NEWSLETTER

AUSTRALIAN CENTRE FOR GEOMECHANICS Vo l u m e N o . 3 3 December 2009

IN THIS EDITION
• Sublevel caving – past and future, Page 1
• In-pit risks, Page 7
• Mine closure planning, Page 11
• Mining-induced seismicity, Page 15
• Tailings disposal, Page 17
• Mine tailing solutions, Page 20
• Increasing value of paste, Page 21
• ACG event schedule, Page 24

First International Seminar on

the Reduction of Risk in the
Management of Tailings The Captain's pit in Malmberget. Photo courtesy of LKAB
and Mine Waste

29 September – 1 October 2010,

Perth, Western Australia
Mine Waste 2010 will tackle the full
range of issues that constitute risks
in the management of mining wastes,
particularly tailings and waste risk.
This forum will encourage debate
amongst practitioners, researchers and
regulators about the key shortcomings
in industry’s current understanding
of the performance of mining waste
storage facilities and associated risks
faced by owners and operators of these
facilities.
Abstracts due 1 March 2010
www.minewaste2010.com
The views expressed in this newsletter are those of
the authors and may not necessarily reflect those
of the Australian Centre for Geomechanics.
Sublevel caving — past and
future by William Hustrulid, University of Utah; and the
Colorado School of Mines, USA, and Rudolph Kvapil, USA
Introduction
The sublevel caving technique according to
early mining books (Peele, 1918) evolved in
the U.S. from top slicing. It was a logical next
step in the mine geometry scale-up process.
Block caving, in turn, was the logical scale-up
from sublevel caving.
Janelid (1972) indicates, “ In the first
application of sublevel caving, the ore was not
drilled and blasted completely between two
sublevels, but certain parts were broken by
induced caving (hence the name sublevel caving).
As the method is applied today, the whole
quantity of ore between the different sublevels
is broken (or at least should be) using controlled
drilling and blasting. If this is done in a proper
and rational way, there are good possibilities
of developing a mining method which can be
applied, technically as well as economically, on
any orebody of suitable size, location and rock
mechanical properties.”
In spite of some searching, the modern
origins of today’s version could not be
clearly identified. Possibly it was developed
in the iron mines of Sweden. Janelid (1972)
indicates, “For a long time, sublevel caving was
the predominant mining method at Grängesberg.
During the last ten years (since about 1960),
however, block caving has given 70% of the
production.”
In 1960, the sublevel caving technique
was being used by 19 Swedish mines with a
Continued page 2
Continued from page 1 the economic benefits which can be achieved LKAB being a leader in this regard. Figure
total yearly production of about 9.5 Mton through the development of the correct 3 provides a comparison of the sublevel
(Ohlsson, 1961). Figure 1 is a sketch of method are extraordinarily large.” caving mining geometries appropriate
the method as practiced at LKAB’s Kiruna In Czechoslovakia in 1950, Rudolf for the years 1963, 1983 and 2003 at
Mine at about that point in time. Kvapil was given the task of determining the Kiruna Mine. Some of the important
the causes of problems in bins and silos parameters are tabulated in Table 1.
and, based on this new understanding,
to develop ways of improving their
performance. It was evident to him that it
would first be necessary to determine the
basic gravity flow principles for granular
and coarse materials since they must
be completely different from principles
describing the flow of liquids which were
then available for use. He decided that
the only realistic way to proceed was Figure 3 The sublevel caving geometry at the Kiruna
to construct and test a large number of Mine at three different points in time (Marklund and
Hustrulid, 1995)
models and to make in situ observations.
Many of these models and the knowledge At the Kiruna Mine today the sublevel
Figure 1 Composite section view of the sublevel gained are described in his recent book spacing is 28.5 m. In certain sectors of
caving mine at Kiruna in 1957 Figure 3 The sublevel caving geometry at the Kiruna Mine at three different points
(Kvapil, 2004). In 1965, Kvapil joined Janelid LKAB’s timeMalmberget
(Marklund andMine, the sublevel
Hustrulid, 1995)
The scale was small, certainly by today’s at KTH and began applying the gravity flow spacing is as high as 30 m.
At the Kiruna Mine today the sublevel spacing is 28.5 m. In certain sectors of LKAB’s
standards, with a sublevel spacing of 9 m, a principles gained in the study of bins and
Malmberget Mine, the sublevel spacing is as high as 30 m.
drift size of 5 x 3.5 m, and a sublevel drift silos to sublevel caving. Table 1 Summary of some important
spacing of 10 m centre-to-centre. Figure 2 shows the application ofTable
this1 Summary of some
design important design
parameters parameters
(Marklund and (Marklund and Hustrulid
1995)
As Janelid (1961, 1972) pointed out, type of model to a sublevel cave design. In Hustrulid, 1995)
“Sublevel caving is in many respects simple. It this particular case, the sublevel spacing is Year
can be used in orebodies with very different 12.5 m, the drift dimension is 5 x 3.5 m, Parameter 1963 1983 2003
Drift width (m) 5 5 7
properties and it is easy to mechanize. the sublevel drift spacing is 12 m and the Drift height (m) 3.5 4 5
However, from other points of view such as burden is 2 m. These closely resemble the Sublevel height (m) 9 12 27
recovery, dilution and similar, the method is sublevel dimensions used by the Kiruna Sublevel drift spacing
(m) 10 11 25
unfavorable.The designs which are used and Mine in the early 1980s. It is interesting Blasthole diameter
the measures which can be taken to eliminate to note that the design is based on a (mm) 45 57-76 115
the disadvantages are poorly understood. In drawbody width (WT) to drawpoint width Burden (m) 1.6 1.8 3
Holes/ring 9 9 10
the end of the 1950’s, model tests regarding (WD) ratio of 1.7. Tons/ring (t) 660 1080 9300
gravity flow in material resembling broken Tons/metre of drift
rock were started at the Division of Mining, (t/m) 400 600 3100
the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in
Stockholm.The purpose was to study how the Today,push
Today, with the continuing with the continuing
to increase push
mining scale, to
a fundamental question is wheth
geometrical design of various parameters in the gravity flow principles
increase which servedscale,
mining as theadesign basis for the small-scale sublevel
fundamental
caving mine designs of the past can be applied at much larger scales or whether some othe
sublevel caving are influenced by the motion question
approach is required. is whether
This article will providethe gravity
some flow
thinking in that regard.
which is induced in the material when ore principles which served as the design
is loaded in a sublevel drift. Some of these basis for the small-scale sublevel caving
model tests were performed as a part of mine designs of the past can be applied
senior theses and others by assistants and at much larger scales or whether some
research engineers. Model tests and extensive other approach is required. This article will
Figure 2 Application of gravity flow principles to
literature studies on sublevel caving have sublevel caving design (Kvapil,1982, 1992) provide some thinking in that regard.
also been carried out in Kiruna together with Mine marker studies
conducting practical tests underground.The Over the past few years, the scale of
results achieved have been so encouraging that sublevel caving has increased markedly with
continued research work is well justified since

© Copyright 2009. Australian Centre for Geomechanics (ACG), The University of Western Australia (UWA). All rights reserved. No part of this newsletter
may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form without the prior written permission of the Australian Centre for Geomechanics, The University of
Western Australia.

The information contained in this newsletter is for general educational and informative purposes only. Except to the extent required by law, UWA and the
ACG make no representations or warranties express or implied as to the accuracy, reliability or completeness of the information contained therein.
To the extent permitted by law, UWA and the ACG exclude all liability for loss or damage of any kind at all (including indirect or consequential loss or
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to assist you with undertaking your own enquiries and analyses and that you should seek independent professional advice before acting in reliance on the
information contained therein.

2 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter


Mine marker studies
It is one thing to study flow principles
in a laboratory setting and quite another
to show that they apply in the reality of
a mine setting. One way of doing this is
through marker studies. Figure 4 shows
some results from the first marker studies
conducted as part of the overall KTH
sublevel caving research programme
conducted at the Grängesberg iron mine in
central Sweden in the early 1970s.
area. It was decided to install markers in the
fans so one could estimate the ellipsoid of
extraction.”
Figure 5 shows the fan geometry and
Table 3 summarises some of the important
parameters.
Caving
the sides of the fan indicating that the ore
flow was small. On the other hand, a large
number of markers were recovered from
the central part of the fan indicating that
the predominant ore flow pattern was in
the center. This type of flow behavior will
result in early dilution. Figure 7 shows the
results in Figure 6 in the form of a contour
plot.

e thing to study flow principles in a laboratory setting and quite another to show that
ply in the reality of a mine setting. One way of doing this is through marker studies.
4 shows some results from the first marker studies conducted as part of the overall
ublevel caving research programme conducted at the Grängesberg iron mine in central
n in the early 1970s.

Figure 5 Fan geometry for the Kiruna sublevel cave

Figure 5 Fan geometry for the Kiruna sublevel cave
Table 3 Summary of some important
Table 3 Summary of some important factors concerning the Kiruna marker tests
factors concerning the Kiruna marker tests
.
Figure 7 Contour plots showing the percent
Parameter Value recoveries at the different marker positions
Sublevel drift spacing (m) 25
Sublevel spacing (m) 27
Recently, comprehensive marker studies
Hole diameter (mm) 114
have been carried out at the Perseverance
Burden (m) 3
and Ridgeway sublevel caving mines in
Figure 4 Results of the Grängesberg marker tests Sublevel drift width (m) 7
(Janelid, 1972) Australia. At the Perseverance Mine, the
Sublevel drift height (m) 5
overall flow pattern as demonstrated using
4 Results of the Grängesberg marker tests (Janelid, 1972)
Some of the relevant parameters are Front inclination (degrees) 80
the markers is shown in Figure 8. Some of
of the relevant summarised
parameters areinsummarised
Table 2. in Table 2. the important parameters are presented in
Figure 6 shows the results of the Table 4.
2 Design parameters at Grängesberg Figure 6 shows the results of the recovered markers expressed as a percentage of the total
Table 2 Design parameters at Grängesberg recovered markers expressed as a
number of markers installed at each particular
percentage of the totallocation.
number of markers
Parameter Value
Sublevel drift spacing (m) 7 installed at each particular location.
Sublevel spacing (m) 13
Hole diameter (mm) 41
Burden (m) 1.5
Sublevel drift width (m) 3.0 slashed to 3.5
Sublevel drift height (m) 3
Front inclination (degrees) 90

Figure 4, it appears that Figure

From the flow4,width is of thethat
it appears orderthe
of 5flow
m. Since the drift width is
the flow width to drift width ratio is 1.43. Due to the roof curvature, the effective
width is of the order of 5 m. Since the
ion width is somewhat less and the ratio would be corresponding slightly larger.
drift width is 3.5 m, the flow width to
driftforwidth
quite a long time ratio
the next is 1.43.
group Due
of mine to the
marker testsroof
to be performed. As noted by
iro et al (2001)curvature, the effective extraction width
is somewhat less and the ratio would be
ublevel caving layout used at Kiruna has reached dimensions that are far beyond those Figure 8 Section showing the rings with the draw
rmed the basiscorresponding
for the developmentslightly
of thelarger.
early design guidelines. Thus, there was a pattern superimposed. Perseverance Mine
It flow
verify the gravity tookpattern
quite for
a long timelarge
this very for the
sublevel caving area. It was decided
all markers in the
nextfans so oneofcould
group mineestimate
markerthetests
ellipsoid
to beof extraction.”
performed. As noted by Quinteiro et al.
Figure 6 some
Percentage of the recovered markers at a particular position
5 shows the fan geometry and Table 3 summarises of the important parameters.
(2001), “The sublevel caving layout used at “It is one thing to study flow
Kiruna has reached dimensions
It can bethat arethat
seen far only a Figure 6 Percentage
very small numberof the
of recovered
markersmarkers at a
were recovered principles
from inthe
the sides of a laboratory
beyond those that formed particular position
fanthe basis for the
indicating that the ore flow was small. On the other hand, a large number setting and were
of markers quite another to
development of the earlyrecovered
design guidelines.
from the central part of the fan indicating that the predominant ore flowthat
show pattern wasapply in the
they
Thus, there was a need to verify the gravity It can be seen that only a very small reality of a mine setting.”
flow pattern for this very large sublevel caving number of markers were recovered from

Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter 3

omprehensive marker studies have been carried out at the Perseverance and
ublevel cavingSublevel
mines indrift height (m)
Australia. 4.8
At the Perseverance Mine, the overall flow
emonstrated usingFront inclination
the markers is shown in Figure 8. Some of the important
(degrees) 75
are presented in Table 4.
Figure 10 “Silo” type of flow pattern. Kvapil (1955), Janelid and Kapil (1965)
esult from the Ridgeway Mine marker studies is shown in “average”
The Figure 9. Table 5 flow width/drift width ratios (W /W ) for the four cases are
primary f d
s some of the important parameters. summarised in Table 6.
Section showing the rings with the draw pattern superimposed (Perseverance
Table 4 Summary of some important Table6 6AAcomparison
Table comparison of marker
of the the marker flow patterns
flow patterns
factors concerning the Perseverance
ummary of some important factors concerning the Perseverance marker testsDrift width Level Flow width
marker tests
Mine (Wd) interval (Wf) Wf/Wd
Parameter Value
(m) (m) (m)
Sublevel drift spacing (m) 14.5
Grängesberg 3.5 13 4.9 1.4
Sublevel spacing (m) 25
Hole diameter (mm) 102
Kiruna 7 27 10.3* 1.5
Burden (m) 3 Perseverance 5 25 7.1 1.4
Sublevel drift width (m) 5.1
remnants. Its mobility
Ridgeway 5.9 varies 25
with location and10.0
- 30 with time (it changes
1.7 with the
Sublevel drift height (m) 4.8 geometry).
* Arbitrarily taken as the 30% contour
Front inclination
(degrees) 75 Finally,
The Wf /W most rock materials
d ratio of 1.4 – 1.7 seems
upon being
of the blasted
fan which would
is the like
primary to bulk (swell) of
provider
The
to Wf/W
apply for50%.ratioIn
dsmall ofsublevel
scale 1.4 – 1.7caving,
sublevel seems toit apply
caving is the offor small
sublevel
swell space scale
drift
for thesublevel
ore in caving
located at the
the geometries
ring.bottom
As endasof th
An example Table showing markersome
5 summarises recovery
of theat the Ridgeway well as mine.
geometries veryas(After
the large
primary
well asscale. These
veryprovider
large results
of swell
scale. are space
inshown
agreement
for thewith
in Table ore
7, thethe
in early
the
availablering.sublevel
freeAs caving
shown
swell is in Table
esult from the
2009) Ridgeway Mine marker studies is shown in Figure
geometry 9. Table
recommended 5 by Kvapil (see Figure 2) which used 1.7.
s some of the
important parameters concerning the
important parameters.
These free swell is highly mining scale dependent.
results are in agreement with highly mining scale dependent.
Ridgeway marker tests. the early sublevel caving geometry
In retrospect, by
recommended there are(see three reasons
2) why this Tableis a7 very logical
Available “free”result:
swell for the
ummary of Tabledesign
Table Kvapil 7 Available Figure
“free” swell for the different LKAB designs
5 parameters from the
Summary of design Ridgeway Mine
parameters which1.used The1.7.middle holes of the ring are fired first and
different LKAB can make first use of the swell volume
designs
from the Ridgeway Mine offeredthere
In retrospect, by the are underlying
three reasonssublevel drift.
Parameter Value 2. isThe
why this central
a very logical holes are drilled subvertical,Design
result: fairly parallel, "Free" Swell close to one
and relatively
Sublevel drift spacing (m) 14 1. The middle holesThe
another. of the ring is
result area fired
relatively high and 1963uniform specific24.0 charge compared to the
Sublevel spacing (m) 30 first and can make
other holesfirst in theuseround.
of the Thus, one would 1983
expect the best, 17.9 most uniform
Hole diameter (mm) 102 swell volume offered by the underlying
fragmentation. 2003 5.5
Burden (m) 2.6 sublevel drift.
3. The ore material in the central part of the round can make the best use of the effect of
Sublevel drift width (m) 6 2. The central holes are drilled subvertical,
gravity
As the in directing it to the drawpoint.
Sublevel drift height (m) 4.7 fairly parallel, andscale hasclose
relatively increased
to one over the As years
the scale inhas
theincreased
quest toover reduce
the the specific de
As indicated earlier,
available small-scale
free swell hasphysical model test results
correspondingly decreased.have historically
With the played LKAB
current a very d
Front inclination another. The result is a relatively high years in the quest to reduce the specific
important role in the dimensioning of sublevel caves. In the construction of these models, the
(degrees) 80 about
and uniform 5%. charge
specific Since compared
it is located to at development,
the bottom the of the fan, free
available the swell
ore in hasthe near vicin
sand or other material is simply poured into the forms. As such, the properties are uniform
and
the other has a much
holes
the mobilities
in the greater
round. Thus,
are the same
access
one to this
independentcurrent
volume and
correspondingly
of position
the chance
decreased. With tothe
bulk. The ore at th
g the results ofInthe markerthe
reviewing tests from of
results thethe
Grängesberg,
marker Kiruna, Perseverance
would expect
the theand
fan, best,
on themost
otheruniform
hand, has little LKAB within
chance design
to bulk itthe model.
isand
only about
its
In 5%.
a sublevel cave,
mobility is very low
mines, it is interesting
tests from to
thenote that they all
Grängesberg, basically reveal athis
Kiruna, type isofnot the case.
“silo”
fragmentation.
material
All of the material in theSince
flow mobility alone, one would
fan itisisdrilled
expect locatedand blasted.
at the
significant bottom Because
of the of the fan
differences
wn in FigurePerseverance
10, even if the
anddrilling
Ridgewaypattern
mines,extends geometry,
it is far outside
3. The ofore the amount
thematerial
“silo.” in theof explosive/unit
central part of volume
fan, theand orehence
in thethe nearfragmentation varies the mech
vicinity of the drift
in
interesting to note that they all basically throughout
the round between
can fan.the
the make thesand
The best models
ore material
use and
of thein thereality
centre
has a muchparticularly
partgreater
of the fan asand
access the sublevel
tothe
thislower
volume scaleofistheincre
part fan
reveal a type of “silo” flow such as shown has effect ofmarker
a much higher
gravity intest results
specific
directing tohave
itcharge verythat
the than high significance.
at the
and theboundaries
chance to bulk. of the
The ring.
ore atFurthermore,
the the
in Figure 9 even if the drilling pattern “cave” which lies in front of the blasted slice
drawpoint. is an eclectic
extremities of themixture
fan, on the of other
wastehand,
rock and ore
extends far outside of the “silo.” Sublevel
As indicated cave layout
earlier, small-scale physical rules has based
little chance uponto bulkmarker test input
and its mobility is
model test results have historically played very low. Based on material mobility alone,
a very important role in the dimensioning one would expect significant differences
of sublevelBased
caves. Inupon the resultsofof the four
the construction in themarker
mechanics tests,of it appears
flow betweenthat the the Wf can be e
constant times the
these models, the sand or other material iswidth of the W
sand . As a first approximation,
d models and reality, particularly as
simply poured into the forms. As such, the the sublevel scale is increased. Hence,
properties are uniform and Wthe
f = mobilities
(1.4 – 1.7) Wthe d marker test results have very high
are the same independent of position significance.
within the model. In a sublevel cave, this is
Some preliminary design rules Sublevel for initialcave planninglayout arerules
summarised
based below:
not the case. All of the material in the fan
• Sublevel drift
is drilled and blasted. Because of the fan size (width upon(W d ) and
marker height
test (H
input
d ): determined based on e
• Sublevel
geometry, the amount interval (HS): theBased
of explosive/unit theoretical
upon themaximum
results of thevalue
four is based on the
volume and hence the long, straight holes.
fragmentation varies This, in turn,
marker tests,isitbased
appearson thethehole
that diameter
Wf can be (D). T
throughout the fan. based
The oreon recovery
material in theand dilution
expressedconsiderations
as a constant times which are due
the width of to manag
centre part of the fan and the lower part
pulsation. the Wd. As a first approximation,
of the fan has a much higher specific charge
• Hole diameter (D): based on the
than that at the boundaries of the ring.
available drilling equipment
Wf = (1.4 – 1.7) Wd (1)
and the a
long holes.
Furthermore, the “cave” which lies in front
Figure 9 “Silo” type of flow pattern. Kvapil (1955), • isSpacing
of the blasted slice of mixture
an eclectic the sublevel
of drifts
Some(S d):
preliminary design rules for initial
Janelid and Kapil (1965) waste rock and ore remnants.SIts d = (2.4
mobility – 2.7) W
planning
d are summarised below:
varies with location and with time (it • Sublevel
• Ring spacing (burden (B)): based upon the damage drift size (width (Wd) radius
and (Rd) concep
The “average” primary flow width/drift changes with the extraction geometry). height (Hd): determined based on
Hustrulid and Johnson (2008):
width ratios (Wf /Wd) for the four cases Finally, most rock materials upon being equipment.
are summarised in Table 6. blasted would like to bulk (swell) of the • Sublevel interval (HS): the theoretical
order of 50%. In sublevel caving, B it= is2 the
Rd maximum value is based on the ability
Where
sublevel drift located at the bottom end
Pe Exp 2.65
Rd / rh = 20
Pe ANFO ρ rock
4 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter Rd = damage radius (m)
r = hole radius (m)
available free swell has correspondingly decreased. With the current LKAB design it is only
about 5%. Since it is located at the bottom of the fan, the ore in the near vicinity of the drift
has a much greater access to this volume and the chance to bulk. The ore at the extremities of
the fan, on the other hand, has little chance to bulk and its mobility is very low. Based on

Caving
material mobility alone, one would expect significant differences in the mechanics of flow
between the sand models and reality particularly as the sublevel scale is increased. Hence, the
marker test results have very high significance.

Sublevel cave layout rules based upon marker test input

to drill long, straight holes. This, in turn, Implications for future sublevel caving. However, it is very important that
is based on the hole diameter (D). The
Based upon the results of the four marker tests, it appears caving
that thedesigns
Wf can be expressed as a the undercut be completely formed. The
constant timesactual
the limit
widthis of
based
the on
Wdrecovery and
. As a first approximation, marker studies would indicate that the flow
dilution considerations which are due to The results of the marker studies would stream is much narrower than previously
managing ore/waste
Wf = (1.4 – 1.7) Wd pulsation. suggest that modifications in (1)
some of the thought. If rock mass flow does not occur
• Hole diameter (D): based on the current, very large scale sublevel caving over the full drilled width, the remaining
available
Some preliminary drillingrules
design equipment andplanning
for initial the designs should
are summarised be considered. Assuming
below: portions could form remnants and
ability to charge long holes.
• Sublevel drift size (width (Wd) and height (Hd): determined based onis equipment.
that the drift width not changed, the transmit loads to the production level with
• Spacing of the sublevel drifts (Sd): results suggest
• Sublevel interval (HS): the theoretical maximum value is based on the ability that the sublevel
to drift
drill catastrophic consequences. This means that
spacing should be reduced.
long, straight holes. This, in turn, is based on the hole diameter (D). The actual limit is Presuming current undercut designs based upon front
based on recovery
Sd = (2.4 and– 2.7) Wd considerations
dilution (2) which
that there
are due is no change in the
to managing sublevel
ore/waste caving will have to be re-evaluated.
pulsation. height, this means that the overall mining
Future possibilities to maintain/
• Ring spacing (burden (B)): based scale would decrease and the specific
• Hole diameter (D): based on the available drilling equipment and the ability to charge increase scale
long upon
holes.the damage radius (Rd) concept development would increase. One way of
discussed by Hustrulid and Johnson maintaining the current scale is to increase There are two possibilities, at least, to
• Spacing of the sublevel drifts (Sd):
(2008) the width of the sublevel drift. Figure 10 try and maintain or possibly even grow
Sd = (2.4 – 2.7) Wd (2)
shows one possibility. the scales used today. One possibility
• Ring spacing (burden (B)): based upon the damage radius (Rd) concept discussed by
B = 2 Rd (3) deals with using more of the sublevel drift
Hustrulid and Johnson (2008):
for swell than just that taken by the ore
Where: falling down. This involves changing the
B = 2 Rd (3)
blasting pattern and initiation sequence
Where
so that the ore at the lower part of the
Pe Exp 2.65 (4) ring is propelled far out into the drift. A
Rd / rh = 20 (4)
Pe ANFO ρ rock second possibility which also involves a
change in the blasting is to use the available
RRd ==damage
damage radius
radius (m)
(m) swell space more effectively. This means
rhr =d =hole
hole
radius
radius
(m)
(m) permitting the ore in the lower part of the
PPe Exp ==explosion
h
pressure for the explosive
explosion pressure for the ring to only swell 20%, rather than 50%.
Pexplosive
e ANFO = explosion pressure for ANFO = 1600 MPa
e Exp
This would thereby increase by a factor of
ρrock = rock density (g/cm3)
Pe ANFO = explosion pressure for ANFO = 2.5 the amount of ore in the ring which has
1600 MPa Figure 10 Silo design with super-scale extraction a chance to swell. Accomplishing both of
ρrock = rock density (g/cm3) drifts, patterned after Kvapil (1992) these possibilities should be well within the
2.65 = density of typical rock (g/cm ) 3
This has advantages with respect to the capabilities of electronic detonators with
• Hole toe spacing (ST): based upon the silo shape and the parallel hole drilling. very precise timing.
burden However, one must be concerned with A problem with today’s typical ring
ST = 1.3 B geomechanics issues (drift and brow drilling design is that the hole spacing
• Spacing for parallel holes (SP): based stability). Furthermore, the draw must be changes from very small near the drift to
upon the burden well controlled over the entire face. large at the hole ends. The parallel hole
If one wants to preserve the specific design used in the silo design avoids this
SP = B (5) development ratios in place today, one problem. Without a major change in drift
would need to increase the sublevel width, one is confined to a rather narrow
• Front inclination: 70–80 degrees height. However, this has problems with pattern. Figure 11 shows one possible
(forward) hole deviation, maintenance of long holes, futuristic design involving special drilling
If it is assumed that: charging of very long holes, and dealing technology and the blasting innovations
D = 115 mm with ore/waste pulsation over a much which better use the available “free” swell
Drift dimensions: 7 m wide by 5 m high longer draw duration. This seems like a space.
Explosive: emulsion (Pe Exp = 3900 MPa) very difficult alternative to achieve on a The design presents an opportunity
Rock density = 4.6 g/cm3 day-to-day basis. On this basis, it would to achieve improved fragmentation, an
Sublevel interval: 25 m based on drilling seem that in the future mining companies increase in ore mobility, and a more
ability and control of pulsation will be looking toward smaller scale designs uniform distribution of ore mobility over a
One finds that the remaining dimensions than today and not larger. The current very much wider front. An understanding of how
are: large-scale designs may actually be too the ore actually flows in sublevel caving will
Sublevel drift spacing: 17–19 m large-scale. lead to better designs. The marker studies
Burden: 2.7 m are an important step along that path.
Front caving implications
Toe spacing (fanned): 3.5 m
Toe spacing (parallel): 3 m This article has only dealt with standard “The results of the marker
Front inclination: 80o selected sublevel caving. There are a number of
studies would suggest that
It is noted that the new sublevel drift variants, however. Front caving is a variety
modifications in some of
spacing rule has very limited basis and must of the sublevel caving technique which is
be carefully complemented with further quite often used. It is, for example, a very the current, very large scale
testing. interesting technique for the creation of sublevel caving designs
the undercut required in block and panel should be considered.”

Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter 5

 5 th
International Seminar on
Deep and High Stress Mining
6–8 October | Santiago - CHILE

Figure 11 New possibilities for large-scale sublevel caving

2010
Pontificia Universidad Católica
Future studies Acknowledgement de Chile, in collaboration
In closing, the authors believe that This edited article is from the paper with the Australian Centre for
it is time to seriously revisit the entitled, “Sublevel caving - past and Geomechanics, the University
recommendation made by Janelid (1961) present” featured in the proceedings of of Toronto, and the University of
nearly 50 years ago with regard to small- the 5th International Conference and Witwatersrand, is organising an
scale sublevel caving,“The results achieved Exhibition on Mass Mining, Lulea, Sweden, International Seminar on Deep
have been so encouraging that continued 9–11 June 2008. and High Stress Mining.
research work is well justified since the As the mining industry
economic benefits which can be achieved faces new challenges to
through the development of the correct extract mineral resources at
method are extraordinarily large.” William Hustrulid increasing depths, the Deep
In spite of their obvious value, field University of Utah; and Mining International Seminar
the Colorado School of series provides a forum for
studies are few and far between in the
Mines, USA
mining business. In addition, if conducted, the industry, academics
it is very difficult for others to access the and researchers to share
results and perhaps gain and offer new information, experience and
insights. This must change if the mining ideas on deep and high stress
business is to meet the technical, economic mining.
and safety challenges the future has to offer. For more details contact
There is a real danger that today’s
sublevel caving designs are far from CAVING deepmining2010@ing.puc.
cl or visit http://web.ing.puc.

2010
optimum due to a poor understanding cl/~deepmining2010/
of the fundamental processes involved.
In the past, the application of sublevel
caving has primarily been to iron ore,
particularly magnetite, which because of its Second International Collaborating Organisations
very forgiving magnetic property, permits Symposium on Block and
easy and inexpensive separation from the
Sublevel Caving
waste. The same is not true with other
minerals, for example copper porphyry and 20–22 April 2010,
gold ores. For these, it is very expensive Novotel Langley Hotel,
to separate ore and waste. It would Perth, Australia
appear that prior to fully committing to
any sublevel caving design, a pilot project
The growing popularity of caving
should be run with a carefully planned and methods around the world is largely
executed program of data collection. One due to the very low production cost
very important piece of information to and the intrinsic safety associated
be extracted is the draw width. It is also with this mining approach. More
very important to develop the required than 50 technical papers are
draw control techniques to be applied in expected to be presented at this
the mine. Ore/waste pulsation, which is three day event.
inherent in very high draw designs, makes
practical draw control very difficult.Visual www.caving2010.com
viewing of the cave front is not enough.

6 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter


The changing profile of risk associated
with in-pit placement of waste
by Raymond Yost, Rio Tinto Minerals – Boron Operations, USA
Introduction
Risk, risk assessment and risk analysis
have a number of meanings across a range
of disciplines. At the most fundamental,
risk is simply a combination of uncertainty
in an outcome and consequences for that
outcome. Risk analysis or risk assessment
is the process of identifying, quantifying,
and communicating those uncertainties
and outcomes. In geological engineering,
risk has traditionally been tied to the
calculation of a factor of safety of a slope,
or potential failure geometry, and has
historically been a qualitative assessment
of a calculated value. Advances in the
computational power of stability analysis
software programs have set the stage for
more quantitative assessments. Depending
on the scale of the slope under evaluation,
and given the variation inherent in earth
materials in general, almost every input
can be considered to vary over a range of
potential values.
As such, risk assessment in geological
engineering often considers both aleatory
uncertainty - the variability inherent to
natural materials, and epistemic uncertainty
- the variability related to the ability to
model a phenomenon. It is uncommon,
however, that risk assessment considers a
temporal element, i.e. how the inputs, and
therefore the associated risk, change with
time. To an extent this is to be expected
as many inputs do not significantly change
over the course of a project life. However,
elements such as pore pressure, the surface
topography of an excavation, the weight
distribution on a potential failure plane,
the probability of a seismic event and the
properties of low strength materials can
all change to a magnitude that materially
affects the outcome of a risk analysis. No
attempt has been made in this assessment
to look at equipment or personnel
temporal exposure.
To evaluate the effect of the aleatory,
epistemic and temporal variation, research
was conducted at the Rio Tinto Minerals
– Boron Operations open pit mine near
Boron, California. The purpose of this
Open pit
orebody that was deposited as an evaporate
article is to discuss the background to that
work, the nature of the risk analysis and
assessment, and to present preliminary
results.
Background and site characterisation
The Boron open pit mine is located
near the town of Boron, California in the
Mojave Desert Geologic Province. The
mining operation extracts borates from
a lenticular orebody that was deposited
as an evaporite and is encased in layers
of low permeability claystone. The clay
and borate sequence is bounded on the
bottom by a layer of basalt, which is in
turn underlain by feldspar-rich sandstone
(arkose) with interbeds of clayey sand (the
Tropico Formation). Poorly to moderately
consolidated and cemented arkose covers
the borate and clay sequence. An intrusive
body, composed primarily of quartz
monzonite, bounds the deposit to the
south.
The sequence of Tropico-basalt-
evaporites-sediments has been tilted and
dips moderately; 5 to 15° to the south.
Faulting has offset the orebody into three
primary components and a number of
sub-blocks.
The open pit operation was initiated in
the late 1950s in the northwestern portion
of the deposit where the borate layer was
generally closest to the surface. Over the
past 60 years, the pit has expanded to the
south and east and has deepened as the
higher elevation ores have been mined out.
Slope failures that have occurred during
open pit mining operations typically form
due to a combination of pore pressure,
high-angle faults (which act as a back plane)
and low-strength beds of clayey sand or
claystone. All of the open pit slopes are
designed in recognition of these variables.
The design of the north wall, however,
is also governed by the orientation of
the orebody. As offset on most faults is
relatively minimal, the overall slope of
the wall generally follows the overall
orientation of the orebody.
The overall slope angle of the wall,
in conjunction with the strength of the
Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter
foundation material (basalt), generally
results in factors of safety well in excess
of industry required limits. Furthermore,
the mineralised zone at the site is confined
to a single geologic unit. Extraction of
the borate layer represents complete
extraction of the resource, so dumping
over mined out areas does not present
any risk of covering potentially economic
mineralised zones. The north slope of the
pit was therefore an attractive option
for overburden disposal given that it was
stable, composed of a higher strength unit,
and close to active mining operations. A
risk assessment was conducted prior to
the large-scale placement of overburden on
the slope.
Structure of the risk assessment and
input variables
Mining in the most general sense,
balances two basic elements – benefits
realised against the potential for loss. In
this case, they have been incorporated
into the risk assessment. Benefits are
realised if the ground and overburden
dump remain stable throughout the project
life and costs are incurred if they do not.
Evaluating risk in this case is therefore a
matter of determining the potential for
slope instability along with the values
of the benefits and costs. Stability is a
function of the geology, the potential
for a seismic event, the pore pressure,
the size of the dumped volume and the
slope configuration. While some of these
variables remain constant over the project
life, most of them change to a large enough
degree that they affect the probability of a
slope failure. A thorough risk assessment
therefore requires an evaluation of
conditions through the full time line of the
project.
The risk assessment was structured to
evaluate the potential for slope failure.
The risk through time was quantified via
a series of steps to establish a probability
of failure, determine the magnitude of
potential negative outcomes and model the
expected values. Specific tasks included:
7
1) Estimating the probability of an outcome
(a slope failure) through the use of
limit equilibrium analysis and statistical
sampling of analysis inputs.
2) Estimating the likely extent of negative
results (failure clean-up) through the
use of numerical and empirical methods
Figure 1 Pit topography at year 2010
to develop a model of post-failure
topography. • Probability of failure – 5.0% (with seismic load).
3) Estimating the likely extent of positive • Probability of failure – 0.55% (without seismic load).
results (savings associated with dumping • Failure volume (in section) 28,350 m3 (with seismic load).
near the area of extraction as opposed • Failure volume (in section) 28,700 m3 (without seismic load).
to ex-pit dumps) through an evaluation • Probability of seismic event – 5.0%.
of equivalent tonne miles (ETM).
4) Using the probability of an outcome At this beginning stage, ore (blue and green units) is close to the toe of potential
and the estimated costs and benefits to failure and subject to burial should failure occur. Failure volume is relatively high, but
establish expected costs and benefits the probability of failure is relatively low. The probability of a seismic event occurring is
with time. relatively low.
5) Adjusting the timing of benefits and costs
(benefits are expected to be realised
early while costs are expected to be
realised later) with a discount rate.
6) Estimating a net expected sum of
benefits at distinct points.

Once these values were estimated,

the risk was determined as the net sum
of expected benefits and costs. A value
greater than zero implied that the outcome
had a positive expected economic value,
while a net sum of less than or equal
to one implies that the outcome had a
negative expected economic value and a
negative risk. The evaluation was repeated
at appropriate time increments for a range
of in-pit dump volumes to determine if, and
how much, waste could be economically
placed in the pit.
Results
Figure 2 Pit topography for ultimate pit
• Probability of failure – 81.20% (with seismic load).
• Probability of failure – 41.60% (without seismic load).
• Failure volume (in section) 39,500 m3 (with seismic load).
• Failure volume (in section) 39,250 m3 (without seismic load).
• Probability of seismic event – 70.0%.
At this final stage, failure volume increased by approximately 40%, but the probability of
failure increased, on average, to approximately 60%. The potential for a seismic event has
increased as well, but the ore zone is farther away from the toe of slope and is less likely to
be covered by a slope failure.
Modelling post-failure runout

To illustrate the interplay of the
various inputs to the risk assessment,
the start and end points of one of the
analyses are presented in Figure 1, from
the limit equilibrium analysis through
empirical modelling, to the final economic
assessment for a 30 million t in-pit waste
dump.
A combination of numerical modelling and empirical evaluation was used to develop
potential post-failure topography. Post-failure profiles were developed for all sections with a
probability of failure greater than 0.01% regardless of the factor of safety. The configuration
of the runout was based on an assessment of historical slope failures at the site. At Boron
this was the angle of repose of the failed material relative to the dip angle of the underlying
failure plane, and adjusted for the geometry of the runout area.

“Risk in the most general sense,

balances two basic elements Figure 3 Topography for failure at 2010 for 30 million tonne dump
– benefits realised against the
potential for loss.” The ratio of the clean-up area to the post-failure area is 18.5%. The runout was contained
to some extent by the concave geometry of runout area resulting in a low overall angle of
repose.

8 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter

 horizontally. By determining the total ETMs necessary to move a quantity o
ex-pit location versus an in-pit location, a difference in the hauling effort co

Open pit
determined. That difference, along with a unit cost of an ETM, obtained by
total haul costs for a unit time period by the total ETMs for that time period
be used to determine a total value. That total value divided by the quantity o
tonnes) was used as the estimate for the unit ton value of in-pit dumping. Th
below illustrates the concept for the difference between hauling 100 million
a northern dump versus an in-pit dump.
At the other end, the clean-up costs
[(ETM north – ETM
can include thosein-pit ) * $/ETM]/100
charges along with amillion t =
average unit value
range of fees associated within-pit
realised by hauling to dump versus north d
consulting,
additional equipment, accelerating stripping
To establish the cost oftofailure clean-up,
continue mining records
in otherfrom partsthe 1997-1998 slope f
of the
Figure 4 Topography for failure at ultimate pit for 30 million tonne dump reviewed. Despite extensive documentation,
site, overtime there is still
costs, contracting andconsiderable
leased variat
constitutes ‘clean-up’ costs. On one end of the spectrum,
equipment. Based on the previous two the costs can be m
labor and
The ratio of the clean-up area to the post-failure area is 22.5%. The removal of material
equipment charges associated with removing
assessments, a range of values was obtained
the portion of failure
necessary to re-establish
below the toe of failure has allowed considerable runout. The overall angle of repose has
access into a mining area or to uncover buried ore
for both the unit cost of cleaning up a
the other end, the clean-up costs can include those charges along with a rang
increased. tonne of failure debris and the unit value of
associated with consulting, additional equipment, accelerating stripping to c
Benefits and costs dumping a tonne of overburden in the pit.
mining in other parts of the site, overtime costs, contracting and leased equi
Assessing benefits and costs began with establishing values for dumping a on unitthe
of previous Economics ofa in-pit
waste in two assessments, rangedumping
of values was obtained for both th
cleaning up
the pit and for cleaning up a unit of failure debris from the pit. The value of dumping tonnes a tonne of failure debris and the unit value of dumping a tonne o
The final step was to use weighted (by
in the
in the pit is a function of reducing both horizontal and vertical haul distances. pit.
Reducing the probability of a seismic event) average
the haul distance generally means that additional truck hours are available. These truck values for the expected volume of failure
hours are either used to haul additional waste, or, if enough truck hours are offsetEconomics
by the of In-Pit Dumping
debris, the expected value of the volume
short hauls, a truck(s) could be parked. The difference in either case is reflected by overall of material that would have to be cleaned
lower haulage costs. The problem lies in translating these lower overall costs Theintofinalwhat
stepthe
was to use weighted (by the probability of a seismic event) av
up, and the associated expected costs and
specific unit cost difference is for dumping a portion of the waste in the pit forversus
the expected
hauling volume of failure debris, the expected value of the volume
benefits with time.Values of benefits and
all waste outside of the pit. that would have to be cleaned up, and the associated expected costs and ben
costs were shifted with time by using a
time. Values of benefits and costs were shifted with time by using a discoun
To accomplish this, it was necessary to evaluate haul costs with a unit that accounted discount/interest rate of 7%.
of 7%.
for both the difference in horizontal and vertical travel distances associated with hauling
to a site outside of the pit, versus hauling to a site inside the pit. The value used was the Table 1 Summary of benefits and costs
Table 1 Summary of benefits and costs shifted with time
ETM, which assumes a difference in hauling effort for moving a unit of waste vertically shifted with time
versus horizontally. By determining the total ETMs necessary to move a quantity of waste DIFFERENCE
DUMP SIZE
to an ex-pit location versus an in-pit location, a difference in the hauling effort could be YEAR (TONNES) H/L L/H
determined. That difference, along with a unit cost of an ETM, obtained by dividing the total 2010 30,000,000 positive positive
haul costs for a unit time period by the total ETMs for that time period, could then be used 2015 30,000,000 positive positive
to determine a total value. That total value divided by the quantity of waste (in tonnes) was 2020 30,000,000 positive positive
used as the estimate for the unit ton value of in-pit dumping. The formula below illustrates 2032 30,000,000 positive positive
the concept for the difference between hauling 100 million t of waste to a northern dump 2036 30,000,000 negative negative
versus an in-pit dump.
The negative values in the Thefinal row indicate
negative values inthat
the for
finalthe difference between
row
[(ETMnorth – ETMin-pit) * $/ETM]/100 million t = expected benefits and low expected
indicate costs
that for the(H/L) (bestbetween
difference case), and the low exp
average unit value realised by hauling to in-pit dump versus north and dump
high expected coststhe L/H
high(worst case),
expected the dump
benefits and size
low of 30 million t is no
design in this case. expected costs (H/L) (best case), and the
To establish the cost of failure clean-up, records from the 1997-1998 slope failure were low expected benefits and high expected
reviewed. Despite extensive documentation, there is still considerable variation in what costs L/H (worst case), the dump size of 30
constitutes ‘clean-up’ costs. On one end of the spectrum, the costs can be merely the labor million t is not a feasible design in this case.
and equipment charges associated with removing the portion of failure debris necessary to This method of risk assessment has
re-establish access into a mining area or to uncover buried ore reserves. helped Rio Tinto to understand the
interplay of a number of variables that
influence the risk associated with placing
overburden on the north slope of the open
pit. While the 30 million t dump option
proved to not be an economically feasible
option, other volumes evaluated in the
course of research do have positive values
throughout the mine life. The methodology
Article references are available from the ACG.

described here has allowed Rio Tinto

Minerals to identify those cases and
proactively manage risk in the present and
throughout the life of the project.

Ray Yost,
Rio Tinto Minerals -
Boron Operations,
USA
Rio Tinto’s Boron open pit operation was initiated in the 1950s

Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter 9

 ACG Open Pit Rock Mass
Seventh Large Open Pit Modelling Seminar
Mining Conference 2010 29–30 July 2010, Burswood
Convention Centre, Perth
27–28 July 2010, Perth, Western Australia This seminar will maximise the
dissemination of geotechnical rock mass
High demand for commodities, record fuel prices and a scarcity of skilled personnel modelling and synthetic rock modelling
have been replaced and surpassed by the recent global financial crisis as the primary technologies to industry.
issues facing the mining industry. As demand for commodities improves the incentive
to continue to drive operational and safety improvements will become paramount. The trend of open pit operations
The Seventh Large Open Pit Mining Conference 2010 (LOP 2010) will provide the mining to steeper and deeper levels
opportunity to chart that progress in large open pit mines around the world has seen an increase in the stress
environment and greater uncertainty
The conference will provide the forum for operations with major achievements, along about the mechanical behaviour of
with those operators implementing changes, the chance to outline their innovations slopes, elevating mine worker safety
and to share and explore experiences with others. Consistent with the aims of The and productivity risks. To better
AusIMM, the Conference will allow members and the industry to keep abreast of identify, understand and manage these
technical developments and provide a forum to share views and opinions within the potential geotechnical risks (including
large open pit sector. seismic hazard) associated with slope
stability failure, the ACG will host this
For more information, please contact: two day seminar immediately following
Katy Andrews, The AusIMM The AusIMM’s Seventh Large Open Pit
Phone: +61 3 9658 6125 Mining Conference 2010.
Fax: +61 3 9662 3662
kandrews@ausimm.com.au Please visit,
www.acg.uwa.edu.au/events_courses

CSIRO helps redefine large

open pit design
PUBLISHING

Many of the uncertainties surrounding
the development of a large open pit
mine have now been overcome with the
publication of the 496-page “Guidelines
For Open Pit Slope Design”.
The publication is the result of four
years of effort and support from a group
of 12 mining companies representing the
majority of the world’s production of
diamonds and base metals.
Open pit mining is an efficient way
to mine many deposits. But there are
complications. Make the slope of the
pit too shallow and you have to move
millions of additional tonnes of valueless
overburden. But if it’s too steep, you risk
failure with subsequent risk to people and
property.
Up until now, the only handbook of
this type available to open pit mine slope
design practitioners, including engineering
geologists, geotechnical engineers,
mining engineers, civil engineers and
mine managers has been the “CANMET
manual” last published in 1977.
The new Guidelines For Open Pit Slope innovative mining geomechanics research
Design was officially released at the Slope with best practice” he said. “The book
Stability conference in Santiago, Chile, outlines for today’s practitioners what
9 November. It is a direct outcome of works best in different situations and
the “Large Open Pit” research project why, what doesn’t work and why not, and
and comprises 14 chapters that follow what is the best approach to satisfy best
the life of mine sequence from project practice in a range of situations.”
development to closure. Guidelines For Open Pit Slope Design
CSIRO Earth Science and Resource is available from CSIRO publishing for
Engineering’s Dr John Read is one of two AU$195. www.publish.csiro.au/
editors and has also authored a number of
chapters in the book.
Dr Read has over 40 years experience
as a practitioner and consultant in the
mining industry, with special interests and
expertise in rock slope stability and open
pit mine design and investigation tasks in
Australia, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Brazil,
Argentina, Chile, Canada, South Africa and
Zambia.
He says that each chapter is written
by an industry practitioner with specific
experience in the topic being described.
“The purpose of the book is to be
a new generation guideline that links

10 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter


Mine closure planning in South America
by Hugo Rojas,Teck Resources, Chile; and Roger Higgins, Teck Resources, Canada
The Chilean town of Andacollo and Teck's Carmen de Andacollo mine are close neighbours.This leads to a very close relationship between the community, for both
operations and closure planning
Introduction
Mining is an important activity in
the economy of many South American
countries. It is predominantly a formal
sector, regulated and facilitated by laws and
regulations; it is also a leading contributor
of export earnings that is integrated into
the global economy. The contribution of
the mining sector can represent up to
10% of the gross domestic product and
over 50% of the value of all exports of a
country with a strong and predominant
mining sector. Mining has a multiplier effect
- generating synergies with other economic
and social sectors in the community and
region where it was developed.
However, society does not always have a
good perception of the mining industry. In
part, this may be due to the environmental
liabilities left behind by legacy mining
sites that date back to times when there
was neither awareness of the impact that
mining can have, nor a “modern” legal
and supervising framework. Until recently,
regulations requiring companies to prepare
abandonment and closure plans were
largely absent.
The world has changed and the
requirements for mining projects are
evolving. Compliance with international
agreements, such as those of biological
diversity, community engagement,
climate change, and the struggle against
Mine closure
desertification and new environmental
standards have demanded a new way
of mining. This includes social and
environmental impact studies and closure
plans that are developed from the time
when a mining project commences.
This article presents for comparison the
most important elements of mine closure
standards in Chile, Argentina and Peru.
Mine closure legal framework
Chile
On 7 February 2004, modifications to
mining safety regulations came into force
in Chile, establishing an obligation for all
mines to prepare closure plans within
five years. The objective is… “to prevent,
minimize and/or control the risks and
negative effects that might result from or
continue to take place after the cessation
of the operations of a mine site, in the
life and integrity of the people working
there, and of those who, under defined and
specific circumstances, are related to the
operation and are within the influence of
its facilities and infrastructure”.
In 2009, draft law addresses the closure
scope of mine facilities and sites of the
extractive mining industry. This draft
legislation differentiates between those
projects that have an environmental
resolution and those that do not. The
second group are those mines that
Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter
started operations before the Base Law
of the Environment Nr. 19300 (1997) and
Regulations of the Environmental Impact
Assessment System were enacted.
With respect to financial guarantees,
mining companies have to provide these
in annual instalments, over a period of five
years, or during the period of remaining
mine life (if this is shorter).
Argentina
The law on environmental protection
for mining activity and its supplementary
regulations does not contain specific
regulations for mining companies to submit
abandonment and closure plans for the
approval of authorities. This matter is open
to different interpretations.
According to the Second Section of the
Complementary Title, the following must
be considered:
a) Environmental impact: modification of
the environment, whether beneficial or
detrimental, direct or indirect, temporary
or permanent, reversible or irreversible,
may be potentially caused by mining
activity.
b) Environmental impact report: a
document that describes a mining
project, the environment where it is
developed, the environmental impact
it will cause and the environmental
protection measures proposed for
11
 adoption. The EIR must address
“measures and actions for prevention
and mitigation of environmental
impact, and rehabilitation, restoration
or recomposition of the altered
environment”.
c) Environmental impact declaration:
an administrative act based on the
mining environmental standards in
force, approving an EIR, passed by the
application authority, and in which are
set the specific conditions that the
holder company must comply with
during all stages of the mining project.
An aspect that is not regulated in
Argentina is community involvement in
the approval process of an EIR.
Peru
Peru applies regulations for mine closure
to every mining activity, with the purpose
of preventing, minimising and controlling its
potential risks and effects to human health,
safety, the environment, the surrounding
ecosystem and property. The regulations
were passed in 2005, and the articles
clearly specify when and what details must
be presented to the Director General
of Mining Environmental Affairs of the
Ministry of Energy and Mines.
The mine closure plan complements the
study of environmental impact and the
programme of environmental management
corresponding to a site’s operations.
The filing of the mine closure plan is an
obligation for every owner of mining
activity that is in operation, beginning
mining operations or resuming mining
operations — after having been suspended
or stopped by the validity of the law,
or where there is no an approved mine
closure plan.
The approval of a mine closure plan leads
to the constitution of guarantees through
which assurance is given that the owner
of a mining activity can comply with the
obligations stated in the mine closure plan.
In the event of a breach, the Ministry of
Energy and Mines can execute the closure
tasks.
An important aspect of the regulations
is the provision that allows citizen
involvement. Every stakeholder can present
their observations and make contributions.
Once the closure plan is approved, it is
to be executed in a progressive manner
during the life of the mining operation. At
operation end, the remainder of the areas,
works and facilities that, due to operational
reasons had not been closed during the
production stage must be closed. The
regulations also establish mechanisms
12 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter
and periods for review, updating and
accountability.
Observations
• The legal norms of closure plans in
South America differ in their scope,
depth and citizen involvement. This leads
to different requirements for mining
operations of similar characteristics.
• The review and update of closure plans
is a matter of interest for governments,
as well as for organised communities and
mining companies.
• Even where there is a deficiency in the
law regarding mine site closure, there are
companies that progressively design and
apply high quality closure plans.
• The design of closure plans in
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construction of projects and their These proceedings are a hard-bound, black
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application from the beginning of the comprising 622 pages.
operations, represent an advantage
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an opportunity to prevent, minimise
and control risks and negative effects
that might occur after the end of the
operations.
• The globalisation of markets,
the requirement to comply with
international norms and standards, 5th International Conference on
the exchange and development of Mine Closure
technical knowledge, together with open
communication channels worldwide, 23-26 November 2010
will result in the further evolution of Casa Piedra Events Centre
mine closure regulations, both legal and Santiago, Chile
self-imposed. This will improve mining
processes and practices, environmental RESPONSIBLE CLOSURE: LIVING
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• The voices and actions of communities CONFERENCE THEMES
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Teck Resources, Chile
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• Recent closure case studies
Send your abstracts by 25 January 2010 to:
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Roger Higgins, For further information, please visit:
Teck Resources, Canada
www.mineclosure2010.com
 Underground
The student chosen to undertake the project was Natalie Kari, a 3rd year mining engineering
student at Laurentian University. While Marty provided supervising guidance from afar, a site
based introduction to the use of MS-RAP was provided by Johan Wesseloo, ACG. Natalie
was technically an employee of Allstate Explorations NL during her time at Beaconsfield, and

Summer vacation students in winter as such she technically reported to myself.

Natalie provided the Beaconsfield Gold Mine with a substantial analysis of its seismic data,
by Peter Hills,Tasmania Mine
particularly Joint
that Venture,
collected overBCD Resources
the 18 (Operations)
month period NL when stoping had
to June 2009
recommenced in earnest following the 2006 accident. The database remained live for much
of her stay, allowing Natalie to observe and understand all the aspects of data capture
A phone call from Professor Marty through the ISSI
Management system,
Plan. The ACG its software
transfer MS-RAP
to MS-RAP, offeredandtheitsopportunity
analysis as to an immediate
enhance the tool
through Omori Analysis after stope blasts, and as a longer term management tool in updating
Hudyma in February 2009 was my management of seismicity in the day-to-day operation of the mine.
EVP maps. She expended a significant effort in analysing data to assist in the refinement of
introduction to the idea of offering Following
re-entry an accident
protocols, and theatlatter
the mine in early
formed 2006,ofallher
the basis aspects of the mining
final report. operation
A synopsis were
of that report
summer vacation experience to students redesigned
follows under the
this article. Theumbrella of a Case to Manage
key to understanding Underground
the basis Safety
of a detailed (oranalysis
data Case forsuch as
during the winter. The concept had real Safety).
Natalie The Casecan
performed for only
Safetybewas developed
gained in four tranches
by observing by Coffey from
the environment Mining, and covered
which the data is
merit. We had engaged summer students obtain.
mining ofConsequently, she went
capital and operating underground
access development to (Pfitzner,
inspect 2006),
the geotechnical environment
sill driving (Sidea, Scott
at Beaconsfield before with somewhat regularly, and2007),
and Reeves, everystoping
effort inwas made toaseismic
the generally introduceeast her
zonetoof as
the many facets
mine (King, of mining
Thomas
mixed results. This is not usually a measure geomechanics at Beaconsfield
and Scott, 2007), and stoping inasthe possible. Asactive
seismically a result,
westthezonereport
where she theultimately produced
most significant
has real practical application in the ongoing management of seismicity at the mine.
of the desire of the student to “have a changes were required (Scott and Reeves, 2007). A key requirement of the Case for Safety
go”, but rather it is the coincidence of was the establishment of protocols to manage seismicity, and MS-RAP was a key tool in that
The experience of hosting a project focused summer vacation student was a positive one for
the engagement with permanent staff endeavour.
the Beaconsfield Gold Mine. Our continued use of MS-RAP as a tool in the management of
wanting to take annual leave. Inevitably, Hills and
seismicity hasPenney (2008) describe
been enhanced the management
as a result. of seismicity
The fact that the summerat thevacation
Beaconsfield
student came
the students are slotted in to fill the roles in Gold Mine when
the winter in some detail. was
vacation Of particular utilityofwithin
not the focus MS-RAP
mine staff was isa the ability to
significant implement
factor in ensuring
of absent staff, while receiving insufficient Omori
that Analysis
maximum (Figure
benefit 1) to
could bemonitor
obtainedand
bymanage re-entry
all parties times into
concerned. areas excluded
In particular, after to
the benefit
guidance and mentoring from remaining thestope
students ofSeismic
blasts. early career international
analysis is coupled experience
with intensive cannot be over-emphasised.
monitoring (Figure 2) (Penny, Hills
staff who are left to carry the burden. and Walton, 2008), including stress change using H1 cells, and the impact of that change
Furthermore, summer vacation students Article
on thereferences
rock mass are
and available
the installedonsupport
requestusing SMART instruments. Stope blasting is a
often simply want a job to earn some key trigger for stress change (Figure 3), and as a consequence it is the primary trigger for
money and gain some experience. Marty, seismic activity.
however, was keen to see a student
undertake a project and complete real
work. The project was to be titled
Retrospective Analysis of Mining Induced
Seismicity at Beaconsfield Gold Mine. It
seemed ideal. A summer vacation student
with a defined project, arriving in the
winter when minimal leave was planned
by site personnel would avoid all the usual
pitfalls of a summer placement, and so
it was agreed that a placement could be
made.
The Beaconsfield Gold Mine has
experienced seismicity since 2003.
Increasing incidents of seismic events saw
the installation of a temporary seismic
array logging six uniaxial channels in
early 2004, and this was replaced by a
Figure
Figure1. Omorianalysis
1 Omori Analysis following
following a stopeablast
stope blast
permanent array logging 12 channels (nine
uniaxial and one triaxial) in mid 2005. The
system was upgraded in 2007 and again in
2009, and currently logs 24 channels (12
uniaxial and four triaxial).
In late 2005, the Beaconsfield Gold Mine
signed on to be a minor sponsor of the
ACG’s Mine Seismicity and Rockburst
Risk Management project. Sponsorship
commenced from January 2006 and has
continued since then. At the time of the
original sponsorship, the Beaconsfield Gold
Mine had been experiencing significant
mining-induced seismicity for a period
of two years. Much effort had been
expended on developing an understanding
of the seismicity and procedures to deal
with it were being implemented through
the development of a Ground Control Figure 2 Intensive monitoring at Beaconsfield showing the SMART cables (grey) and stress monitoring
(HI cells) (yellow)

Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter 13


Figure 2. A plot of raw micro-strain change data illustrating the impact of stope blasting (and as possible. As a result, the report she
Figure 3 A plot of raw micro-strain change data illustrating the impact of stope blasting (and non
nonblast-related seismicity)
blast-related on the local
seismicity) on stress field stress field
the local
Figure 2. A plot of raw micro-strain change data illustrating the impact of stope blasting (and
non blast-related seismicity) on the local stress field
Figure 4 A plot of energy index/cumulative apparent volume
Figure 3.3.AAplot
Figure plotofofenergy
energy index/cumulative apparentvolume
index/cumulative apparent volume
This is especially in the west zone of
the mine where mining is conducted
remotely (Hills, Mills, Penney and Arthur,
2008), and exclusion zones of at least 50
m are enforced. Other features within
the MS-RAP package are also regularly
interrogated to assist in the management
of seismicity, including the various graphical
analyses such as energy index/cumulative
apparent volume (Figure 3) and apparent
stress history, and mapping features such as
excavation vulnerability potential.
Real management decisions were being
made and influenced by the use of MS-RAP,
but the potential of the package was not
fully realised because a significant database
of seismic data had not been collectively
reanalysed recently. A project was ready
made, provided somebody could be
dedicated to the task for a period of a few
14 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter
the aspects of data capture through the
ISSI system, its transfer to MS-RAP, and
its analysis as an immediate tool through
Omori Analysis after stope blasts, and as a
longer term management tool in updating
EVP maps. She expended a significant
effort in analysing data to assist in the
refinement of re-entry protocols, and the
latter formed the basis of her final report.
A synopsis of that report follows this
article. The key to understanding the basis
of a detailed data analysis such as Natalie
performed can only be gained by observing
the environment from which the data is
obtained. Consequently, Natalie went
underground to inspect the geotechnical
environment regularly, and every effort was
made to introduce her to as many facets
of mining geomechanics at Beaconsfield
ultimately produced has real practical
application in the ongoing management of
seismicity at the mine.
The experience of hosting a project
focused summer vacation student was a
positive one for the Beaconsfield Gold
Mine. Our continued use of MS-RAP as
a tool in the management of seismicity
has been enhanced as a result. The fact
that the summer vacation student came
in the winter when vacation was not the
focus of mine staff was a significant factor
in ensuring that maximum benefit could
be obtained by all parties concerned. In
particular, the benefit to the students
of early career international experience
cannot be over-emphasised.
Article references are available on request.
months.
The student chosen to undertake Peter Hills,
the project was Natalie Kari, a 3rd year Tasmania Mine Joint Venture,
mining engineering student at Laurentian BCD Resources (Operations)
NL
University. While Marty provided
supervising guidance from afar, a site
based introduction to the use of MS-RAP
was provided by Johan Wesseloo, ACG.
Natalie was technically an employee of
Allstate Explorations NL during her time
at Beaconsfield, and as such she technically
reported to myself.
Natalie provided the Beaconsfield Gold
Mine with a substantial analysis of its
seismic data, particularly that collected
over the 18 month period to June 2009
when stoping had recommenced in earnest
following the 2006 accident. The database
remained live for much of her stay, allowing
Natalie to observe and understand all
 Underground
Understanding mining-induced seismicity
at Beaconsfield Gold Mine
by Natalie Kari, Laurentian University, Canada

A project was undertaken at the The seismic source mechanism at each having a disproportionately intense seismic
Beaconsfield Gold Mine to investigate the seismic source, for the one year time response to distant mine blasts. Identifying
current mining-induced seismicity at the period March 2008 – February 2009, seismic sources that do not follow
operation. The objectives of the project was compared to the seismic source expected trends is often an indicator of
were to identify all of the main seismic mechanism over the last four years (June locations which have a strong geological
sources currently active in the mine and to 2005 – June 2009). In almost all cases, the control. These locations require particular
rate the seismic sources with regards to: analysis showed that the seismic source vigilance with respect to monitoring and
• Seismic source mechanism (the rock mechanism remained constant over time. underground inspections.
mass failure mode causing the seismic This is an important conclusion, as it Post blast re-entry times were estimated
events). means that it is the local rock mass failure for 73 production blasts, using 90% of the
• Seismic hazard (the largest expected mechanism that is controlling the nature total seismic energy as a re-entry criterion.
seismic event that would be expected). of the seismicity, irrespective of the nearby The overall distribution of re-entry times is
• How mining activities (particularly stope mining influences. When the current shown in Figure 1. Using this 90% of total
blasting) affects the rate of seismicity seismic response to mining is similar to the seismic energy re-entry criterion, 59 of the
from each of the seismic sources. past seismic response to mining, it gives production blasts had a possible re-entry
• The ability for seismic monitoring to be greater confidence in using the current time of less than 12 hours, with 14 blasts
used as a re-entry tool for each of the seismicity to understand future seismicity. requiring a re-entry time of more than 12
seismic sources. Overall, the majority of seismic source hours. Figure 2 shows that re-entry times
The seismic analyses in this project were mechanisms at the Beaconsfield Gold Mine are somewhat controlled by local seismic
all conducted using the ACG’s MS-RAP are related to the volumetric fracturing sources and vary spatially in the mine. It
program (Mine Seismicity Risk Analysis associated with mining-induced stresses as was concluded that for the Beaconsfield
Program). a direct response to mine blasting. Gold Mine, a 24 hour re-entry period is
Post blast re-entry times were estimated for 73 production blasts, using 90% of the total seismic
The complex geology and geological An investigation of how mining activities, usually conservative, although at times it
energy as a re-entry criterion. The overall distribution of re-entry times is shown in Figure 1.
structures of the Beaconsfield Gold Mine, particularly
Using this 90%stopeofblasting, affectsenergy
total seismic re-entry may
the rate be required.
criterion, 59 of theIt is suggestedblasts
production that other
had a
including faults, contact zones, shears, of seismicity
possible from
re-entry each
time of the
of less main
than hours, with 14tools,
12 seismic blastssuch as theaseismic
requiring re-entryhazard
time ofmapping
more than
bedding and splays, contribute to the 12 hours.was
sources Figure 2 showsThe
conducted. thatproximity
re-entry times are somewhat controlled
tool in MS-RAP, by local
be used seismic sources
in conjunction
challenges of mining within the Tasmanian and varyofspatially
of each the seismicin thesources
mine. Ittowas theconcluded thatwithforthe
there-entry
Beaconsfield Gold
analysis Mine,
when a 24 hour
making a
re-entry period is usually conservative, although at times it may be required. It is suggested that
reef. More than 8500 seismic events stopetools,
other blastssuch
was as considered.
the seismicAs expected,
hazard mapping toolfinal decision on
in MS-RAP, be re-entry following each
used in conjunction with the
were recorded at the Beaconsfield Gold seismic sources
re-entry analysis in whenclose proximity
making blast. Infollowing
a finaltodecision on re-entry addition,each
it is important that it is
blast. In addition,
Mine between March 2008 and February important
mine blasts that
havethisa analysis procedure
higher rate of inducedbe continued thistoanalysis
monitor procedure
future changes in seismological
be continued to
2009, including nine events larger than patterns and
seismicity their
than potential
stopes effectatonfurther
located re-entry times. monitor future changes in seismological
local magnitude +1.0. A cluster analysis distances. However, two particular seismic patterns and their potential effect on re-
identified 56 groups of seismic events sources did not follow this trend; often entry times.
during this period, of which 23 were
particularly active and investigated in detail.
Each group was analysed to determine the
seismic source mechanism, seismic hazard
and the rock mass response to production
blasting in the mine. This analysis helped
to describe the character of each seismic
source and highlight the seismic sources
most likely to cause operational issues at
the mine. When higher hazard seismic
sources can be identified, a range of
seismic risk mitigation techniques can
be used to manage the hazard. Ten of
the seismic sources were found to have
a qualitative seismic hazard rating of
moderate-high to high. The seismic hazard
rating is a good indicator of the likelihood
of larger magnitude events.
Figure 11. Distribution
Figure Distributionof re-entry times
of re-entry for 73
times forproduction blasts at
73 production Beasonsfield
blasts Gold MineGold
at Beaconsfield in 2008 andin2009
Mine 2008
and 2009.

Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter 15


Figure 2 Location of the blasts for which the re-entry analysis was conducted
An excavation vulnerability potential
(EVP) map was built for the Beaconsfield
Gold Mine. The EVP map identifies regions
of the mine that need particular attention
with regard to seismic risk management
procedures such as re-entry times,
enhanced ground support, etc. Other key
points have also come to light during the
course of this project:
1. The Beaconsfield Gold Mine data is
well behaved. It provides good source
parameters and locations and follows
standards and expected trends in seismic
data.
2. The seismic data gives a clear indication
of where the seismic problems are
located within the mine and where
there are no seismic problems. This is
important for future planning, and shows
that seismic monitoring is a key tool for
forecasting future problems.
3. The back-analysis shows that seismic
data identifies the areas with higher
Mine Seismicity and Rockburst Risk Management Project
Since its commencement in 1999, the goal
of the ACG’s MSRRM research project has
been to advance the application of seismic
monitoring in the mining industry to quantify
and mitigate the risk of mine seismicity and
rockbursting. This has seen close involvement
at research sponsor sites by undertaking
detailed site seismic analysis, testing or
experimental work and providing seismic
system technical support and advice as
required.
Phase IV of this research project, entitled
16 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter
seismic hazard, or which sources are
more prone or likely to have large
events. It is apparent that some
seismic sources are more active than
others; the seismic system shows this
clearly. It is important to note that the
most seismically active sources do not
necessarily have the highest seismic
hazard.
4. Daily analysis and management of seismic
data is fundamental to understanding
seismic risk.
5. At this time, the analysis did not show
any acceleration of event rate or
increased seismic hazard with depth
indicating that there are no obvious
problems with incrementally deepening
the mine.
6. It is recommended that one person at
the mine be dedicated to analysing the
seismic data and familiar with MS-RAP,
using it to its maximum potential.
It is important to note that there are
“Advancing the Strategic Use of Seismic Data
in Mines”, is currently underway and aims to
develop the strategic use of seismic data and
promote an increased understanding of the
rock mass seismic response to mining. The
ACG acknowledges the generous support
and encouragement of its Phase IV research
project sponsors. Additional project sponsors
are sought.
For further information please contact
project leader, Johan Wesseloo, ACG via
acg@acg.uwa.edu.au
limitations to all of the analyses undertaken
in this study. Sound judgment should be
undertaken when utilising the information
provided. Focus should be placed on
minimising personnel exposure to areas of
the mine where seismic hazard is greatest.
It is important that all available data and
tools continue to be utilised in order to
minimise the seismic risk.
Acknowledgments
This project would not have been
possible without the support, insights
and direction of several people. I would
like to express my gratitude to Marty
Hudyma, Laurentian University, and
Peter Hills, Beaconsfield Gold Mine for
providing me with this opportunity and
whose supervision and direction played an
invaluable role in this project. I would like
to thank Johan Wesseloo for conducting
a site visit and help in using MAP3D. I am
also grateful to Tim Parkin, Toby Collins and
Jerome Paterson, Beaconsfield Gold Mine
for providing me with guidance during the
course of my project. Notable thanks to
Roger Hill for helping me understand the
geology of the mine.
Natalie Kari,
Laurentian University,
Canada
Natalie’s project, undertaken between
May and August 2009, was a joint effort
between Beaconsfield Gold NL, Laurentian
University and the ACG. Similar student
summer undergraduate projects have been
organised each year, for the last ten years,
for sponsors in the ACG’s “Mine Seismicity
and Rockburst Risk Management” project.

The risk of
tailings disposal
Introduction
In September 2010, the ACG will host
the First International Seminar on the
Reduction of Risk in the Management
of Tailings and Mine Waste in Perth. The
purpose of this article is to reflect on
some of the issues that contribute to that
risk. It is written from the perspective of a
consultant.
A well known website (www.wise-
uranium.org/mdas.html) catalogues tailings
dam failures. In the (nearly) 30 years since
1980, it lists 52 incidents, spread across 20
different countries, and all continents. An
“incident” is broadly defined and includes
everything from contaminated seepage into
groundwater, and (relatively minor) spills
from broken pipes, all the way through
to overtopping during storm events,
catastrophic failure and collapse. The list
is by no means complete. Additionally,
inspection of the list shows an over-
representation of events from North
America, mostly related to small leaks and
spills. Are the North Americans worse at
managing their operations than the rest of
the world? Or, is it more likely that they
are simply subject to greater scrutiny and
higher standards? These questions aside,
what can we learn from this list about the
risks of tailing storages?
• Incidents occur across all mineral types.
• Incidents occur across the full range of
company size and status.
• Incidents occur in both developed and
under-developed countries.
• The frequency of incidents does not
appear to be decreasing.
If you have a tailings dam on your site, it
is a risk.
by Keith Seddon, ATC Williams
Management of risk
Tailings storage and disposal does not
rank high on the scale of overall mine
production costs. But it does weigh
heavily in terms of the overall risk to
an operation, both initially with permits
and approvals, and in relation to ongoing
operations. There is nothing like a well
publicised tailings dam incident to damage
a company’s “license to operate”. So,
increasingly we see that management
of mine tailings is about understanding
and management of risk. The risk based
approach is not unique to tailings storages.
It is also widely used for management of
water dams and other activities.
Two examples demonstrate the trend
with respect to dam safety. The NSW
Dams Safety Committee is currently in
the process of a comprehensive re-casting
of its requirements in order to integrate
a risk based approach. And, the ANCOLD
tailings dam guidelines (originally issued in
1999) are being updated with increased
emphasis on risk. For this approach to
be effective, a core requirement for
management is to be fully committed to
the process, through adequate support and
resources.
Fundamental hazards
There are at least four fundamental
hazards that need to be considered for all
tailings storages.
Potential energy [“Gravity is a bitch”]
All above ground storages place tailings
in an elevated location relative to some
position around the storage. In the event
of a breach, this potential energy may
convert to kinetic energy. This means that
Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter
Tailings
the runout distances and consequences of
failure need careful consideration. These
considerations also apply to in-pit storages.
if there are underground workings below
them.
Low strength
Strength influences runout distances
and the assessed consequences of failure.
In addition, it also relates directly to
bearing capacity and the safe access over
the tailings for activities including raising
and capping. The strength of geotechnical
materials is tricky to define. It varies
with time and is dependent on the rate
of loading. Almost all tailings start out as
slurries, i.e. liquid. After deposition, some
tailings progress towards the solid state
faster than others. But this does not mean
that any tailings dam can be treated like a
waste dump.
Geochemistry/acid potential
Many types of tailings contain a
proportion of sulphur, which may oxidise
to form sulphuric acid. This in turn has the
potential to mobilise trace heavy metals,
and make even small amounts of seepage
a very undesirable consequence. Little can
be done to eliminate this basic hazard; the
geochemistry of the orebody is not open
to negotiation. However, in the future
possibly more attention will be given to
attempts to remove sulphides as part
of the process, and reduce the residual
hazard in the tailings. The potential for acid
production impacts both on operations
and on closure requirements for a storage.
It needs to be evaluated during the design
of all tailings dams, and may need to be
monitored routinely over the mine life.
Process chemistry
The tailings solids may prove to be
relatively benign, but it is necessary
to consider the process and how this
influences the chemistry of the decant
water. This includes processes that use
cyanide (gold tailings), high pH (bauxite
red-mud), and low pH (laterite nickel), and
elevated levels of salinity should also be
included.
Many of the decisions relating to
process chemistry are fundamental to the
feasibility and design of the whole mine
and concentration / beneficiation process,
and may be considered as “constraints” to
the tailings dam designer. However, when
these conditions occur, they are likely to be
powerful drivers of the subsequent design.
The author is looking forward to the day
17
that a laterite nickel process co-locates
with a bauxite refinery, and the two waste
streams are combined to neutralise each
other.
Factors contributing to risk
In risk management terminology, it is
usual to define risk as consequence x
probability of failure. Consequence relates
to hazard, and is typically measured in
terms of loss of life, or cost of remediation.
Management of risk can address both
of these components. For instance, the
consequence of a failure will be dependent
on the location and size of a dam, and
factors such as the strength of the
contained tailings. Most of these types of
issues need to be addressed during site
selection and design. It is too late to do
anything about location after a dam is built.
On the other hand, there are many issues
related to the operation and management
of a tailings dam that impact directly on
the probability of failure, whether this
is explicitly recognised during design or
not. The following discussion covers both
operation and management components,
but is slightly biased towards operational
issues.
Poor communication
Many problems stem from poor
communication, i.e. between the designer
and site management, or management
and operators. The designer (often
a consultant) may make particular
assumptions regarding the way the dam
will be operated and raised. Typically, these
matters will be covered in a design report.
But the implementation of these lies
with the mine, and personnel rarely have
time to read design reports. A common
solution is to have an “operations and
maintenance manual” (OM) to cover
these aspects. A good OM manual needs
to be comprehensive, structured, well
written, and be easily understood by all
users. Usually the details require input
from both the designer and the mine, and
a co-operative approach to preparation is
required.
Tailings dams are not static structures,
they are continually being raised or
modified in some way, and all OMs need
to be regularly checked and upgraded to
mirror these changes.
Bad decisions [“It seemed like a good idea at
the time”]
There comes a time in the life of some
storages when a decision is made that
fundamentally effects safety performance,
18 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter
and what can be done with the storage
in the future. This is typically something
like changing the method of raising, or the
previous water management procedures,
or the method and location of tailings
discharge. It is not always a fully informed
or considered decision. It may be taken
under the stress of requirements to reduce
costs in the short term, or delay the
requirement for a raise, without regard to
longer term consequences. So if anyone
ever has a decision like this to make, please
put your guns back in their holsters, discuss
it with your consultant, and think through
the long term consequences, and the
implications for safety.
Water management [“Soil particles and water
are natural enemies.With tailings you have
both together”]
Many operational problems associated
with tailings dams, and many of the
recorded “incidents” can be traced directly
to water issues. Excessive water can affect
dam safety in a number of independent
ways:
• Overtopping (followed by erosion and
breach).
• Increased seepage leading to piping or
internal erosion.
• High seepage (“phreatic”) surfaces in
embankments, resulting in reduced
stability.
Water balance and storm water
management in a tailings storage is usually
addressed as part of the design. Either
appropriate freeboard levels are set to
ensure that there is an adequate void space
left in the storage to retain decant and
storm water at safe levels, or a high level
emergency spillway is incorporated into
the design.
Some believe that if tailings dams contain
deleterious substances (solids and/or
process water) then provision of a spillway
is incompatible, in that it “admits” that
there may be discharge events, however
infrequent these may be. Alternatively, it
is a far better thing to accept that in an
extreme event there may be a discharge
of some water (most likely highly diluted
by all the storm runoff), rather than put
the security of the whole storage at risk
of overtopping and failure. At least two
major failures of tailings dams (Baia Mare,
Romania in 2000, and Merriespruit, South
Africa in 1994) could have been avoided by
the inclusion of emergency spillways.
Excess water in a dam may be the
result of a single, isolated, extreme
rainfall event. However, it is more likely
to be a combination of events relating to
accumulated water over an extended wet
period. Either extreme rainfall occurs on
top of already high pond levels, or the
mine simply has too much water on the
site. If excess water is accumulating in a
tailings dam, it may be that the original
water balance, for the site as well as just
the tailings dam, needs to be re-evaluated.
In addition, if water balance is an issue,
provisions for monitoring to include
records of all water flows associated with
the tailings storage (i.e. flow meters on the
pumps, and records of storage volumes)
should be included in the design and the
OM, and should be assessed either as part
of routine surveillance, or as a specially
commissioned study.
Capacity problems [“We’re running out of
space in the tailings dam and have to do
something fast…”]
This situation that shouldn’t happen,
but frequently does. The problem is that
existing safe design, construction and
operating procedures may be compromised
in the process. The cause is basically a
lack of planning, and oversight of the
development of the storage. Underlying
reasons may include:
• An increase in the mine resource
without any commensurate adjustment
to storage capacity.
• Increase in throughput without
recognising that this will fill the storage
faster.
• Incorrect density of deposited tailings in
the storage used in design (this should
always be checked during production).
• Raise construction delayed (as a cost
saving measure), for too long.
• Failure to appreciate the length of
time required for the sequence of
investigation, design, approvals, tendering,
mobilisation and construction that may
be associated with works to raise a
storage, or start a new one.
Whole of life planning
Development (and periodic updating) of
a whole of mine life plan for tailings storage
is an excellent way of focusing on the
forward requirements for tailings storage.
Site selection and investigation
There is no doubt that some tailings
dams are built on sites that are less
than ideal. This includes sites with poor
foundation conditions, locations where
seepage quality is a risk to groundwater,
and sites where excessively high
embankments are required to achieve
the necessary storage volume. In many

cases these sites are dictated by existing
topography and/or lease boundaries, and
are often the result of choosing the “least
bad option”. It is important to appreciate
that even if the starter dam is relatively
modest, the final storage may grow to be a
major structure. A full and comprehensive
geotechnical and hydrogeological
investigation should be carried out as part
of the initial feasibility studies to enable
the viability of the final structure to be
established.
Construction issues
Construction control, or the lack of it,
can have a major impact on the adequacy
of tailings dams. This applies particularly to
raises, where both the construction and
supervision may be largely undertaken
by the mine. The design will have been
prepared on the expectation of certain
standards of foundation preparation,
material selection and placement etc. It
is important that these standards should
be achieved, and close and continued
involvement by the designer throughout
construction is essential. Many regulatory
authorities recognise this and include a
requirement for an acceptable “sign off”
of construction, and also of design changes
during construction.
Other operational issues
Other items that impact on safety and
risk are:
• Tailings deposition management: this is
often integrally linked to pond locations
and beach development, and has major
implications for the ongoing safe
operation of the storage.
• Monitoring and surveillance: monitoring
is the collection of data that relates to
the performance of a dam, e.g. seepage
flows, water levels, filling rate and
storage levels, settlement and movement
etc. There needs to be provision for
these data to be reviewed at appropriate
intervals, and the significance of the
readings evaluated. Surveillance is the
ongoing process of evaluation and
assessment of the safety of a dam based
on data obtained from inspections and
monitoring, and is seen as a very valuable
contribution to risk identification and
reduction. Many regulatory authorities
now require regular surveillance reports
to be prepared on tailings dams with
significant or high failure consequences.
Some mining companies have similar
internal requirements.
• Dust: dust from a tailings storage is
sometimes a major environmental
headache. One of the perceived “fixes”
for this is to pond water on the tailings.
This should not be attempted without
consideration of the consequences.
Closure planning
Eventually, all tailings storages have to
be closed, and the costs of closure can
be significant, especially when the time is
“now”, not “still 10 years down the track”.
Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter
Tailings
Why is there a risk associated with this?
Primarily because of a failure to plan. Many
of the things that are needed for closure
should have already been done well before.
• What are the revegetation requirements?
What cover is required to get things to
grow (schedule cover trials)?
• What is the final landform and capping
design?
• Where is the material for this going to
come from?
Planning for closure should be
incorporated in initial design, and should
continue throughout operations.
Corporate memory
Site personnel often take valuable
knowledge with them when they do go.
In some cases the consultant has better
records of a site history than the mine,
but no mine should rely on them. All sites
should maintain a library/archive that
contains copies of all reports, records etc.,
relating to each of its tailings storages. If a
site is ever sold, these documents should
be required by the new owner as an
integral part of due diligence.
Article references are available on request.
Keith Seddon,
ATC Williams
19
Mine tailings solution:
ACG–EIGG alliance is
your one-stop shop
The ACG and the Environmental
Inorganic Geochemistry Group, Curtin
University seek to demystify the
complexities surrounding the hazards and
challenges of mine tailings by providing
a one-stop shop for your total mine
tailings research, education and training
requirements.
Australian Centre for
Geomechanics
Through its further education courses,
publications, training products and research
activities, the ACG has established itself
as a leading provider of mine tailings
geotechnology, information and best
practice. Since 1992, under the direction
of Associate Professor Richard Jewell and
UWA Professor of Mining, Andy Fourie,
ACG has researched and documented
the hazards and challenges of mine waste
management.
More than 1,000 mine tailings
professionals have attended our
education courses; including the series
of international seminars on paste
and thickened tailings (now in its
thirteenth year). The ACG has produced
internationally reputed publications such
as the “Paste and Thickened Tailings – A
Guide” and “Handbook on Mine Fill”, and
with industry sponsorship developed state-
of-the-art training products such as the
“Tailings – From Concept to Closure; Best
Practices for Tailings Disposal – A training
DVD for owners and operators of tailings
storage facilities”.
Tailings – From Concept to Closure training DVD
available from www.acg.uwa.edu.au/shop
20 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter
Our industry-supported research geochemical analysis and characterisation
projects have included Metallurgical Mine of mining waste, water quality and AMD,
Tailings Rehabilitation, Saline Tailings Disposal including trace element analysis, carbon-
and Decommissioning and the current An sulphur determination, high performance
Effective Stress Approach to Mine Backfill. ion chromatography, fluoride selective
The ACG has provided industry with electrode, anodic stripping voltammetry,
the tools and knowledge to improve the gravimetric and grain-size determination,
stability and safety of mine tailings storage diatom and pollen analysis.
facilities, mitigate geotechnical and stability
hazards, explore rock drainage and the
safe and efficient use of mine waste in
the backfilling of mining voids. The ACG
has addressed the broader issues of
tailings behaviour for a number of mining
companies.
Environmental Inorganic
Geochemistry Group, Curtin
University of Technology
EIGG comprehensively examines acid
mine drainage – one of the greatest
hazards facing more than 60% of gold
mining operations, as well as coal and
metalliferous mines.Via its designated
analytical facilities and innovative testing,
EIGG is able to characterise waste and to
provide a comprehensive picture of current
environmental quality, as well as predictive
analysis of potential acid mine drainage
and pollution risk offering avoidance and
remediation strategies. The EIGG laboratories provide a full range of
EIGG has direct experience of assisting mine waste characterisation and environmental
industry with tailings and waste rock geochemical analysis
management protocols for mine closure.
EIGG was established in 1998 and is Together, the ACG and EIGG can
directed by Associate Professor Ron provide operations with a comprehensive
Watkins. It researches the geochemical analytical support to tailings and mine
background and pollution of the natural, waste management combining all aspects
mining and built environment. It focuses on of mechanical, structural and geochemical
assessing the geochemical environment and security.
providing solutions to current and potential
pollution problems.
EIGG has an international profile with Ron Watkins
research projects undertaken in 10 Department of Applied
countries, as well as WA and Victoria. Geology, Curtin University
It has active research programmes
in a range of fields of environmental
geochemistry, including mining pollution
and rehabilitation, hydrogeology, urban
geochemistry, geochemistry and health Andy Fourie
(medical geology), past environments and The University of
Western Australia
climate change.
It has comprehensive facilities for the

Increasing value in mining operations
through the application of paste
by Nick Slade and Stephen Wilson, Golder Paste Technology (Europe) Ltd; Florencio Felipe,
Xstrata Copper, Mount Isa Copper Operations; Frank Palkovits, Golder Paste Technology Ltd
Introduction
Mineral waste
The creation of mineral waste by
metaliferous mining is inevitable and in
most situations leads to 90 to 99% of the
amount of material extracted from the
ground requiring disposal. Many years ago
waste may have been disposed of without
controls, creating what we would describe
as environmental and health hazards.
Mining companies face a range of factors
which form a very different environment
in which to manage the same waste today.
These include more ethical operating
practices towards the environment and
local communities, increasing regulation
with respect to the environment, scarcity
and cost of water and a realisation that
longer term liabilities are therefore higher
than they once were for remediation of a
mining project.
More recently, waste has been disposed
of in a fashion aimed at reusing whatever
can be beneficial to the mine. Examples
include reusing process water and using
tailings to form backfill in underground
mines. Scientific and engineering advances
have lent themselves to helping manage the
mining waste streams more efficiently and
productively.
Drivers for change
Drivers for change are always ultimately
financial. The recognition of costs as much
as opportunities presented by not requiring
as much fresh water in a mine, or the
benefits added by using the tailings waste
as backfill for the mining process, lead to
changes in attitude, operations and the
financial position of a business.
Influences on the decisions mining
companies make with regard to managing
waste are driven by the business
characteristics and culture of the company.
These can include: how its business goals
relate to the short or longer term value of
the company, what approach it chooses to
take to manage financial risk, and its cash
flow status.
It is not uncommon that mining
companies focus managing costs rationally
on the parts of the business which lead
Paste
to the beneficiation of the ore into a saleable product beyond the mill. This often means
more effort and money is spent on analysis and investment in the process of getting the ore
out of the ground and through the mill, with less emphasis and consideration of the waste
management options.
Often capital cost constraints can limit the resources available to develop or improve an
operation. Consequently, it is not uncommon that management of a milled waste is often
undertaken by conventional slurries tailings disposal and where it is used as backfill is often
through conventional cemented hydraulic fill. This is the simpler and more conventional
option but does not necessarily afford the best value for the business.
Financial analysis
Given that discounted cash flow and Net Present Value (NPV) are the most commonly
used indicators of a project’s financial strength, a thorough financial examination of waste
management solutions for a project should be undertaken. This is important as the lowest
capital cost option may not be the most value adding option to the project or operation.
The merits of analysing a project over its lifecycle can be said to be a more strategic
assessment than that purely focused on operating cost or technical simplicity.
A financially favourable alternative to conventional slurry disposal and hydraulic backfill is
to engineer the material to a paste for both applications.
Paste and slurry
A technically correct appreciation of paste is commonly said to include the following
characteristics:
• Non-settling mixture of solids and water.
• Exhibiting minimal water bleed when left idle.
• Meaningful slump (ASTM, 2008) measures no more than 253 mm.
• With no critical flow velocity.
• Percent solids dependent on particle size distribution and other factors.
• Enabling semi-dry waste management.
Slurry
Figure 1 shows what the slump looks like for the differing natures of material and as this
is the most simple and common test for evaluation it is worthy of note.
Paste – 177 mm slump Paste – 253 mm slump Slurry – no slump
Figure 1 Examples of the slump cone test for differing tailings slumps
For a typical metaliferous tailings the main differences in solids and water content are indicated in Table 1.
For a typical metaliferous tailings the main differences in solids and water content are
indicated in Table 1.
Table 1 –Indicative solids and water parameters for slurry and paste materials
Table 1 Indicative solids and water parameters for slurry and paste materials
Material Type Solids Content (%wt) Free Water (ltr/100 tonnes)
Slurry 40 50,000
Paste 70 5,000
Paste application benefits
Surface disposal benefits
Recent technology development has supported
Australianthe application
Centre for tailings
for Geomechanics disposal
• December as a paste.
2009 Newsletter 21 Some respo
mining companies and regulators today are looking at more holistic waste management approaches.
Paste application benefits
Surface disposal benefits
Recent technology development has
supported the application for tailings
disposal as a paste. Some responsible
mining companies and regulators today are
looking at more holistic waste management
approaches.
Approaches which take that move
towards minimising waste generation
are fundamentally important to manage
efficient operations with respect to
development and closure capital costs and
operational costs. The knock-on effects of
resource consumption and waste disposal
that were previously considered as free
are now of major financial significance to
worldwide mining activities and operations.
The immediate and long-term liability
of waste materials and the associated
water run-off can amount to a major
portion of the cost to a business and
can present significant obstacles in the
permitting of disposal sites. Minimising this
cost and liability (risk) through reduced
surface disposal volumes and hazards, and
innovative surface storage brings benefits
to any project. This is particularly so in
relatively dry (hot or cold) climates or
highly populated areas as these place
higher value / cost on consumption of
water and the value of socio-economic and
environmental impact.
As the majority of mines and mining
projects fall into this situation they are
increasingly important financial drivers,
especially for larger scale projects.
In summary, the key risk reducing and
value adding benefits to depositing tailings
as a paste, rather than a slurry, include:
• Smaller tailings disposal footprint (up to
40%); with a steeper beach angle (up to
5 degrees).
• Smaller dam engineering.
• Lower water consumption.
• Negligible bleed water release.
• No critical velocity required to avoid
settling.
• Reduced closure cost (10 to 75%
depending on the characteristics of the
waste).
• Reduced operating risk liability.
• Reduction in contamination/leachate
potential.
• Potential to not require impervious liner
and monitoring systems (saving A$17-22/
m2).
Principal Sponsor
Backfill benefits
The disposal of tailings as backfill to an
underground mine brings three clear gains
22 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter
to almost all methods utilising backfill:
• Reduction in the volume of material
placed as waste on surface in a
deposition facility.
• Permits the generation of a larger size
ore reserve in the underground mine.
• An increase in productivity as a result of
reduced production cycle time.
These elements can lead to significant
operational cost savings and revenue
enhancements.
Paste application as backfill yields
opportunities to reduce risk and add value
by:
• Increased mining productivity.
• Reduced cycle time and cement
consumption.
• Full range of plant tailings can be utilised.
• Simplified stope preparation.
• Improved underground mining
conditions (less water, slimes, pumping).
• Reduced surface disposal volume.
Value and cost
Shareholder value
If the business driver or goal is
shareholder value and the used
representation is NPV (Runge, 1998),
then it is appropriate to consider this
during evaluations of all key potential
expenditures to ensure that value based
decisions are made.
Net present value
Intuitively, where the NPV is increased
for a project, even with increased capital
expenditure, basic theory suggests the
project will make a financial return and the
project should go ahead. In practice there
are limitations to this theoretical outcome,
such as available capital within the business
or indeed the capital finance market place,
as has been witnessed in 2009, or the risk
associated with the mining project. In such
cases, the financial imperative for a project
may not just be a positive NPV, but it may
also be the return on the investment,
the payback period or the inherent risk
involved in the project as compared to
other projects the business is assessing.
Net present cost
Net Present Cost (NPC) is also used.
This reflects the discounted cash flow and
time cost of the expenditure and is used
in isolation from the NPV because the
revenue data was either not relevant to
the analysis or did not change. In relevant
examples, NPV has been stated where the
revenue did change as part of the analysis.
Financial case example
Surface disposal in South America
A large mine in South America has an
opportunity to increase the value of its
asset with the application of paste tailings
disposal rather than a conventional
slurry tailings facility. The mine is a large
operation producing approximately
150,000 tpd of tailings with a tailings
solids concentration around 55% wt. By
thickening the tailings towards 70% wt
solids, significant gains are identified. The
project outcome highlighted the following
key benefits from the application of paste
for tailings deposition:
• Virtually eliminating water re-handling
associated with the tailings deposition.
• Reduction in water consumption.
• Reduction in water abstraction.
• Prolonging the life of the existing facility.
• Opportunity to increase production (by
increasing tailings capacity).
• Reduce deposited tailings liquefaction
potential.
These aspects provide a range of savings,
notably in water abstraction and re-
handling, to the operation. The key financial
gains in this example are:
• Operating costs reduced by A$30M to
40M per annum.
• NPC cost reduction of 40% for the life
of the tailings deposition system.
Recognising this opportunity for the
business, the operation is advancing its
project work towards the use of paste for
the deposition of its tailings.
Conclusions
As indirect and direct costs to mining
operations become greater and the focus
on delivery of sustainable projects is
linked to business success, the case for
paste applications is clear in a variety of
situations. Consideration of a range of
key internal and external factors clearly
suggests whether the application of paste
is warranted for analysis and study on a
new project or existing operation. Strategic
perspectives of the project and business
must also be examined to ensure value is
Article references are available on request.
maximised.
Nick Slade,
Golder Paste Technology
(Europe) Ltd, UK

Corporate (ir)
responsibility: what is it
really worth when times
are tough?
by Sonia Finucane, Bioscope Environmental Consulting Pty Ltd
This question was posed as part of a
break-out session during the ACG and
Centre for Land Rehabilitation’s (CLR)
Fourth International Mine Closure
Conference held in Perth in September
2009. This session provided delegates with
a forum to explore corporate responsibility
in relation to mine closure, using a
hypothetical mining project as a case study.
The hypothetical project comprised a
remote greenfields gold mine owned by a
mid-sized mining company. It was proposed
that the mine would have a fly in – fly out
workforce of about 300 employees and an
operational life of 50 years.
A technical panel provided perspectives
from different groups of stakeholders.
The panel comprised Darren Murphy
(SKM), Graham Cobby (WA Department
of Minerals and Petroleum), Mark Batty
(Western Australian Local Government
Association), Kado Muir (Aboriginal
Heritage Consultants and Traditional
Owner), and Cathy Gupanis (Paladin
Energy). The session was facilitated by
Sonia Finucane with assistance from Don
Burnside (URS Australia) and Talitha Santini
(CLR).
The first part of the break-out session
examined corporate responsibility during
the permitting phase of the hypothetical
project. Initial discussion examined the
type of closure commitments that would
be reasonable for the proponent to make
at this early stage of the project life. Key
topics included what should take priority
in making closure commitments and how
the company should balance the need
of regulators and other stakeholders
for certainty in closure outcomes with
the need for continual improvement
for a project with a long mine life. It
was concluded that there was a need
for proponents to agree with their
stakeholders on mine closure targets for
both environmental and social factors, but
that gaining alignment on priorities could
be difficult.
There was also discussion about the role
of government and other stakeholders in
Mine closure
guiding proponents on what information on
closure planning should be provided during
the environmental impact assessment
phase, including closure cost estimates. It
was noted that developing closure cost
estimates during the permitting phase was
important but could be difficult, particularly
for those projects expected to have a
mine life of many decades as there was a
decreasing level of accuracy in the closure
cost estimate with increasing length of
mine life. It was also noted that the focus
of closure cost estimates developed at
this stage of a project was usually on
decommissioning and rehabilitation, with
little or no allowance made for the socio-
economic aspects of mine closure.
This second scenario examined
corporate responsibility when a company
was faced with unexpected or unplanned
closure. Under this scenario, the mine had
obtained environmental and other permits
and had been operating successfully for five
years when an unexpected and significant
drop in commodity prices occurred. This
forced the mine into temporary shutdown
and, despite the company’s earlier good
intention, it appeared that the only solution
was to close the mine permanently. The
company had prepared a closure plan as a
condition of its environmental approval and
had established a closure provision, but this
was considered to be insufficient to pay for
full project closure so early in mine life.
In discussing this scenario, a number of
topics including what the company should
do to demonstrate corporate responsibility
when faced with unexpected closure were
considered. Is corporate responsibility
something to be spoken about only in good
times? What is it really worth when times
are tough? Unexpected closure usually
triggers a review of company priorities and
responsibilities, the extent of closure risks
and liabilities, and the adequacy of closure
provisions and bonds. During discussion on
this point, the importance of stakeholder
engagement during these reviews was
recognised and it was commented that if it
was difficult to get stakeholder alignment
Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter
on closure objectives and procedures
during the environmental permitting stage,
it could be even more difficult to obtain
alignment when unexpected or unplanned
closure occurs. Consequently, companies
needed to manage this process carefully.
A consistent theme throughout the
break-out session was how to address the
socio-economic aspects of mine closure.
It was felt that the “social conversation
is still an externality”, with little or no
consideration of the socio-economic
aspects in closure planning and cost
estimates. This was even more evident
when unexpected closure occurred,
as many of the social and community
benefits of a mining project often took
a number of years to be realised and
these opportunities were reduced or lost
altogether when a mine ceased operations
prematurely. Where community assets
(such as health or recreational facilities)
were in development, when unexpected
closure occurred there was concern about
who would be responsible for completing
and maintaining these assets. Often, this
responsibility falls to local government
authorities acting on behalf of the
community. Therefore, it was suggested
that life-cycle costing be undertaken
when a mining company first proposed
development of community assets so that
local government and the community
understood the cost of completing and
maintaining these assets in the event of
unexpected or unplanned mine closure.
Ground Control Groups Update
Eastern Australia Ground
Control Group
A meeting was held in October 2009
in Tasmania on “Ground vibrations —
blasting and seismicity, and its effect on
ground support”. The meeting was well
attended by more than 65 members and
Dr Phil Dight, ACG Winthrop Professor
Geotechnical Engineering presented a
talk on microseismicity and the influence
of rock fracturing on deep open pits. For
details regarding the next meeting, please
visit www.eagcg.org
Ground Control Group (WA)
The group met last month at the WA
School of Mines, Kalgoorlie to discuss
paste fill. A survey on the future of the
group is being undertaken and can be
obtained from the GCGWA secretary
via emjones@barrick.com
23
 ACG Event Schedule*
Practical Rock Mechanics in Mining Short Course Perth, 24–25 March 2010

Preconditioning Workshop Perth, 19 April 2010

Second International Symposium on Block and Sublevel Caving Perth, 20–22 April 2010

Advanced Mine Seismicity Seminar Perth, 8–11 June 2010

Rheology Workshop Perth, 22–23 June 2010

Open Pit Rock Mass Modelling Seminar Perth, 29–30 July 2010

Ground Support for Underground and Open Pit Mines (Basic Level) Short Course Perth, 25–26 August 2010

Tailings Workshop Perth, 28 September 2010

First International Seminar on the Reduction of Risk in the Management of Tailings Perth, 29 September –
and Mine Waste 1 October 2010
Blasting for Stable Slopes (Open Pit) Perth, 17–19 November 2010

In-Pit Waste Storage and Management Seminar Perth, 8–9 December 2010

14th International Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings Perth, 4–8 April 2011
* The ACG event schedule is subject to change. For event updates, please visit www.acg.uwa.edu.au/events_and_courses

ACG Underground Drilling and Blasting – A safety training DVD

for underground metalliferous mine workers
All underground mine workers will be exposed to drilling and blasting processes. The aim of this new DVD is to provide workers with the critical
knowledge on drilling and blasting to aid appreciation of the importance of these mining processes and their related hazards. The DVD will feature
an introduction to the rock breaking process in mining and a description of explosives and how they work. The second part of the DVD will cover
development drilling and blasting practices; while the third part will cover production drilling and blasting. The ACG acknowledges the project sponsors’
generous support.

The ACG invites your organisation to sponsor this new training DVD. Contact the ACG for more information.

For many mining companies, ACG training products have become an integral and essential component of their training programmes. For the full list of the
ACG’s successful suite of geotechnical mine worker training DVDs, please visit www.acg.uwa.edu.au/training_products.

The ACG team wishes you and your

Festive Greetings family a very merry Christmas and a
happy New Year. We thank you for your
support and encouragement during 2009
and look forward to an exciting 2010.
Our office will be closed from Wednesday
23rd December 2009, reopening on
Wednesday 6th January 2010.

Australian Centre for Geomechanics PO Box 3296 – Broadway, Nedlands, Western Australia, AUSTRALIA 6009
Ph + 61 8 6488 3300 Fax +61 8 6488 1130 acginfo@acg.uwa.edu.au www.acg.uwa.edu.au
24 Australian Centre for Geomechanics • December 2009 Newsletter
 ACG December 2009 Newsletter
Article References

Sublevel caving — past and future

by William Hustrulid, University of Utah; and the Colorado School of Mines, USA, and Rudolph Kvapil, USA

Bullock, R.L., and Hustrulid, W.A. (2001), Planning the underground mine on the basis of mining method, Underground Mining
Methods: Engineering Fundamentals and International Case Studies (Ed. W.A. Hustrulid and R.L. Bullock), SME, Littleton,
Colorado, pp 29-48.
Coates, D.F. (1981), Rock Mechanics Principles, Monograph 874 (revised), CANMET Energy, Mines and Resources.
Hollins, B., and Tucker, J. (2004), Drawpoint analysis using a marker trial at the Perseverance nickel mine, Leinster, Western
Australia, Proceedings, MassMin 2004, Santiago, Chile, pp
Hustrulid, W., and Johnson, J. (2008), A gas pressure-based drift round blast design methodology, Proceedings, MassMin 2008,
Luleå, Sweden
Janelid, I. (1961), Introductory speech, Sublevel Caving Discussion Meeting, Series B, Number 32, March 29, 1962, pp 3-7.
Janelid, I. (1972), Study of the gravity flow process in sublevel caving. International Sublevel Caving Symposium, Stockholm,
September.
Janelid, I., and Kvapil, R. (1965), Sublevel caving, Int. Jour. Rock Mech. and Min. Sci. vol. 3, pp 129-153.
Johansson, C.H. and Persson, P-A (1970), Detonics of High Explosives, Academic Press, London, 330pp.
Kvapil, R. (1955), Theory of the Flow of Granular and Coarse Materials in Hoppers (In Czech), State Technical Literature
Publishing Company (SNTL), Prague.
Kvapil, R. (1982), The mechanics and design of sublevel caving systems, Underground Mining Methods Handbook (Ed W.A.
Hustrulid), SME, AIME, New York, pp 880- 897.
Kvapil, R. (1992), Sublevel caving. SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition (Ed H.L. Hartman), SME, Littleton, Colorado,
pp 1789-1814.
Kvapil, R. (2004), Gravity Flow in Sublevel and Panel Caving - A Common Sense Approach. Book/CD published with very limited
circulation.
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The changing profile of risk associated with
in-pit placement of waste
by Raymond Yost, Rio Tinto Minerals – Boron Operations, USA

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Summer vacation students in winter

by Peter Hills, Tasmania Mine Joint Venture, BCD Resources (Operations) NL

Hills, P.B. & Penney, A.R., 2008. Management of seismicity at the Beaconsfield Gold Mine, Tasmania. In, Proceedings of the
Tenth AusIMM Underground Operators’ Conference 2008. The Australasian Institute of Mining & Metallurgy: Melbourne.
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Beaconsfield Gold Mine, Tasmania. In, Proceedings of the Narrow Vein Mining Conference 2008. The Australasian Institute
of Mining & Metallurgy: Melbourne. Pp. 199-206.
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Report No. HZ00054.01.BH.
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at Beaconsfield Gold Mine, Tasmania. In, Proceedings of the Narrow Vein Mining Conference 2008. The Australasian
Institute of Mining & Metallurgy: Melbourne. Pp. 165-172.
Pfitzner, M., 2006 Geotechnical assessment – resumption of decline developments. Coffey Mining P/L Report No.
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The risk of tailings disposal

by Keith Seddon, ATC Williams

Australian National Committee on Large Dams “Guidelines on Tailings Dam Design Construction and Operation” October 1999.
“Safety of Tailings Dams” http://www.wise-uranium.org/mdas.html
Standards Australia AS/NZS 4360:2004 Risk Management.

Increasing value in mining operations

through the application of paste
by Nick Slade and Stephen Wilson, Golder Paste Technology (Europe) Ltd; Florencio Felipe, Xstrata Copper,
Mount Isa Copper Operations; Frank Palkovits, Golder Paste Technology Ltd

Runge I,C,1998. Mining Economics and Strategy. (Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc) United States.
ASTM C143 / C143M – 08, 2008. Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete. (ASTM International) United
States.
MacNamara, L. 2009. (FLSmidth Dorr Oliver Eimco Ltd) Personal Communication on large scale applications and paste thickener
evolution.