Electricity

What is Electricity?
Electricity is a flow of charged particles. Charged particles can be electrons or ions.

In chemistry during electrolysis, ions that are free to move will conduct electricity.

In physics, electricity is a flow of electrons.

What is a Cell or a Battery?

A cell or a battery is a power supply that uses chemical energy to make electricity.

In the circuit below, electricity will flow from the cell or battery, through the lamp and back to the
cell. This is called direct current.

What is the Difference between a Cell and a Battery?

In every-day life, we use the word "battery". In physics, one "battery" on its own is called a cell.
Two or more cells joined together are called a battery.

The word "battery" is used to mean "collection". A collection of cells is called a battery of cells.

The cells of a battery are joined together in series. The positive side of one cell touches the negative
side of the next cell.

Which Side of a Battery is Positive?

A cell or battery is drawn with a long line and a shorter line. The long line is the positive side (plus
is longer). The short line is the negative side (minus is shorter).
 What is Conventional Current?
All electrical circuits are drawn as though electricity flows from positive to negative.
This is called conventional current.

In metals, we know that electricity is a flow of electrons and electrons are negatively charged.
Electrons must therefore flow from negative to positive, since they are they are repelled by the
negative side of the cell and attracted to the positive side. The flow of electrons from negative to
positive is called electron flow.

Why do Electric Circuits use Conventional Current?

Benjamin Franklin realized that electricity was a flow of charge and he believed that
charge flowed from positive to negative. This is called conventional current but he got it wrong.
This was long before atomic theory had advanced to the level of knowing about electrons and
protons.

We now know that electrons flow from negative to positive. This is called electron flow. By the
time this was discovered, a large number of electrical circuits had already been drawn and since it
makes no practical difference, it was decided to keep the conventional direction of current flow
for circuit diagrams.

What is a Coulomb?
A coulomb is a unit of electrical charge. Charge is given the symbol Q.

Electrons are tiny and have a very small charge. In the physics of electricity, we take a very large
number of electrons as 1 unit of charge called a coulomb.

1 coulomb = 6·2 x 1018 electrons.

This is 6·2 million million million electrons. Such a large number of electrons can do useful things
like light a lamp.
 What is Direct Current?
There are two different types of power supply. One type supplies alternating current and the other
type supplies direct current. A cell or a battery supplies direct current.

With direct current, electrons leave from one side of the cell, pass through all of the components
in the circuit and return back to the other side of the cell.

The electrons are given energy by the power supply and they then transfer this energy to all of the
components in the circuit. Electrons are not used up by the components. The same number of
electrons leave from one side of the cell and return to the other.

What do we need to know about Coulombs?

We need to know

1. The rate of coulombs flowing in the circuit. The number of coulombs per second is called
the current.
2. How much energy each coulomb has. The number of joules per coulomb is called the
voltage.

What is Electric Current?

Current is the "rate of flow of coulombs" in an electric circuit. A coulomb is a unit of charge, so
an electric current is a flow of charge. Charge is given the symbol Q.

Current is given the symbol I. This is the capital letter I, not a number 1. Current is measured in
amps.

What is an Amp?
1 A = 1 coulomb per second.

The word "per" means "divided by",

So, current = charge ÷ time.

I = Q ÷ t.

We can calculate the current if we know the charge and the time.

This equation can be rearranged to give charge = current x time.

Q = I x t.

Current can also be calculated using I = P ÷ V and

I=V÷R

See all equations for electricity.

How is Current measured?

Current is measured using an ammeter.

The circuit diagram above shows how to measure the current flowing through a lamp. The circuit
symbol for an ammeter is a circle with the letter A inside. An ammeter is always connected in
series with a component.

If the ammeter reads 1 amp, then the current (I) = 1 amp at that point in the circuit.

I = 1 amp = 1 coulomb per second.

If the ammeter reads 6 amps,

then I = 6 amps = 6 coulombs per second.

Current has a heating effect and thick wire must be used to carry a large current.

What is Potential Difference or Voltage?

Potential difference (or p.d.) is another word for voltage. You can use either term to mean the same
thing but most exam questions use potential difference rather than voltage.
The potential difference (voltage) of a power supply is an electrical pressure that causes a current
to flow in a circuit. Doubling the supply voltage will double the current.

What is a Volt?
The power supply (the cell or battery) gives an amount of energy to each coulomb of charge in an
electric circuit.

Energy is measured in joules. A 6 volt cell gives 6 joules of energy to each coulomb.

1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb.

The word "per" means "divided by",

So, voltage = energy ÷ charge.

This equation can be rearranged to give,

Energy = voltage x charge.

E = V x Q.

Since, Q = I x t, if we write I x t instead of Q in the above equation we get E = V x I x t.

energy = voltage x current x time.

We can also use the word work instead of the word energy because,

work done = energy transferred

So, you might see the equation,

Energy = voltage x charge

E=VxQ

Written as, work = voltage x charge

W=VxQ
 How is Potential Difference measured?
Potential difference is measured using a voltmeter.

The circuit on the left shows the potential difference of the cell. This is called the supply voltage.
The circuit symbol for a voltmeter is a circle with the letter V inside. A voltmeter is always
connected in parallel with a component. The voltmeter is said to be connected across a component.
We use the word "across" to mean "in parallel with".

The circuit on the right has the voltmeter connected across a lamp. This will tell you how many
joules of energy are being transferred from electrical energy into light energy (+ heat) for each
coulomb of charge that passes through the lamp.

A reading of 6 volts tells you that 6 joules of energy are being transferred for each coulomb passing
through the lamp.

A reading of 10 volts tells you that 10 joules of energy are

being transferred for each coulomb passing through the lamp.

What is Power?
Power is an amount of energy supplied in a certain time. Power is measured in watts. Energy is
measured in joules.

1 watt = 1 joule per second.

The word "per" means "divided by",

so power = energy ÷ time.

P = E ÷ t.

Since, 1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb and 1 amp = 1 coulomb per second

Then, 1 watts = 1 volts x 1 amps, or power = voltage x current

P=VxI

This equation is important!

The above equation can be rearranged to give,

I = P ÷ V and V = P ÷ I

We can rearrange power = energy ÷ time to give energy = power x time.

E = P x t.

Since power = voltage x current (see above) if we write V x I instead of P in the above equation
we get,

E = V x I x t.

energy = voltage x current x time.

How can Electrical Power be Calculated?

To calculate the power of a component we need to
measure the voltage across the component
and the current flowing through the component.
We can show how to calculate power using a lamp
(an electric light). The circuit below
shows where to place an ammeter and a voltmeter.
 Power = voltage x current P=VxI
If the ammeter reads 2 A and the voltmeter reads 6 V
then P = V x I
=6x2
= 12 watts.
The power of the lamp above is 12 watts.
The same method can be used
to calculate the power of any component.

What is Resistance?
Resistance is a measure of how much a component
decreases the current (see resistor).
The bigger the resistance, the smaller the current.
Resistance is measured in ohms (symbol Ω).
See how to calculate the resistance of a component.
 What is Ohm's Law?
The very important equation
voltage = current x resistance V=IxR
is an expression of ohm's law.
If the resistance of a component is constant (constant
means it stays the same) then a plot (graph) of
current against voltage will be a straight line. The gradient
(slope) of the line shows how big the resistance is.
A test circuit is used to find how the current through a
component changes as the voltage changes.
Below is a plot for two components that obey ohm's law.
The component with the blue line shows a smaller
current flowing and therefore has a bigger resistance.
Wires and resistors are examples of components that
obey ohm's law. To be precise, a component
will only obey ohm's law at constant temperature.
In reality, an increase in current through
a component will increase its temperature and
so ohm's law is only an approximation
but it works quite well for many components.
See the theory of electrical resistance.
Diodes, lamps and thermistors are
examples of components that do not obey ohm's law.

The Resistance of a Lamp.

How does the Resistance of a Lamp
Change with Temperature?
A filament lamp is a component that does not
obey ohm's law. The resistance of a lamp
increases as its temperature increases. This page
shows a plot of current against voltage for
a filament lamp. The plot is not a straight line.
 Why does the Resistance
of a Filament Lamp Change with Temperature?
Inside a traditional filament lamp, the thin wire
(called the filament) gets very hot when a current
flows through it and it glows brightly. This rise in
temperature causes an increase in resistance of the
filament, and so the gradient of the plot changes.
There are other more efficient forms of lighting.

What is a Resistor?
A resistor is a component that decreases the current in
a circuit. A resistor transfers electrical energy into
heat energy. See the theory of the resistance of wires.
How is Resistance Calculated?
We can calculate resistance using the equation
 voltage = current x resistance V = I x R.
Firstly, we need to measure the current flowing
through the resistor and the voltage across the resistor.

The circuit diagram above shows

where to place an ammeter and a voltmeter.
The equation
voltage = current x resistance V = I x R
can be rearranged to give
resistance = voltage ÷ current R = V ÷ I
If the ammeter reads 2 A, and the voltmeter reads 6 V,
then R = V ÷ I
=6÷2
= 3 ohms.
The same method can be used to
calculate the resistance of any component.
 What is a Component?
A component is any device in an electric circuit
that transfers electrical energy into another form.
A diode, motor, lamp, LDR, resistor and a thermistor
are all examples of electrical components.
Each component has its own circuit symbol.
What is a Test Circuit for a Component?
The circuit diagram of
a test circuit for a component is shown below.

A variable resistor placed in series with a component

can change the voltage across the component
and change the amount of current flowing through it.
A range of values obtained from the readings on
the voltmeter and ammeter
are used to make a plot of current against voltage.
 Series Circuits
What is a Series Circuit?
When components are connected one after another
in a ring, the components are said to be in series
with each other and the circuit is called a series circuit.

An example of a series circuit

is shown above with three different resistors.
The current has only one single path to flow through.
Compare this with a parallel circuit.

What is the Current in a Series Circuit?

The current in a series circuit has only one single path
to flow through. Compare this with a parallel circuit.
The current in a series circuit is the same everywhere.
 The series circuit above has three different resistors.
An ammeter placed anywhere
in a series circuit always gives the same reading.
In the circuit above, A1 = A2 = A3 = A4.
See how to calculate current in a series circuit.

What are the Voltages

across Different Components in a Series Circuit?
If we measure the voltage across the
components in the series circuit below we find that
1. The voltage for each component depends on its
resistance.
The circuit below has three different resistors
and so V1, V2 and V3 will all be different.
2. The voltage across all of the components
adds up to the supply voltage from the cell (or battery).
Vsup = V1 + V2 + V3.
 In energy terms, the work done by the cell on
each coulomb of charge is equal to the
work done on all of the components in the circuit.

The supply voltage is shared between the components.

If there is a change in the resistance of one component
then the voltage across all of the components will change.
See how to calculate the voltages in the circuit above.

What is the Total Resistance of a Series Circuit?

You can calculate the total resistance of a series circuit
by adding up the resistance of each component.
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 .....
 In the circuit above with three resistors, the
total resistance Rtotal is
the sum of the values of the three resistors.
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
=2+3+4
= 9 ohms.
This is a much bigger resistance
than a parallel circuit using the same resistors.

Calculation of Voltages and Current in a Series Circuit.

If the supply voltage (from the cell) is 12 volts
in the circuit below,
what are the voltages across each resistor?
 From the previous page, the total resistance is 9 ohms.
In a series circuit the current is the same everywhere.
The equation
voltage = current x resistance V = I x R
can be rearranged to give
current = voltage ÷ resistance I = V ÷ R
In the circuit above,
I=V÷R
= 12 ÷ 9
= 1·333 amps.
Compare this current with a parallel circuit.
Using the same equation V = I x R for each resistor in turn
(and rounding up numbers) gives
V1 = 1·333 x 2
= 2·667 volts.
 V2 = 1·333 x 3
= 4·000 volts.
V3 = 1·333 x 4
= 5·333 volts.
We can see that the largest resistor at 4 ohms
has the largest voltage (5·333 volts)
and the smallest resistor at 2 ohms has the
smallest voltage (2·667 volts) across it.
In energy terms, the largest amount of work is done
by the charge moving through the largest resistance.
Finally, we can check that the voltage across
all of the components adds up to the supply voltage.
V1 + V2 + V3 = 2·667 + 4·000 + 5·333
= 12 volts.

How does a Switch control Lamps in a Series Circuit?

A switch is said to be open when it is off
and closed when it is on. The circuit below shows
six lamps in a series circuit with an open switch.
An open switch in a series circuit turns everything off,
because the circuit is disconnected from the cell.
 What happens to the Brightness
when extra Lamps are added in a Series Circuit?
When the switch in the circuit above is closed
(turned on) all of the lamps will light. When lamps
are connected in series, adding extra lamps in
the circuit makes them all go dimmer because the
total resistance of the circuit increases with each
extra lamp. A bigger resistance makes the current
decrease. A smaller current makes the lamps
become less hot and therefore shine less brightly.
The supply voltage is shared between all of the lamps.
Adding extra lamps decreases the voltage across
each individual lamp and so each lamp has less energy.
If one lamp in a series circuit breaks or fails, it
acts like an open switch and all the other lamps
will go out. For this reason, lights in a house
are always connected in parallel. The exception is
Christmas tree lights or fairy lights, where the
large mains voltage is shared between the lamps.
 What happens to the Voltage and Current
in a Circuit when Cells are connected in Series?
The current in the circuit below can be calculated
using the equation
voltage = current x resistance V = I x R
The equation can be rearranged to give
current = voltage ÷ resistance I = V ÷ R

In the circuit above, V = 6 volts and R = 3 ohms.

I=V÷R
=6÷3
= 2 amps.
What happens to the Voltage and Current
in a Circuit if Two Cells are connected in Series?
If an identical cell is placed in series with
the original cell, the current in the circuit doubles
because the total voltage of the circuit doubles.
 In the circuit above,
R = 3 ohms and V = 6 + 6 volts = 12 volts.
I=V÷R
= 12 ÷ 3
= 4 amps.
Cells connected together are called a battery.
If more cells (or batteries) are connected together
in series then the total supply voltage is the
sum of the individual voltages for each cell if they are
connected the right way round, plus to minus.
Compare this with cells in parallel.

Parallel Circuits
What is a Parallel Circuit?
When components are connected in parallel,
each component provides its own path
 for the current to flow through back to the cell.
Each path is called a branch of the circuit.

A parallel circuit is shown above with three

branches and a different resistor in each branch.
Compare this with a series circuit.

What is the Current in a Parallel Circuit?

1. In a parallel circuit the current depends on the
resistance of the branch (see the calculation below).
2. The total current flowing in to the branches is
equal to the total current flowing out of the branches.
In the circuit diagram below A1 = A5
 How to Calculate the Current in a Parallel Circuit.
The current at A2 flowing through the 2 ohm resistor
can be found using the equation V = I x R.
The equation can be rearranged to give
current = voltage ÷ resistance I = V ÷ R
If the supply voltage is 12 volts,
I=V÷R
= 12 ÷ 2
= 6 amps.
See the next page for how to calculate the current in
the other two resistors and the total current in the circuit.
You would get the same answer for the current in
the 2 ohm resistor, whether or not the other resistors
 are connected in the circuit. For the parallel circuit
above, each component behaves as if it is
connected on its own to the cell, and is unaware of the
other components. See lamps in a parallel circuit.

What is the Current in each Branch of a Parallel Circuit?

From the previous page, the current A2 flowing
through the branch with the 2 ohm resistor is 6 amps.
The current A3 flowing through the 3 ohm resistor is
I=V÷R
= 12 ÷ 3
= 4 amps.
The current A4 flowing through the 4 ohm resistor is
I=V÷R
= 12 ÷ 4
= 3 amps.
Notice that the bigger the resistance, the smaller the
current.
What is the Total Current in a Parallel Circuit?
The total current at A1 or A5 is
found by adding up the current in each branch.
 A1 = A2 + A3 + A4
=6+4+3
= 13 amps.
This is much larger than the current of 1·333 amps
that flows through a series circuit with
the same resistors and the same supply voltage.

What is the Voltage in a Parallel Circuit?

A parallel circuit is shown below with three
branches and a different resistor in each branch.
The cell (the power supply) and each resistor
has a voltmeter connected across it.
 It is found that
1. The voltage in a parallel circuit
is the same for all branches. V1 = V2 = V3.
2. The voltage for each branch is the
same as the supply voltage. V1 = V2 = V3= Vsup.
Each component behaves
as if it is connected independently to the cell.

What is the Resistance of a Parallel Circuit?

 The total resistance (R total) of a
parallel circuit is calculated using the formula
1
/R total = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 ·····

In the above circuit,

1
/R total = 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4
= 6/12 + 4/12 + 3/12
1
/R total = 13/12
R total = 12/13
= 0·92 ohms.
Notice that this is a much smaller resistance
than a series circuit using the same resistors.
It is even smaller than the smallest resistor
in the parallel circuit above, which is 2 ohms.
 Adding a resistor in an extra branch decreases
the total resistance of a parallel circuit
because the electricity has more paths to flow along
and so the total current flowing increases.

How do Switches control Lamps in Parallel Circuits?

In the parallel circuit below, the switch at S1 or S5
will switch all the lamps on and off together
if all the other switches are closed. Closed means on.

With switches S1 and S5 both closed in the circuit

above, the switch at S2 will only light the lamp at L1.
This is very useful because it means that we can
switch the lamp at L1 on and off independently.
The brightness of the lamp at L1 does not change
as other lamps in parallel are switched on or off.
 Lights in a house are always connected in parallel
so that they can be operated independently
(except fairy lights for Christmas or other occasions).
The switch at S3 will only operate the lamp at L2
and the switch at S4 will only operate the lamp at L3.
Compare this with lamps in a series circuit.

What happens to the Voltage and Current

in a Circuit when Cells are connected in Parallel?
In the circuit below, it has been shown that
the current is 2 amps and the voltage is 6 volts.

The circuit above has one cell. What happens

if two cells are connected in parallel?
When an identical cell is placed in parallel with
the original cell, the current stays the same because
the total voltage of the circuit stays the same.
 In the circuit above with two 6 volt cells in parallel,
the current is still 2 amps and the voltage is still 6 volts.
The two cells in parallel together supply electricity
for twice as long as one cell before they both run out.
Compare this with cells in series.