UNIT-I

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

Introduction

 Laplace transform is an integral transform employed in solving physical problems.

 Many physical problems when analyzed assume the form of a differential equation
subjected to a set of initial conditions or boundary conditions.
 By initial conditions we mean that the conditions on the dependent variable are specified
at a single value of the independent variable.
 If the conditions of the dependent variable are specified at two different values of the
independent variable, the conditions are called boundary conditions.
 The problem with initial conditions is referred to as the Initial value problem (IVP). The
problem with boundary conditions is referred to as the Boundary value problem (BVP).
 Laplace transform converts a given initial value problem to an algebraic equation.
 Important applications of Laplace transform is the solution of the mathematical models of
physical system in which the right hand side of the differential equation, representing the
driving force is discontinuous or acts for a short time or is a periodic function (not
necessarily a sine or cosine function).
 The initial conditions are automatically absorbed during the derivation of the algebraic
equation whose solution gives the expression for the Laplace transform of the dependent
variable. In such case taking inverse Laplace we find the solution of the original initial
value problem.

Example 1
d 2 y dy
The problem of solving the equation   y  x with conditions
dx 2 dx
y(0) = y  (0) = 1 is an initial value problem.
Example 2
d2y dy
The problem of solving the equation 3 2
 2  y  cos x with y (1) =1,
dx dx
y (2) =3 is called Boundary value problem.
Laplace transform is essentially employed to solve initial value problems. This technique is of
great utility in applications dealing with mechanical systems and electric circuits. Besides, this
technique may also be employed to find the solution of certain integral. The transform is named
after the French Mathematician P.S. de’ Laplace (1749 – 1827).
 The subject is divided into the following sub topics

LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

Definition and Transforms of Convolution Inverse Solution of

Properties some functions theorem transforms differential
Definition: equations
Let f (t) be a real-valued function defined for all t  0 and s be a parameter, real or complex.


e
 st
Suppose the integral f (t )dt exists (converges). Then this integral is called the Laplace
0
transform of f (t) and is denoted by L {f (t)}.
Thus,

L f (t)   e st f (t) dt (1)
0

We note that the value of the integral on the right hand side of (1) depends on s. Hence L {f (t)}
is a function of s denoted by F(s) or f (s ) .
Thus,
L {f (t)} = F(s) (2)
Consider relation (2). Here f (t) is called the Inverse Laplace transform of F(s) and is denoted by
L-1 [F(s)].
Thus,
L-1 [F(s)] = f (t) (3)
Suppose f (t) is defined as follows:
f1 (t), 0 < t < a
f (t) = f2(t), a<t<b
f3 (t), t>b
Note that f (t) is piecewise continuous. The Laplace transform of f(t) is defined as

L {f (t)} =  e  st f (t )
0

a b 
=  e  st f1 (t )dt   e  st f 2 (t )dt   e  st f 3 (t )dt
0 a b
Note
In a practical situation, the variable t represents the time and s represents frequency. Hence the
Laplace transform converts the time domain into the frequency domain.
Existence and Uniqueness of Laplace Transformation
We need the concepts of Piecewise continuous function and exponential order to give sufficient
condition for existence of Laplace transforms.

Piecewise Continuous function

A function f(t) is piecewise continuous on the interval [a, b] if
(i) The interval [a, b] can be broken into finite number of subintervals
a0  t 0  t1  t 2  ......t n  b such that f is continuous in each sub-interval ( t i , t i 1 ) for
i=0, 1, 2,…, n-1.
(ii) The function f(t) has jump discontinuity at ti thus lim f (t ) <∞  i =0,1,2,3,…, n-1
t ti 

and lim f (t ) <∞  i =1,2,3,…, n

t ti 

A function is piecewise continuous on [0, ∞) if it is piecewise continuous in [0, A] for all A>0.

Example1
The function defined by

f (t) = {

is piecewise continuous on[0, 3].

Example 2
The function defined by

f (t) = {

is not a piecewise continuous on[0, 3].

Exponential order
A function f (t) is said to be of exponential order c, if there exist constants
M and c such that | | for sufficiently large t.
Example:
Any Polynomial is of exponential order. This is clear from the fact that
eat= ∑ , but f(t) = is not of exponential order.

Sufficient condition for the existence of Laplace transforms

Let f(t) be a piece-wise continuous function in [0, ) and is of exponential order. Then Laplace
transform F(s) of exists for s > c, where c is a real number that depends on f(t).
Uniqueness of Laplace transforms
Let f (t) and g (t) be two functions such that F(s) = G(s) for all s > k. Then f (t) = g (t) at all t
where both are continuous.
Basic properties
The following are some basic properties of Laplace transforms:
1. Linearity property
For any two functions f(t) and (t) (whose Laplace transforms exist and any two constants a and
b, we have
L [a f (t) + b (t)] = a L{f (t)} + b L{(t)}.
Proof
By definition, we have
  
L [af (t) +b(t)] =  e  st af (t )  b (t )dt = a  e  st f (t )dt  b  e  st (t )dt
0 0 0

= a L {f (t)} + b L {(t)}
This is the desired property.
In particular, for a=b=1, we have
L [ f(t) + (t)] = L{f(t)} + L{(t)}
and for a = -b = 1, we have
L [ f(t) - (t)] = L {f(t)} - L{(t)}.
2. Change of scale property
1 s
If L {f (t)} = F(s), then L [f (at)] = F   , where a is a positive constant.
a a
Proof
By definition, we have

L {f (at)} =  e  st f (at )dt (1)
0

Let us set at = x. Then expression (1) becomes,

 s
1   x 1 s
L {f (at)} =  e  a  f ( x)dx  F  
a0 a a
This is the desired property.
3. First Shifting property
Let a, b, cbeany real constant. Then L [eatf(t)] = F(s-a)
Proof
By definition, we have
  
 
L [eatf (t)] =  e  st e at f (t ) dt =  e ( s  a ) f (t )dt
0 0

= F(s-a)
This is the desired property. Here we note that the Laplace transform of eat f(t) can be written
down directly by changing s to s-a in the Laplace transform of f(t).
Transforms of some function
1. Let ‘a’be a constant, then
 
L (eat) =  e  st e at dt   e ( s a )t dt
0 0


e  ( s a )t 1
=  , s>a
 ( s  a) 0 s  a
1
Thus, L (eat) =
sa
1
In particular, when a=0, we getL (1) = , s> 0
s
 1  at 1  1 
By inversion formula, we have L1  e L  e .
at

sa s
 e at  e  at  1   st at
2. L(coshat) = L  =  e e  e at dt  
 2  20

=
1
2 0

e ( s a )t  e ( s  a )t dt 

1  e (s a)t e (s  a)t  s
L(coshat)    
2   (s  a)  (s  a)  0 =
s2  a2

s  s 
Thus, L (cosh at) = , s > |a| and so L1  2 2 
 cosh at.
s a s a 
2 2

 e at  e  at  a
3. L (sinhat) = L   2 , s > |a|
 s a
2
 2

a  1  sinh at
Thus, L (sinhat) = , s > |a |and so, L1  2 2 
 .
s a s a 
2
2
a

4. L (sin at) =  e  st sin at dt
0

Here, we suppose that s > 0 and then integrate by using the formula
 e ax
 e sin bxdx 
ax
a sin bx  b cos bx
a2  b2
a  1  sinh at
Thus, L (sinh at) = , s > 0and so L1  2  .
s a s a 
2
2 2
a

5. L (cosat) =  e  st cos atdt
0

Here, we suppose that s>0 and integrate by using the formula

e ax
 e cos bxdx  a 2  b 2 a cos bx  b sin bx
ax

s s
Thus, L (cos at) = , s > 0 and so L1 2  cos at.
s a
2 2
s  a2
6. Let n be a constant, which is a non-negative real number or a negative non-integer.

Then L{(tn)} =  e  st t n dt
0

 n 
 x  dx 1
Let s > 0 and set st = x, then L(t n )   e  x    n 1  e  x x n dx
0 s s s 0

The integral  e  x x n dx is called gamma function of (n+1) denoted by (n  1) .
0

(n  1)
Thus L(t n ) 
s n 1
In particular, if n is a non-negative integer then (n  1) =n!

n! 1  1  tn tn
Hence, L(t n )  and so L  n 1   or as the case may be.
s n1  s  (n  1) n!
Region of Convergence
Laplace transform F(s) of function f(t) converges provided that the limit
∫ exists. The Laplace transform converges absolutely if the
integral∫ | | exists. The set of values for which F(s) converges is known as the region
of convergence (ROC).
Laplace Transforms of Common Functions

Name f(t) F(s)

Impulse 1 1
1 t  0
f (t )  
0 t  0

Step 1/s 1/s

f (t )  1

Ramp
f (t )  t 1
s2

Exponential
f (t )  e at 1
sa

Sine
f (t )  sin(t ) 1
  s2
2
Table of Laplace Transforms

f(t) F(s)
1
1 , s>0
s
1
eat , s>a
sa
s
coshat , s > |a|
s  a2
2

a
sinhat , s > |a|
s  a2
2

a
sinat , s>0
s  a2
2

s
cosat , s>0
s  a2
2

n!
tn, n=0,1,2,….. , s>0
s n1
(n  1)
tn, n > -1 , s>0
s n1

Application of shifting property

The shifting property is if L {f (t)} = F(s), then L [eatf(t)] = F(s-a)
Application of this property leads to the following results:
 s  sa
1. L(e at cosh bt )  L(cosh bt )s s a   2 2 
=
 s  b  s s  a ( s  a)  b
2 2

sa sa
Thus, L (eatcoshbt) = and L1{ }  e at cosh bt
( s  a)  b
2 2
( s  a)  b
2 2

a 1
2. L(e at sinh bt )  and L1{ }  e at sinh bt
( s  a)  b
2 2
( s  a)  b
2 2

sa sa
3. L(e at cos bt )  and L1{ }  e at cos bt
( s  a)  b
2 2
( s  a)  b
2 2

b 1 1 e at sin bt
4. L(e at sin bt )  and L { } 
( s  a) 2  b 2 ( s  a) 2  b 2 b
(n  1) n!
5. L(e at t n )  or as the case may be
( s  a) n 1
( s  a) n 1
 1 e at t n n!
Hence, L1{ n 1
}  or as the case may be
( s  a) (n  1) ( s  a) n 1
Examples
1. Find L{f(t)}, given f(t) = t, 0< t < 3
4, t > 3.
Solution
 3 
Here L{f (t)} =  e  st f (t )dt   e  st tdt   4e  st dt.
0 0 3

1 3 s 1
Integrating the terms on the RHS, we get L {f (t)} = e  2 (1  e 3s )
s s

sin2t ; 0 < t 
2. Find L{f(t)}, given f(t)= 0 ; t >.
Solution
  
Here, L {f (t)} =  e  st
f (t )dt   e  st
f (t )dt =  e  st sin 2tdt
0  0


 e  st 
=  2  s sin 2t  2 cos 2t = 2 2 1  e s  
s  4 0 s  4
3. Evaluate: (i) L(sin3t sin4t) (ii)L(cos2 4t) (iii) L(sin32t).
Solution
1
(i) Here L (sin3t sin4t) = L [ (cos t  cos 7t )]
2

=
1
L(cos t )  L(cos 7t ) , by using linearity property
2
1 s s  24s
=   2   2 .
2  s  1 s  49  ( s  1)( s 2  49)
2

1  1 1 s 
(ii) Here L (cos24t) = L  (1  cos 8t )    2 .
2  2  s s  64 

(iii) We have sin 3  

1
3sin  sin 3 
4

For =2t, we get sin 3 2t 

1
3sin 2t  sin 6t 
4
1 6 6  48
So that L(sin 3 2t )    2   2
4  s  4 s  36  ( s  4)(s 2  36)
2
 This is the desired result.
4. Find L (cost cos2t cos3t).
Solution
1
Here, cos2t cos3t = [cos 5t  cos t ]
2
1
So that cost cos2t cos3t = [cos 5t cos t  cos 2 t ]
2
1
= [cos 6t  cos 4t  1  cos 2t ]
4
1 s s 1 s 
Thus, L (cost cos2t cos3t) =  2   2 .

4  s  36 s  16 s s  4 
2

5. Find L (cosh22t).
Solution
1  cosh 2
We have cosh 2  
2
1  cosh 4t
For  = 2t, we get cosh 2 2t 
2
1 1 s 
Thus, L(cosh 2 2t )   2 .

2  s s  16 

 1 
6. Evaluate (i) L ( t ) (ii) L  (iii) L (t-3/2).
 t
Solution
(n  1)
We have L (tn) =
s n 1
1
(  1)
1 2
(i) For n= , we get L (t1/2) =
2 s3 / 2

1  1 1 
Since (n  1)  n(n) , we have   1    
 2  2  2 2


Thus, L( t )  3
.
2
2s
1
 

(ii) For n = - , we get L(t 2 )   1  
1 1 2
2 s 2 s
  1
  
2 
(iii) For n = - , we get L(t 2 )    1    1  2 s .
3 2
3

2 s 2 s 2
7. Evaluate: (i) L(t2) (ii) L(t3).
Solution
n!
We have, L (tn) =
s n 1
2! 2
(i) For n = 2, we get L (t2) =  .
s3 s3
3! 6
(ii) For n=3, we get L (t3) = 4
 4.
s s
8. Find L[e-3t (2cos5t – 3sin5t)].
Solution
Given 2 L(e-3t cos5t) – 3L(e-3t sin5t)

=2
s  3 
15
, by using shifting property
( s  3)  252
( s  3) 2  25
2s  9
= , on simplification.
s  6s  34
2

9. Find L [coshat sinhat].

Solution

Here, L [coshat sinat] = L 


 eat  e  at 
sin at 

 2 
1 a a 
=   2
2  ( s  a)  a
2 2
( s  a)  a 
2

= a ( s 2  2a 2 ) , on simplification.
[( s  a) 2  a 2 ][(s  a) 2  a 2 ]

10. Find L(cosht sin3 2t).

Solution
 et  e t  3 sin 2t  sin 6t 
Given L   
 2  4 

=
1
8
  
3  L et sin 2t  L(et sin 6t )  3L(et sin 2t )  L(et sin 6t ) 
 1 6 6 6 6 
  

8  ( s  1)  4 ( s  1)  36 ( s  1)  4 ( s  1)  36 
= 2 2 2 2

3 1 1 1 1 
=     .
4  ( s  1)  4 ( s  1)  36 ( s  1)  24 ( s  1)  36 
2 2 2 2

5
11. Find L(e 4t t 2
).

Solution
(n  1)
We have, L (tn) = Put n= -5/2. Hence
s n 1
(3 / 2) 4 
L(t-5/2) =   3 / 2 Change s to s+4.
s 3 / 2 3s
4 
Therefore, L(e 4t t 5 / 2 )  .
3( s  4) 3 / 2
Transform of tn f(t)
Here, we suppose that this positive integer. By definition, we have

F(s) =  e  st f (t )dt differentiating ‘n’ times on both sides w.r.t. s, we get
0


dn n
F ( s)  n  e st f (t )dt
ds n
s 0
Performing differentiation under the integral sign, we get

dn
n
F ( s)   (t ) n e st f (t )dt
ds 0

Multiplying on both sides by (-1)n , we get


dn
(1) n
n
F ( s)   (t n f (t )e st dt  L[t n f (t )] , by definition
ds 0

dn
Thus, L [tnf(t)] = (1) n n
F ( s) . This is the transform of tn f(t).
ds
 dn 
Also, L1  n F ( s)  (1) n t n f (t )
 ds 
d
In particular, we have L [t f(t)] =  F (s) , for n=1
ds
d2
L[t2 f(t)]= F ( s) , for n=2, etc.
ds 2
 d   d2 
Also, L1  F ( s)  tf (t ) and L1  2 F ( s)  t 2 f (t ).
 ds   ds 
f(t)
Transform of
t

We have, F(s) =  e  st f (t )dt
0

    
  st 
Therefore,  F ( s)ds     e st f (t )dt  ds =  f (t )   e ds dt
s s 0  0 s 
  
 e  st   st  f (t )   f (t ) 
=  f (t )   dt =  e  t  dt  L t 
0   t s 0    

 f (t ) 
Thus, L    F ( s)ds
 t  s

. Also, L1   F ( s)ds 
f (t ) f (t )
This is the transform of .
t s
t
Examples:
1. Find L[te-t sin4t].
Solution
4
We have, L[e t sin 4t ] 
( s  1) 2  16
 d  1  8( s  1)
So that, L [te-t sin4t] = 4  2  = 2 .
 ds  s  2s  17  ( s  2s  17)
2

2. Find L(t2 sin3t).

Solution
3
We have, L (sin3t) =
s 9
2

d2  3  d s 18( s 2  3)
So that, L (t sin3t) = 2  2  = 6
2
= .
ds  s  9  ds ( s 2  9) 2 ( s 2  9) 3

 e t sin t 
3. Find L 
 t .
Solution
 1
We have, L(e t sin t ) 
( s  1) 2  1

 e t sin t 
Hence, L  =  (s  1)
ds
2
1
 
 tan 1 ( s  1) s
 t  0


=  tan 1 ( s  1) = cot –1 (s+1).
2
 sin t   sin at 
4. Find L  and hence evaluate L  .
 t   t 
Solution

We have L(sint) =
1
s 1
 sin t 
. So that L{f(t)} = L  = s
ds
1
 
 tan 1 s S 
 t 
2 2
s


=  tan 1 s  cot 1 s  F ( s).
2
 sin at   sin at 
Consider L   = a L   aLf (at )
 t   at 
 1  s 
= a  F   , in view of the change of scale property
 a  a 
s
= cot 1  .
a
 cos at  cos bt 
5. Find L  
 t .
Solution
s s
We have, L [cosat – cosbt] =  2
s a
2 2
s  b2

1   s 2  a 2 

 cos at  cos bt   s s 
So that, L 
    s 2  a 2 s 2  b 2 
=  ds = log 2


2 
t s
2   s b  s

1  s2  a2   s 2  a 2 
=  sLt log 2   log  2 
2 
2    s  b 2   s  b 

1  s 2  b 2  1  s2  b2 
=  0  log  2 
2 
= log  .
2  s  a  2  s 2  a 2 
 
3
e
 3t
6. Prove that t sin tdt  .
0
50
Solution

d d  1  2s
We have,  e st t sin tdt  L(t sin t ) =  L(sin t ) =   2  = 2
0
ds ds  s  1 ( s  1) 2
Putting s = 3 in this result, we get

3
e
 3t
t sin tdt 
0
50
Transforms of the derivatives of f(t)

Consider

L{ f (t )} =  e  st f (t )dt
0

=e   st


f (t ) 0   ( s)e  st f (t )dt , by using integration by parts

 
0
 st
= Lt (e f (t )  f (0)  sLf (t )
t 
= 0 - f (0) + s L{f(t)}
Thus
L{ f (t ) }= s L{f (t)} – f (0)
Similarly,
L { f (t )} = s2 L {f(t)} – s f(0) - f (0)

In general, we have
L{ f n (t )}  s n L{ f (t )}  s n1 f (0)  s n2 f (0)  .......  f n1 (0) .
t
Transform of  f(t)dt
0
t
Let  (t) =  f (t )dt . Then (0) = 0 and   (t) = f(t)
0
  
 e  st  e  st
 s  0 0
Now, L{(t)} =  e  (t )dt =  (t )  st
   (t ) dt
0  s

1
= (0  0)   f (t )e  st dt
s0

  1 L{ f (t )} .Also, L1  1 L{ f (t )}   f (t )dt.

t t
Thus, L  f (t )dt
0
s s  0

Examples:
1. By using the Laplace transform of sinat, find the Laplace transform of cosat.
Solution
 a
Let f (t) = sin at, then L{f (t)} =
s  a2
2

We note that f (t )  a cos at

Taking Laplace transforms, we get L f (t )  L(a cos at )  aL(cos at )
Or L{cosat} = L f (t )  sL f (t ) f (0)
1 1
a a
1  sa 
=  2  0 .
a s  a 2

s
Thus L{cosat}= 2 .
s  a2

 t  1  1  1
2. Given L 2

  3 / 2 , show that L   .
  s  t  s
Solution
t 1
Let f (t) = 2 , given L [f (t)] = 3 / 2
 s
2 1 1
We note that, f (t )  
 2 t t
 1 
Taking Laplace transforms, we get L{ f (t )}  L  
 t 
 1 
Hence, L    Lf (t )  sLf (t )  f (0)
 t 
 1 
= s  3/ 2   0
s 
 1  1
Thus L   .
 t  s

 cos at  cos bt 
t
3. Find L   dt.
0 
t
Solution
 cos at  cos bt  1  s  b 
2 2
Here L{f (t)} = L   log 2 
2 
 t  2 s a 
t
Using the result L   f (t )dt   s L{ f (t )}
1
0

 cos at  cos bt 
t
 s2  b2 
We get, L    = log 2 2 .
1
dt
0
t  2s s a 
t
4. Find L  te t sin 4tdt .
0
Solution
 
L te t sin 4t 
8( s  1)
( s  2s  17) 2
2

8( s  1)
t
Thus L  te t sin 4tdt = .
0 s( s  2s  17) 2
2

Linear Transform of a periodic function

A function f(t) is said to be a periodic function of period T > 0 if f(t) = f(t + nT) where
n=1,2,3,….. The graph of the periodic function repeats itself in equal intervals.

For example, sint, cost are periodic functions of period 2 since

sin(t + 2n) = sin t, cos(t + 2n) = cos t.

The graph of f(t) = sin t is shown below :

Note that the graph of the function between 0 and 2 is the same as that between 2 and 4 and
so on.

The graph of f(t) = cos t is shown below :

Note that the graph of the function between 0 and 2 is the same as that between 2 and 4 and
so on.

Formula
 T
1
1  e  ST 0
Let f(t) be a periodic function of period T, then L{ f (t )}  e  st f (t )dt.

Proof
 
By definition, we have L{f(t)} =  e  st f (t )dt   e  su f (u )du
0 0
T 2T ( n 1)T

 e f (u)du   e f (u)du  .......  e

 su  su  su
= f (u )du  ....  
0 T nT
 ( n 1)T
=  e
n 0
 su
f (u )du
nT
 T
Let us set u = t + nT, then L{f (t)} =  e
n 0 t 0
 s ( t  nT )
f (t  nT )dt

Here f(t+nT) = f(t), by periodic property

 T
Hence, L f (t )   (e  sT ) n  e  st f (t )dt
n 0 0

 1   st
T

 sT 
=  e f (t )dt , identifying the above series as a geometric series.
1  e  0
 1   st
T

 sT 
Thus, L{f (t)}=  e f (t )dt .
1  e  0

Examples

1. For the periodic function f(t) of period 4, defined by f(t) = 3t, 0 < t < 2
6, 2<t<4
find L{f(t)}.
Solution
Here, period of f(t) = T = 4
 1   st  1   st
T 4

 sT  4 s 
We have, L {f (t)} =  e f (t )dt =  e f (t )dt
1  e  0 1  e  0
1  
2 4

4 s  
 st
= 3te dt  6e  st dt 
1 e 0 2 
 4
1    e  st  e  st   e  st  
2
2

1  e  4 s     s  0 0  s    s  2 
= 3t    1. dt   6 
   

1  3 1  e 2 s  2se 4 s  .
=  
1  e 4 s  s2 
3(1  e 2 s  2se 4 s )
Thus, L{f(t)} =
s 2 (1  e 4 s )
2
2. A periodic function of period is defined by

 
Esint, 0  t <

f(t) =
 2
0 , t
 
E
where E and  are positive constants. Show that L{f(t)} = .
( s  w )(1  e s / w )
2 2

Solution
2
Here T= . Therefore

2 /   /
1 1
 e f (t )dt =  Ee sin tdt
 st  st
L {f (t)} =  s ( 2 /  )  s ( 2 /  )
1 e 0 1 e 0
 /
 e  st

=
E
 2
 s ( 2 /  )
 s sin t   cos t
1 e s 
2
0
 s / 
E  (e  1)
=  s ( 2 /  )
1 e s 
2 2

E (1  e  s /  )
=
(1  e  s /  )(1  e  s /  )( s 2   2 )
E
=  s / 
.
(1  e )( s 2   2 )

3. A periodic function f(t) of period 2a, a>0 is defined by

E, 0ta
f(t) =
-E, a < t  2a
E  as 
Show that L{f (t)} = tanh .
s  2
Solution
2a
1
 2 as 
Here T = 2a. Therefore L{f(t)} = e  st f (t )dt
1 e 0

1  a  st 2a

 2 as   
= Ee dt   Ee  st dt 
1 e 0 a 
=
E
s(1  e ) 2 as
 
1  e  sa   (e 2 as  e as ) 
    s(1 Ee(1  )(e 1 )e
 as 2
E 2
=  2 as
1  e as  as  as
s(1  e ) )
E e e
as / 2
 E
 as / 2
 as 
=  as / 2  as / 2 
 tanh  .
s e e  s  2

Step Function
In many Engineering applications, we deal with an important discontinuous function H(t-a)
defined as follows :
0, t a
H (t-a) =
1, t > a

where a is a non-negative constant.

This function is known as the unit step function or the Heaviside function. The function is
named after the British electrical engineer Oliver Heaviside. The function is also denoted by u(t-
a). The graph of the function is shown below:

H(t-a)

0 a t

Note that the value of the function suddenly jumps from value zero to the value 1 as t  a from
the left and retains the value 1 for all t>a. Hence the function H(t-a) is called the unit step
function.
In particular, when a=0, the function H(t-a) become H(t), where

0,t0
H(t) =
1, t > 0

Transform of step function


By definition, we have L [H (t-a)] =  e  st H (t  a)dt
0
a 
=  e  st 0dt   e  st (1)dt
0 a
 as
e
=
s
1
In particular, we have L H (t) =
s
e 
 as
1  1 
Also, L1    H (t  a) and L    H (t )
 s  s

Heaviside shift theorem

Statement
L [f(t-a) H(t-a)] = e-as Lf(t).
Proof :- We have


 f (t  a) H (t  a)e
 st
L [f (t-a) H (t-a)] = dt
0

=  e  st f (t  a)dt
a

Setting t-a = u, we get L [f (t-a) H (t-a)] =  e  s ( a u ) f (u )du
0
= e-as L {f(t)}.
Also,
L-1 [e-as L f(t)] = f(t-a) H(t-a)

Unit Impulse functions

The unit impulse function (t) is defined to have the properties
 (t )  0 for t  0, and   (t )dt  1


The unit impulse function is an example of a generalized function and is usually called the Dirac
delta function.
In general, for a unit impulse at an arbitrary point t0,

 (t  t 0 )  0 for t  t 0 , and 

 (t  t 0 )dt  1

Laplace Transform of Unit Impulse function

L (t  t 0 )  lim Ld (t  t 0 ), t 0  0
 0

 t 0 
L (t  t0 )  lim 
1
 0 0
e  st d (t  t0 ) dt  lim
 0 2  t 0 
e  st dt
t 0 

 lim
 e  st
  0 2 s
 lim
 0
1
2 s

 e  s t 0    e  s t 0   
t 0 

e  st0  e s  e  s   sinh( s ) 
 lim    e  st0 lim 
  0 s s
 2    0 
 s cosh( s ) 
 e  st0 lim   e  st0
  0 s 
 L (t  t 0 )  e  st0 , t 0  0
Thus the Laplace Transform of (t) is
For Laplace Transform of (t) at t0= 0, take limit as follows:
L (t )  lim Ld (t  t 0 )  lim e  st0  1
t0 0  0 0

For example, when t0= 10, we have L{(t -10)} = e-10s.

Examples:

1. Find L[et-2 + sin(t-2)] H(t-2).

Solution
Let f(t-2) = [et-2 + sin(t-2)]
1 1
Then f(t) =[et + sint]so that L {f(t)} =  2
s 1 s 1
By Heaviside shift theorem, we have L[f(t-2) H(t-2)] = e-2s Lf(t)
  1 1 
Thus, L[e (t 2)  sin(t  2)]H (t  2)  e 2 s   2 
 s  1 s  1

2. Find L(3t2 +2t +3) H(t-1).

Solution
Let f(t-1) = 3t2 +2t +3so that f(t) = 3(t+1)2 +2(t+1) +3 = 3t2 +8t +8
Hence, L f (t )  3  2 
6 8 8
s s s
Thus L[3t +2t +3] H(t-1) = L[f(t-1) H(t-1)]= e-s L f(t)
2

6 8 8
= e s  3  2  
s s s
-t
3. Find L{e H(t-2)}.

Solution
Let f(t-2) = e-t , so that, f(t) = e-(t+2)
e 2
Thus, L{f (t)} =
s 1
e 2( s 1)
By shift theorem, we have L[ f (t  2) H (t  2)]  e 2 s L f (t ) 
s 1
 t
Thus L e H (t  2)  
e 2( s 1)
s 1

4. Let f(t) = f1 (t) , t  a

f2 (t), t > a

Verify that f(t) = f1(t) + [f2(t) – f1(t)]H(t-a).

Solution
Consider, f1(t) + [f2(t) – f1(t)]H(t-a) = f1(t) + f2 (t) – f1(t), t > a
0 , t a

= f2 (t), t > a = f(t), given

f1(t), t  a

5. Express the following functions in terms of unit step function and hence find their
Laplace transforms.

1. f(t) = t2, 1 < t  2

4t, t > 2

2. f(t) = cost, 0 < t <

sint, t >
Solution
1. Here, f(t) = t2 + (4t-t2) H(t-2).
2
Hence L{f (t)} = 3  L(4t  t 2 ) H (t  2) (i)
s
Let(t-2) = 4t – t so that(t) = 4(t+2) – (t+2)2 = -t2 + 4
2

2 4
Now, L{ (t )}   3 
s s
Expression (i) reads as L{f(t)} = 3  L (t  2) H (t  2)
2
s
2
= 3  e 2 s L{ (t )}
s
2 4 2 
= 3  e 2 s   3  .
s s s 

2. Here f(t) = cost + (sint-cost)H(t-) .

Solution
s
Hence L{f(t)} = 2  L(sin t  cos t ) H (t   ) (ii)
s 1
Let (t-) = sint – cost
Then(t) = sin(t + ) – cos(t + ) = -sint + cost
1 s
So that L (t) =  2  2
s 1 s 1
Expression (ii) reads as
 L (t   ) H (t   )
s
L {f (t)} = 2
s 1
s
= 2  e s L (t )
s 1
s  s 1 
= 2  e s  2 
s 1  s  1
Assignment 1
I Find L {f(t)} in each of the following cases:
1. f (t) = et , 0 < t < 2
0, t > 2.
2. f (t) = 1 , 0  t  3
t , t > 3.

t
3. f (t) = , 0t<a
a
1 , t a.
II. Find the Laplace transforms of the following functions:
4. Cos (3t + 4).
5. Sin3t sin5t.
6. Cos4t cos7t.
7. Sin5t cos2t.
8. Sint sin2t sin3t.
9. sin2 5t.
10. sin2 (3t+5).
11. cos3 2t.
12. sinh2 5t.
13. t5/2 .
3
 1 
14.  t  
 t .

15. 3t.
16. 5-t.
17. e-2t cos2 2t.
18. e2t sin3t sin5t.
19. e-t sin4t + t cos2t.
20. t2 e-3t cos2t.
1  e 2t
21. .
t
e  at  e bt
22. .
t
sin 2 t
23. .
t
2 sin 2t sin 5t
24. .
t
III. Evaluate the following integrals using Laplace transforms:

25.  te  2t sin 5tdt .
0


26.  e 5t t 3 cos tdt .
0


 e  at  e bt 
27.   dt.
0 
t

e t sin t
28.  dt.
0
t
Assignment 2

1. By using the Laplace transform of coshat, find the Laplace transform of sinhat.
t t t
sin t
2. Find (i) L  dt (ii) L  e t cos tdt (iii) L  e t cos tdt
0
t 0 0

 sin t  t
t t
(iv) L   e dt (v) L  t 2 sin atdt
0
t  0

3. If f(t) = t2, 0 < t < 2 and f(t+2) = f(t) for t > 2, find L f(t)

4. Find L{f(t)} given f(t) = t, 0ta

f(2a+t) = f(t)
2a – t, a < t  2a

a
5. Find L{f(t)} given f(t) = 1, 0 < t < f (a+t) = f(t)
2
a
-1, <t<a
2

6. Find the Laplace transform of the following functions:

(i) et-1 H(t-2) (ii) t2 H(t-2) (iii) (t2 + t + 1) H(t +2)
(iv) (e-t sint) H(t - )

7. Express the following functions in terms of unit step function and hence find their
Laplace transforms:

2t, 0 < t  t2 , 2 < t  3

(i) f(t) = (ii) f(t) =
1 , t > 3t, t > 3

sin2t, 0 < t  sint, 0 < t /2

(iii) f(t) = (iv) f(t) =
0 , t > cost, t >/2

8. Let f1 (t), t  a
f(t)= f2 (t), a<t  b
f3 (t), t > b

Verify that f (t) = f1 (t) + [f2 (t) – f1 (t)]H(t-a) + [f3(t) - f2(t)] H(t-b)

9. Express the following function in terms of unit step function and hence find its
Laplace transforms.
 
f (t) = {   

UNIT-II

INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

Definition
Let L{f (t)} = F(s), then f(t) is defined as the inverse Laplace transform of F(s) and is denoted by
L-1{F(s)}. Thus L-1{F(s)} = f (t).

Linearity Property
Let L-1{F(s)} = f (t) and L-1{G(s)} = g(t) and a and b be any two constants,
thenL-1 [a F(s) + b G(s)] = a L-1{F(s)} + b L-1{ G(s)}

Table of Inverse Laplace Transforms

F(s) f (t )  L1{F (s)}

1 1
,s0
s
1 e at
,sa
sa
s Cos at
,s0
s  a2
2

1 Sin at
,s0
s  a2
2
a
1 Sin h at
,s a
s  a2
2
a
 s
,s a
s2  a2 Cos h at
1 tn
n 1
,s0
s n!
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
1 tn
n 1
,s0
s n  1
n > -1

Examples
1. Find the inverse Laplace transforms of the following:

1 sb 2s  5 4s  9
(i ) (ii ) (iii ) 
2s  5 s2  a2 4s 2  25 9  s 2
Solution
5t
(i) L 1
 1
  1 L1  1  1 e 2
2s  5 2 s5 2
2
sb
(ii ) L1    L1    b L1    cos at  b sin at
s 1
s  a2
2
s2  a2 s  a2
2
a

4s  8  2 1 s  2 s9
5
 2s  5
(iii ) L1  2   L    4L1  2 
 4s  25 9  s  4 s 9
2 2
25
s2 
4

1 5t 5t   3 
 cos  sin   4cos h3t  sin h3t 
2 2 2  2 

Evaluation of L-1{F(s – a)}

We know thatif L{f (t)} = F(s), thenL [eatf (t)] = F(s – a), and so

L-1{F(s – a)} =eatf (t) = e at L-1{F(s)}

Examples
 3s  1 
1. Evaluate : L1  4 
.
 ( s  1) 
Solution

3s  1 - 1  1
L-1    3 L1  2 L1 
1 1
s  14 s  13 s  14
 3e t L1   2e t L1  14 
1
3
s s
Using the formula
 n
L1  t
1
and taking n  2 and 3, we get
s n1 n!
3e t t 2 e t t 3
  .
2 3
s2
2. Evaluate : L-1  .
s - 2s  5
2

Solution
s2  s  1  3  s 1
Given  L-1   L    3L1  
1
 L1  1

s  1  4 2
 s  1  4 
2
s  12  4 s  12  4
 e t L-1  2   3 e t L1  2 1 
s
s 4 s 4

3 t
 et cos 2t  e sin 2t
2

2s  1
3. Evaluate : L1  .
s  3s  1
2

Solution

Given  2L -1

s    1
3
2

 2 L 
 1
s  32    L 
1 1


s    5 4
3 2
2


2

s  32  5
4
 s  
3 2
2
 5
4 


  3t  3t 
 2e 2 L1  2  e 2 L1  
s 1
 s 5 s2  5 
 4 4 

3t
 5 2 5 
 2e 2
cos h t sin h t .
 2 5 2 

2 s 2  5s  4
4. Evaluate : L1  .
s 3  s 2  2s
Solution

2 s 2  5s  4 2 s 2  5s  4 2 s 2  5 s  4 A B C
 2    
 
We have -------- (1)
s  s  2s s s  s  2 ss  2s  1 s s  2 s  1
3 2

2
Then 2s +5s-4 = A(s+2) (s-1) + Bs (s-1) + Cs (s+2)

For s = 0, we get A = 2, for s = 1, we get C = 1 and for s = -2, we get B = -1. Using these values
in (1), we get
2 s 2  5s  4
}  L1    L1  1   L1  1   2  e 2t  e t
2
L-1{ 3
s  s  2s
2
s s2 s 1
 4s  5
5. Evaluate : L1  .
s  12  s  2
Solution

Let us take
4s  5 A B C
  
s  1  s  2 s  1 s  1 s  2
2 2

then,
4s + 5 =A(s + 2) + B(s + 1) (s + 2) + C (s + 1)2

For s = -1, we get A = 1, for s = -2, we get C = -3

Comparing the coefficients of s2, we get B + C = 0, so that B = 3.
Using these values in (1), we get

4s  5 1 3 3
  
s  1  s  2 s  1 s  1 s  2
2 2

Hence,
4s  5
L1    e t L1    3e t L1    3e 2t L1  
1 1 1
s  12  s  2 s2 s s

 te t  3et  3e2t

s3
5. Evaluate : L1  .
s4  a4
Solution
s3 A B Cs  D
Let 4    2  (1)
s a 4
s  a s  a s  a2
Hence, s3 = A(s + a) (s2 + a2) + B (s-a)(s2+a2)+(Cs + D) (s2 – a2)
For s = a, we get A = ¼; for s = -a, we get B = ¼; comparing the constant terms, we get
D = a(A-B) = 0; comparing the coefficients of s3, we get
1 = A + B + C and so C = ½. Using these values in (1), we get
s3 1 1 1  1 s
   
s a
4 4
4  s  a s  a  2 s 2  a 2
Taking inverse transforms, we get

L1  4
s3
s a 4
4
 
  1 e at  e at  1 cos at  1 cos hat  cos at 
2 2
6. Evaluate : L1  4 .
s
s  s2 1

Solution
 s s 1 2s 
 2   2
Consider ,
    
s  s 1 s  s 1  s  s 1 2  s  s 1 s  s 1 
24 2 2 
 

1   
s2  s  1  s2  s  1  1 

1  
1 

2    

s2  s  1 s2  s  1  2  s2  s  1    
s2  s  1  
 
1  1 1 
   
 2
 4 2

2 s 1 2  3 s 1 2  3
4
 
Therefore

 1 
1  2 t 1 1 
1
s  t 1
1 
 e L e 2 L 1
3
L 4
s  s 1 2 
2
s2 
3
s2  
 4 4

 3 3 
1  2t
1 sin t 1 sin
 t
t
 e 2 e 2 2 
2 3 3 

 2 2 

2  3  t
 sin  t  sin h 
3  2  2

Evaluation of L-1[e-as F(s)]

We know that, if L{f(t)} = F(s), then L[f(t-a) H(t-a)] = e-as F(s), and
so L-1[e-as F(s)] = f(t-a) H(t-a)

Examples
e ss
1. Evaluate : L1 .
s  24
Solution
1
a  5, F ( s ) 
s  24

1 11 1 e 2t t 3
Therefore f (t )  L {F ( s )}  L { }  e 2t L1{ 4 } 
s  2 4
s 6

Thus
e 5 s
L1{ }  f (t  a ) H (t  a )
s  2 4

e 2t 5  t  5
3
 H t  5.
6

 e s se 2s 
2. Evaluate : L1  2  2 .
s 1 s  4
Solution
Given  f1 t   H t     f 2 t  2 H t  2  (1)

1
Here f1 (t )  L1{ }  sin t
s 1
2

s
f 2 (t )  L1{ 2 }  cos 2t
s 4

Now relation (1) reads as

Given  sin t    H t     cos 2t  2  H t  2 

  cos t H t     cos 2t  H t  2 .

Inverse transform of logarithmic and inverse functions

We have, if L {f(t)}  F(s), then Ltf t    F s .
d
ds

 d 
L1   F s   tf (t ).
 ds 
Examples
1. Evaluate
sa
L1 {log }.
 sb
sa
Let F ( s )  log    log s  a   log s  b 
sb
 1 1 
Then  F s    
d
 
ds s  a s  b
 d 

So that L1  F s    e  at  e bt 
 ds 
e bt  e  at
or t f t   e  e . Thus
bt  at
f t   .
b

2. Evaluate L1 
tan
1 a 
.
 s
a
Let F ( s )  tan 1  
s
 a   d 
Then  F s    2 or L1  F s   sin at
d
2 
so that
ds s  a   ds 
or t f t   sin at f t  
sin at
.
a

 F (s) 
Inverse Transform of 
 s 
F s   F s  
t t
Since L  f t dt  , we have L1    f t dt
0
s  s   0

Examples
 1 
1. Evaluate L1  2
 2 
s s  a 
.

Solution
sin at
Let us denote F s   so that f (t )  L1 F s  
1
s a 2 2
a
1 F s 
t
sin at 1  cos at 
Then L1   L1  dt 
ss a
2 2
 
s 0
a a2
  1 
2. Evaluate : L1  2 2 
.
 s s  a  
Solution
t
we have L1    e  att Hence L1     e  att dt
1 1
s  a 2 s s  a 
2
0

 
 2 1  e  at 1  at  , on integratio n by parts.
1
a

 
t
Using this, we get L-1  2  1  e  at 1  at  dt
1 1
a 2 0

s s  a 
2


1
a3
   
at 1  e  at  2 e  at  1 

Inverse Laplace transform of F(s) by using convolution theorem

We have, if L{f(t)}  F(s) and L{g(t)}  G(s), then

Lf(t)  g(t)   L{ f (t )}  L{g (t )}  F ( s ) G ( s ) and so
t
L1 F ( s ) G ( s )  f (t )  g (t )   f t  u g u du
0
This expression is called the convolution theorem for inverse Laplace transform.

Examples

Employ convolution theorem to evaluate the following :

1. L1  .
1
s  a s  b
Solution
1 1
Let us denote F(s)  , G ( s) 
sa sb
Taking the inverse, we get f(t)  e -at , g(t)  e -bt
Therefore, by convolution theorem,
t t
L -1
 1
 e  a t u  bu
e du e  at
e
 a b u
du
s  a s  b  0 0

 e a b t  1 e bt  e  at
 e  at    .
 ab  a b
 L1  .
s
2.
s 2
 a2 
2

Solution
1 s
Let us denote F(s)  , G(s)  2 Then
s a22
s  a2
sin at
f(t)  , g(t)  cos at
a
Hence by convolution theorem,
t
L -1
 s
   1 sin at  u  cos au du
s 2
a 2 2
 0
a
1 sin at  sin at  2au 
t

a 0
 du, by using compound angle formula
2
cos at  2au  
t
1  t sin at
 u sin at    .
2a   2a 0 2a


 .
s
L1
(3)
s  1 s 2  1 
1 s
Here F(s) 
, G( s) 
s 1 2
s 1
Therefore f(t)  e , g(t)  sin t
t

By convolution theorem, we have

t
 e u 
-1
 1
 e t u
sin u du  e t
 sin u  cos u 
L

s  1 s 2  1   2 0


2

e t t
 
e  sin t  cos t    1  e t  sin t  cos t .
1
2

Laplace Transform Method for Differential equations
As noted earlier, Laplace transform technique is employed to solve initial-value problems. The
solution of such a problem is obtained by using the Laplace Transform of the derivatives of
function and then the inverse Laplace Transform.

The following are the expressions for the derivatives derived earlier.
L[f (t)]  s L f(t) - f(o)
L[f (t)  s 2 L f(t) - s f(o) - f (o)
L [f (t)  s 3 L f(t) - s 2 f(o) - s f (o) - f (o)

Examples

1. y   2 y   3 y  sin t , y(o)  y (o)  0

 Solution

Taking the Laplace transform of the given equation, we get

s 2

Ly(t )  sy(o)  y (o)  2s Ly(t )  y(o)  3 L y(t ) 
1
s 1
2

Using the given conditions, we get

sL yt   yo   L yt   1 2
s  1
Using the given condition, this becomes
2s 2  4s  3
s  1L yt   2  1
so that L y t  
s  12 s  13
Taking the inverse Laplace transform, we get
2s 2  4s  3
Y t   L1
s  13
 2s  1  12  4s  1  1  3 
 L1  
 s  13 

 L1 
 2

1  1 t 2
  e t 4  
 s  1 s  13  2


L y (t ) s 2  2s  3 
2

1
s 1
or L y (t ) 
1
s  1s  3 s 2  1 
or

 1   A B Cs  D 
y (t )  L1   L1 
 
 s  1s  3 s 2  1    
 s 1 s  3 s2 1 


 s 1
   
1 1 1 1
 L1    10 5  by using the method of partial sums,
 8 s  1 40 s  3 s2 1 
 

 e t  e  3t  cos t  2 sin t .
1 1 1
8 40 10

2. Employ Laplace Transform method to solve the integral equation.

t
f(t)  l   f u sin t  u du
0
Taking Laplace transform of the given equation, we get
t
L f(t)   L  f u sin t  u du
1
s
0
By using convolution theorem, here, we get .
1 1 L f (t )
L f(t)   Lf (t )  L sin t   Thus
s s s2 1
s2 1  s2  1 2
L f (t )  or f (t )  L1    1 t .
s3  s3  2
 

d2x dx
3. A particle is moving along a path satisfying, the equation 2
6  25 x  0 where
dt dt
x denotes the displacement of the particle at time t. If the initial position of the particle is at x  20
and the initial speed is 10, find the displacement of the particle at any time t using Laplace transforms.

Given equation may be rewritten as

x' ' (t)  6x' (t)  25x(t)  0
Here the initial conditions are x(o)  20, x' (o)  10.
Taking the Laplace transform of the equation, we get
 
Lx(t) s 2  6s  25  20 s  130  0 or Lx(t) 
20 s  130
s 2  6 s  25
so that
 20 s  130  1  20s  3  70 
x(t)  L1   L  
 s  3  16   s  3  16 
2 2

s3 1
 20 L1  70 L1
s  3  16
2
s  32  16
e 3t sin 4t
 20 e 3t cos 4t  35 .
2

4. A voltage Ee -at is applied at t  0 to a circuit of inductance L and resistance R. Show that the
E  at 
Rt

current at any time t is  e  e L

R - aL  
The circuit is an LR circuit. The differential equation with respect to the circuit is
di
L  Ri  E (t )
dt
Here, L denotes the inductance, i denotes current at any time t and E(t) denotes the E.M.F.
It is given that E(t) = E e-at. With this, we have
Thus, we have
 di
 Ri  Ee  at or Li' (t )  R i(t )  Ee  at
L
dt
Taking Laplace transform ( LT ) on both sides, we get

LLT i' (t)  RLT i(t)  E LT e at 

Ls LT i(t ) i(o)  RLT i(t )  E
1
sa
LT i (t )sL  R  
E
Since i(o)  o, we get or
sa
LT i (t ) 
E
s  a   sL  R 
 E 
Taking inverse transform L-T1 , we get i (t )  LT1  
 ( s  a)( sL  R) 
E  1  1  1  1 
  LT    L LT  
R  aL   s  a   sL  R 
E   at  RtL 
Thus i (t )  e  e  .
R  aL  
dx
5. Solve the simultaneous equations for x and y in terms of t given  4 y  0,
dt
dy
 9 x  0 with x(o)  2, y(o)  1.
dt
Solution
Taking Laplace transforms of the given equations, we get
s Lx(t)- x(o)  4Ly(t )  0 &  9 Lx(t ) s Ly(t ) y(o)  0
Using the given initial conditions, we get
s Lx(t ) 4 Ly(t )  2 &  9 Lx(t ) 5 Ly(t )  1
Solving these equations for Ly(t), we get
s  18
Ly(t)  2
s  36
 s 18 
so that y(t)  L1   
 s 2  36 s 2  36 
 cos 6t  3 sin 6t
dy
Using this in  9 x  0, we get
dt
x(t)   6 sin 6t  18 cos 6t 
1
9
or x(t)  3 cos 6t  sin 6t 
2
3
Assignment 1.

By employing convolution theorem, evaluate the following:

s2
 . 
 , a  b.
1 1 1
1. L
 
s  1 s 2  1
4. L
 
s2  a2 s2  b2

2. L1  s
. 5. L1  1
.
2

s  1 s 2  1  s 2 s  1
2

4s  5
3. L1  .  .
1
6. L1
s2  a2 2
s  12 s  2

Assignment 2.
Employ Laplace transform method to solve the following initial – value problems

1. y   2 y   y   2 y  0 given y (0)  y (0)  0, y (0)  6

2. y   5 y   6 y  e 2t
, y (0)  2, y (0)  1
3. y   4 y   3 y  e t
, y (0)  1  y (0)
4. y   3 y   2 y  2t 2
 2t  2, y (0)  2, y (0)  0
 
5. y   9 y  cos 2t , y (0)  1,
y   1
 2 
6. y   2 y   y  t , y (0)  3, y (1)  1
7. y   y  H t  1, y (0)  0, y (0)  1
t
8. f (t )  1  2  f t  u e  2 u du
0
t
9. f ' (t )  t   f t  u cos u
0
du , f (0)  4

10. A particle moves along a line so that its displacement x from

a fixed point at any time t is governed by theequation
d2x dx
2
4  5 x  80 sin 5t. If the particle is initially at rest, find
dt dt
the displacement at any time t.
11. In an L - R circuit, a voltage E sin t
is applied at t  0. If the current is zero initially, find the current at any time.
S olve the following simultaneous differential equations for
x and y in terms of t :
dx dy
12.  y  sin t ,  x  cos t , x(0)  2, y (0)  0
dt dt
dx dy
13.  y  et ,  x  sin t , x(0)  1, y (0)  0
dt dt
dx dy
14.  2 x  3 y,  y  2 x, x(0)  8, y (0)  3
dt dt
dx dy
15.  3 y  2 x,  2 x  y, x(0)  8, y (0)  3
dt dt