lense shaped, could be sheet-like, size of meander bend (depends on
sinuosity), erosive base, could be connected or not connected to channel sand bodies, or
stacked in complex reservoir bodies. [0.5] Inclined accretion surfaces, heterogeneous, fining
upwards.
In meandering systems, the ratio of reservoir to non-reservoir tends to be low, so that there
is a large proportion of floodplain muds, coals and other fine grained sediment to the
reservoir bodies, and those bodies tend to be more disconnected from each other. [0.5]

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Question A17

What is the purpose of biostratigraphic correlation?

(2 marks)

Solution A17

Biostratigraphic correlation helps us to tie lithologies to time and to depositional

environments [0.5]. Biostratigraphic data provides tie points for both local correlations [0.5]
and to the chronostratigraphic time scale [1]

Question A18

Name four characteristics of good marker beds for the purposes of lithostratigraphic
correlation?
(2 marks)

Solution A18

1. Widespread
2. Distinctive or easily recognized
3. Time significance
4. E.g. volcanic ash, marine carbonate horizons or mud horizons, flooding surfaces,
coals (in deltas).

Question A19

Describe (with diagrams) how a map may be created using triangulation? What is the
advantage of this method?
(2 marks)

Solution A19

Draw equilateral triangles between the data points [0.5]. Find on the sides of the triangles
the locations of the values which you wish to use for contour lines [0.5]. Join with straight
lines [0.5]. All people who draw these maps should get the same result if they follow these
rules [0.5].

Question A20

Describe, using diagrams, the basic process for creating a cross-section from a map.
(2 marks)

Solution A20

Identify best orientation for cross-section (illustrates structure), draw line on map.
Measure or transfer location of each contour as it intersects the section line
Transfer to graph of distance vs height, where map scale is used for both (no vertical
exaggeration)
Join points to create smoothed line
[.5 each, diagrams .5]

Question A21

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What factors can create biased porosity and permeability averages calculated from core
data? List factors that involve both sampling and measurement biases.
(2 marks)

Solution A21

Sampling bias in the reservoir – wells may not represent the entire reservoir
Sampling bias in the coring – location of coring specifically oil leg of reservoir, not
necessarily representative of conditions elsewhere
Sampling bias in the plug sampling – location of plugs often biased by human choice
(reservoir quality sediments oversampled), by size and scale of heterogeneities (thin layers
often not represented) and by core quality issues (fracturing prevents measurements being
taken).
Measurement biases – lab conditions vs downhole conditions creates bias in results, any
cleaning processes or delays, storage, movement etc can also affect samples.
[0.5 each].

Question A22

Explain the difference in interpretation between ordered and unordered Lorenz Plots of core
data.
(2 marks)

Solution A22

Ordered Lorenz plots are a smooth curve that illustrates the heterogeneity of the dataset [1]–
twice the area between the graph and the 00/11 line is the Lorenz Coefficient.
Unordered Lorenz plots use the data in original order, and changes in the slope of the graph
indicate the presence of layers of higher and lower permeability [1].

Question A23

Write the formula for the calculation of STOIIP. How is this calculated using probabilistic
(Monte Carlo) methods?
(2 marks)

Solution A23

STOIIP = (GRV x NTG x Por x Sat(o)) / Bo [1].

Each parameter in the equation is assigned a probability density function (shape depends on
data). These are then sampled randomly 1000s of times to create a probability density
function of STOIIP [1].

Question A24

What do the abbreviations LKO, TVDSS, GRV, and the term Feather Edge refer to in
volumetrics?
(2 marks)

Solution A24

Lowest Known Oil

True Vertical Depth SubSea
Gross Rock Volume

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Feather Edge – where the reservoir formation is not as thick as the oil column height, and
the oil water contact only exists in the margins of the field (there is an inner and outer edge
to the oil water contact against the base and the top of the formation respectively).
[0.5 each]

Question A25

Which one of the following statements is true, as defined by the SPE?

1) Possible: 10% probability of this volume plus probable plus proven being produced or
exceeded
2) Probable: 50% probability of this volume being produced or exceeded
3) Probable: Less than 50% probability of this volume plus proven being produced or
exceeded
4) Proven: 80% probability of this volume being produced or exceeded
(2 marks)

Solution A25

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Question B1

The following porosity and permeability plug measurements were obtained from two units
within a CARBONATE RESERVOIR:

Unit A Unit B
Depth (m) Porosity (%) Permeability Depth (m) Porosity (%) Permeability
2940.00 14.5 3.1 2950.00 15.5 8.5
2940.25 19.9 32 2950.25 19.0 13
2940.50 14.3 8.2 2950.50 18.8 13
2940.75 16.9 4.2 2950.75 19.9 21
2941.00 18.7 20 2951.00 18.4 10.5
2941.25 20.9 12 2951.25 20.8 15
2941.50 20.3 7.3 2951.50 18.0 10.4
2941.75 21.4 16 2951.75 18.2 29
2942.00 22.0 15 2952.00 17.5 11
2942.30 21.9 38 2952.25 15.3 10.2
2942.75 20.6 41 2952.50 4.4 9.2
2943.00 18.8 11 2952.75 15.7 17
2943.25 15.5 3.8 2953.00 18.3 19
2944.75 19.0 11 2953.25 21.2 22
2945.00 18.8 8.7 2953.50 19.4 30
2945.25 19.9 14 2953.75 13.6 28

Average Porosity (%) 19.0 Average Porosity (%) 17.1

Arithmetic Average K Arithmetic Average K 16.7
Geometric Average K Geometric Average K 15.3
Harmonic Average K Harmonic Average K 14.1
Cv (Permeability) Cv (Permeability) 0.442
Mode (Permeability) Mode (Permeability) 13
Median (Permeability) Median (Permeability) 14

(a) Calculate the missing averages, permeability Cv, mode and median for Unit A.
(13 marks)

(b) What does the variability of the averages in each unit, and the Cv for
permeability imply about the distribution of permeability values in the sample?
(4 marks)

(c) The following graph shows a Lorenz Plot and a Modified Lorenz Plot for Unit A.
Explain how these graphs would be calculated from the data provided above (to help
explain, draw an example of the spreadsheet columns in your answer, you do NOT
need to actually do any of the calculations).
(5 marks)

(d) How is the Lorenz coefficient calculated? Draw on the graph to illustrate your
answer. What does the value of the Lorenz coefficient tell us about the formation?
(3 marks)

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Solution B1

(a)
Average Porosity (%) 19.0 Average Porosity (%) 17.1
Arithmetic Average K 15.3 Arithmetic Average K 16.7
Geometric Average K 11.7 Geometric Average K 15.3
Harmonic Average K 8.9 Harmonic Average K 14.1
Cv (Permeability) 0.770 Cv (Permeability) 0.442
Mode (Permeability) 11 Mode (Permeability) 13
Median (Permeability) 11.5 Median (Permeability) 14

[2 marks for each correct answer, 3 for Cv, 1 mark off for too many significant figures, partial
marks for working or formulae]

(b)
Distribution of the averages relates to the skewness of the permeability distribution (Unit A
has a more skewed distribution than Unit B). [2] The Cv gives us the heterogeneity, or
variability of the permeability distribution (Unit A is heterogeneous, Unit B is homogeneous).
[2]

(c)
For each pair of data, ratio K/P is calculated [1]
For Lorenz Plot, data is ordered by highest to lowest K/P [1]
For each value of porosity and permeability, value/SUM(all values) is calculated [1]
A cumulative column of these partial sums is calculated (should be 0 to 1 in values)
Plot. [1]
For Modified Lorenz Plot, don’t order by K/P, just calculate in depth order. [1]

(d)
Lorenz coefficient is twice the area under the graph (shade or point to on graph) [1]
This is calculated by integration of the graph [1]
This tells us about heterogeneity [1] – value from 0 to 1, higher than ~0.5 = heterogeneous

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Question B2
A new field in a BRAIDED FLUVIAL reservoir is being appraised. Well 16/21-4 encountered
the OWC at 1125 ft depth TVDSS. A top structure map based on seismic analysis has been
prepared for the field area (Figure B2-1). The formation comprises two main sand bodies
illustrated in the diagrammatic log of Well 16/21-4 (Figure B2-2).

(a) Using the map in Figure B2-1, estimate the area covered by the OWC and calculate the
gross rock volume in m3. Use the blank graph provided in Figure B2-3 to plot your calculations.
You will need to estimate the thickness of the main sand bodies from the log provided in Figure
B2-2.
NOTE 1: Please pay attention to the location of the well 16/21-4 on the map, and think about
what this means for the position of the sand bodies.
NOTE 2: Please use the quick estimation method assuming the Area vs Height graph
approximates a triangle.
NOTE 3: Please be careful about the units you use (see the unit conversion tables at the end
of the paper).
(10 marks)

(b) Using the information in the following table, calculate the STOIIP for the field in m3 (Top
and Bottom refer to the two sand units identified in Well 16/21-4):
(6 marks)
Units: NTG % Porosity % So % Bo %
Top 95 22 78 1.12
Bottom 96 19 82 1.12

(c) What assumptions have you made to calculate the STOIIP above? How might the
depositional environment interpretation affect the reliability of these assumptions? Think about
the distribution of the reservoir units and their connectivity, as well as structural complications.
(5 marks)

(d) What issues are likely to arise in producing this field? How might these be solved?
(4 marks)

Solution B2

Units: NTG Porosity So Bo % GRV (m3) Thickness STOIIP (m3) STOIIP

% % % (ft) (bbls)
Top 95 22 78 1.12 1083426840 45 157696645.9 991880363.7
(MUD) 25
Bottom 96 19 82 1.12 1210513200 52 161655391.3 1016780080

(a) Using the estimated thicknesses above, create the following plot, and obtain the GRV for
each layer separately.
[1 mark for evidence of area calculation, 2 for correctish number (85 km2, so 77-93 range), 1
for plotting on OWC depth, 2 for completing rest of graph (layers), 1 for correct GRV
calculation (1/2 base * height), 1 for correct unit conversions, 1 for subtracting triangles, 1 for
final numbers, either quoted separately as above, or as a sum = 2293940040, or 2.29 x 109]

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(b) STOIIP needs to be calculated separately for each layer using the table above. The final
summed value is 319352037.2 m3 or 319 x 106 m3. [2 for correct STOIIP equation: (GRV x
NTG x Porosity x So)/Bo 1 for using fractions, 3 for correct (consistent!) answer(s) in correct
units, with correct number of zeros!].

(c) The main assumption is that the thickness and quality of each layer is consistent, and
that they extend across the whole area being investigated (OWC and above). [2] Given that
this is a braided fluvial system, the sand bodies likely represent stacked channels, and given
the map scale, it is likely that there are different stacked channels in different parts of the
field, representing a wide possible variability in terms of thicknesses, connectivity and quality
across the field. [2] This may make the calculation of STOIIP by this method difficult – it may
be better to use a total GRV and a NTG value to estimate the overall proportion of reservoir
to non-reservoir. [1]

(d) The image shows two sand bodies which are not connected vertically, so each would
need to be considered separately, and vertical sweep will likely be inefficient [2].
Hetergeneity is also high according to both the diagram and the environment [1]. Completing
in each layer, or finding places within the reservoir where the layers do connect, and drilling
there are both possible ways of getting around the issues [1].

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Question B3

You have been given interpreted lithology and basic wireline information for 5 wells (Figure
B3-1). The wells have been hung on a regional stratigraphic marker of volcanic ash. An
unconformity was detected using dipmeter logs, and is indicated using a wiggly line in the
interpreted lithology columns. In Well 3, the drilling team encountered a zone of highly
fractured material that was interpreted as a fault, which has been indicated in the stratigraphy.
Assume that no other faults occur between the wells. The following biostratigraphic
information was obtained at the numbered locations: Samples 1, 2, 5, 6 and 10 contain a
palynomorph suite consistent with a semi-arid non-marine depositional environment, samples
3, 11 and 12 are barren suggesting a fully arid non-marine depositional environment, samples
4 and 13 contain marine fossils consistent with a carbonate shelf depositional environment,
and samples 7, 8 and 9 contain microfossils consistent with a deep marine clastic depositional
environment.

(a) Using the information given above, correlate the lithologies in Figure B3-1. Make sure
that your correlation clearly shows the displacement on the fault. What does the spacing of
the wells in the correlation panel indicate about the spacing of the wells in reality?
(12 marks)
(b) Justify the choices you have made in correlating or not correlating units on the correlation
panel, making specific reference to your interpretation of their environment of deposition.
(6 marks)
(c) What is the relative timing of the fault and the unconformity? How can you tell? What
type of fault is it? What evidence do you use to determine the type?
(7 marks)

Solution B3

(a) The spacing on the panel is even, and that gives us no information about the actual
spacing of the wells in reality. This means that the angles observed in the correlation may
not reflect reality either. [2]

[1 for neatness, 1 for channels, 1 for connected Aeolian, 1 for connected turbidites, 1 for
connected limestone, 1 for connected marker (volcanic). 2 for correct fault, 1 for connected
channels, 1 for unconformity]

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(b) Fluvial (arid non-marine) = channels, not likely to connect unless top at exactly same
height – relative to base aeolian for dip correction. [2]
Aeolian = sheet-like, should connect. Offset by fault. [1]
Marine (deep and shelf) = sheet-like, should connect [2]
Fault causes missing section so is normal, and offsets units as shown [1]

(c) The unconformity must have postdated some of the tilting (truncation of Aeolian), but the
fault offsets it, so the fault postdates the unconformity being created. [3]
Normal fault [2]; because of missing section [1] and also arrangement and relative
displacement of foot wall and hangingwall [1].

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Question B4

The C Sandstone is the reservoir unit for the Geos Field. The elevation (in metres) of the top
of the C Sandstone is given in Figure B4-1. All wells in the Geos Field are vertical and all first
encounter the C Sandstone above the hydrocarbon-water contact.

The isopach thickness of the C Sandstone in adjacent fields is known to be very uniform and
very close to 100m. The Geos Field drilled top C Sandstone to base C Sandstone elevation
differences are given in the table below for wells 1, 2 and 3 which are also shown on
attachment X. (Remember that all wells are vertical.)

Well Elevation Difference (m)

1 102
2 55
3 110

(a) Create a structure-contour map on the top of the C Sandstone unit using the interpretive
method. Chose a rational contour interval and label your contours.
(12 marks)

(b) Give a brief (1 or 2 sentences) explanation of your choice of contour interval.

(2 marks)

(c) Describe the type of structure you have contoured. Include all aspects of the shape and
geometry in your answer. Draw a diagram to help illustrate your interpretation of the shape of
the surface (a sketch of the cross-section).
(6 marks)

(d) Explain the variation in elevation difference of the C Sandstone in wells 1,2 and 3.
Remember that all wells are vertical but that the formation is not horizontal.
(5 marks)

Solution B4

(a) See answer map as an example. Different contour intervals can be used but they need to
be at rational values. Approximately 5 contours are expected. 2 is too few and 10 too many.
The fault can be located differently but must be between the upthrown and downthrown
blocks. The fault does not have to be straight (strictly it will be curved) but any non-
straightness must agree with the structural interpretations. Contours must be labelled.
Note: The fault is a normal fault. Well 2 requires that. They are not required to label it as a
normal fault. Credit will be given if it is labelled but no marks are lost for lack of this label.
A good choice of contour intervals, a correctly placed fault between the 2 blocks that is
approximately straight and well labelled contours will gain 10-12 marks.
A good choice of contour interval and a slightly odd fault location plus labels will gain 8-10
marks
A good set of contours but a wrongly placed fault (plus labels) will gain 6-8 marks
Otherwise reasonable contours but no fault will be marked according to the quality of the
interpretation. It is possible, even reasonable, to draw a contour map with no fault BUT Well
2 makes it very difficult to interpret the structure as unfaulted, so a reasonable go without the
fault or a poorly contoured map but one which shows the right general shape (plus labels)
will gain 6 marks (50%).
Lack of labels will lose 1 mark.

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(b) Any explanation that recognises what rational numbers are, produces contour values that
do a decent job of defining the top of the structure and most of the lower values are
acceptable. A typical answer will give highest and lowest values and suggest a rational
contour interval that provides 4 to 6 contours.
(c) Need to identify as anticline or elongated dome. Need to identify fault. Need to identify
which side is down (or call normal fault and use appropriate terminology)
An excellent answer (6 marks) will describe as doubly plunging anticline, will use the north
arrow to describe the orientation of the structure and note the fault is a normal fault with
upthrown /downthrown or hanging wall / footwall. A good answer (4 marks) will get plunging
anticline and faulted. A pass (3 marks) will get anticline and fault but little else.
Note: If a credible map answer without a fault is given it will be judged on its merits.
(d) Recognise that 1 and 3 are >100 because they are dipping. Recognise that well 2
crosses the fault and rock is lost.
An excellent answer (5 points) will state that well 1 and 3 are apparently thicker because the
unit is dipping, and that the dip at well 3 is higher than at well 1. Plus that well 2 is cut by a
normal fault.
A good answer (3 to 4) will miss one or 2 of the points above.
A passmark answer (2.5) will recognise then dip in general and mention “maybe a fault”

END OF SOLUTIONS

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