Summary from last week

• Linear systems
a1 f1 (t)+ a1 x1 (t)+
f1 (t) x1 (t) f2 (t) x2 (t) a2 f2 (t) a2 x2 (t)

• Translational & rotational mechanical elements & systems

x(t)

K M ẍ + fv ẋ + Kx = f T (t)
T(t)
θ(t)
θ(t) D
Jθ¨ + Dθ˙ + Kθ = T

M f(t) J

K
fv
Figures by MIT OpenCourseWare.

• Solving 1st order linear ODEs with constant coefficients

Jω̇ + bω = T0 u(t), ω(0) = ω0 ⇒

−t/τ T0 ³ −t/τ
´
T0
ω(t) = ω0 e + 1−e ω(∞) =
b b
J
where τ≡ time constant. steady state.
b

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

Goals for today

• Solving linear constant-coefficient ODEs using Laplace transforms

– Definition of the Laplace transform
– Laplace transforms of commonly used functions
– Laplace transform properties
• Transfer functions
– from ODE to Transfer Function
• Transfer functions of the translational & rotational mechanical
elements that we know
• Next lecture (Wednesday):
– Electrical elements: resistors, capacitors, inductors, amplifiers
– Transfer functions of electrical elements
• Lecture-after-next (Friday):
– DC motor (electro-mechanical element) model
and its Transfer Function

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

Laplace transform: motivation

From ODE (linear, constant coefficients, any order) …

M ẍ(t) + fv ẋ(t) + Kx(t) = f (t)

input, output expressed as functions of time t

… to an algebraic equation

M s2 X(s) + fv sX(s) + KX(s) = F (s)

input, output expressed as functions of new variable s

Benefits:
• Simplifies solution
• s-domain offers additional insights
• particularly useful in control

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

Laplace transform: definition

Given a function f (t) in the time domain we define its

Laplace transform F (s) as
Z +∞
F (s) = f (t)e−st dt.
0−

We say that F (s) is the frequency—domain representation of f (t).

The frequency variable s is a complex number:

s = σ + jω,

where σ, ω are real numbers with units of frequency (i.e. sec−1 ≡Hz).

We will investigate the physical meaning of σ, ω later when we see examples of

Laplace transforms of functions corresponding to physical systems.

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

Example 1: Laplace transform of the step function

Consider the step function (aka Heaviside function)

½
0, t < 0,
u(t) =
1, t ≥ 0.

According to the Laplace transform definition,

Z +∞ Z +∞
U (s) = u(t)e−st dt = 1 · e−st dt =
0− 0−
µ ¶¯+∞
1 −st ¯¯ 1 ³ ´
= e ¯ = 0−1 =
−s 0− −s
1
= .
s

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

Interlude: complex numbers: what does 1/s mean?
Recall that s = σ + jω. The real variables σ, ω (both in frequency units)
are the real and imaginary parts, respectively, of s. (We denote j 2 = −1.)

Therefore, we can write

1 1 σ − jω σ − jω
= = = 2 .
s σ + jω (σ + jω) (σ − jω) σ + ω2

Alternatively, we can represent jω

the complex number s in polar form s = |s| ejφ ,
¡ 2 ¢ s
2 1/2
where |s| = σ + ω is the magnitude and |s |
φ ≡ 6 s = atan (ω/σ) the phase of s.
φ
It is straightforward to derive σ
¯ ¯
1 1 −jφ ¯1¯ 1 1
= e ⇒ ¯¯ ¯¯ = and 6 = −6 s. −s
s |s| s |s| s

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

Example 2: Laplace transform of the exponential

Consider the decaying exponential function beginning at t = 0

f (t) = e−at u(t),

where a > 0 (note the presence of the step function in the above formula.)

Again we apply the Laplace transform definition,

Z +∞ Z +∞
F (s) = e−at u(t)e−st dt = e−(s+a)t dt =
0− 0−
µ ¶¯+∞ ³ ´
1 ¯
−(s+a)t ¯ 1
= e ¯ = 0−1 =
−(s + a) 0− −(s + a)
1
= .
s+a

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

 Laplace transforms of commonly used functions

f(t) F(s) Step

δ(t) 1 function
1 (aka
u(t)
s Heaviside)
1
tu(t)
s2
n!
t n u(t)
sn + 1
1
e -at u(t) s+a
ω
sin ωtu(t)
s2 + ω2
time constant
s
cos ωtu(t)
s + ω2
2 1
τ= , a = 1 sec−1
a
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Nise Table 2.1

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

 Laplace transforms of commonly used functions
Polynomials

f(t) F(s)
Ramp
δ(t) 1 function
1
u(t)
s

1
tu(t)
s2
n!
t n u(t) +1
sn
1
e -at u(t) s+a
ω
sin ωtu(t) Quadratic
s + ω2
2

s function
cos ωtu(t)
s2 + ω2
n=2
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Nise Table 2.1

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

 Laplace transforms of commonly used functions
Sinusoids

f(t) F(s)

δ(t) 1
1
u(t)
s

1
tu(t)
s2
n!
t n u(t) +1
sn
1
e -at u(t) s+a
ω
sin ωtu(t)
s2 + ω2
s
cos ωtu(t)
s + ω2
2

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Nise Table 2.1

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

 Laplace transforms of commonly used functions
Impulse function (aka Dirac function)
f(t) F(s)

δ(t) 1
1
u(t)
s

1
δ(t)
tu(t)
s2

t n u(t)
sn
n!
+1
t
1 t=0
e -at u(t) s+a It represents a pulse of
ω
sin ωtu(t) • infinitessimally small duration; and
s2 + ω2
s • finite energy.
cos ωtu(t)
s2 + ω2

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare. Mathematically, it is defined by the properties

Z +∞
δ(t) = 1; (unit energy) and
−∞
Z +∞
δ(t)f (t) = f (0) (sifting.)
Nise Table 2.1 −∞

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

Properties of the Laplace transform
Let F (s), F1 (s), F2 (s) denote the Laplace transforms of f (t), f1 (t), f2 (t),
respectively. We denote L [f (t)] = F (s), etc.
• Linearity
L [K1 f1 (t) + K2 f2 (t)] = K1 F1 (s) + K2 F2 (s),
where K1 , K2 are complex constants.

• Differentiation The differentiation property is the one

h i that we’ll find most useful in
• L d f (t)
= sF (s) − f (0−);
dt solving linear ODEs with constant coeffs.
· 2 ¸
• L d f 2(t) = s2 F (s) − sf (0−) − f˙(0); and
dt
h n i Pn
• L d f (t)
= s n
F (s) − n−k (k−1)
d tn k=1 s f (0−).

• Integration
·Z t ¸
F (s)
L f (ξ)dξ = .
0− s
A more complete set of Laplace transform properties
is in Nise Table 2.2.
We’ll learn most of these properties in later lectures.

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

Inverting the Laplace transform
Consider
2
F (s) = . (1)
(s + 3)(s + 5)
We seek the inverse Laplace transform f (t) = L−1 [F (s)] :i.e., a function f (t)
such that L [f (t)] = F (s).

Let us attempt to re—write F (s) as

2 K1 K2
F (s) = = + . (2)
(s + 3)(s + 5) s+3 s+5

That would be convenient because we know the inverse Laplace transform of

the 1/(s + a) function (it’s a decaying exponential) and we can also use the
linearity theorem to finally find f (t). All that’d be left to do would be to find
the coefficients K1 , K2 .

This is done as follows: first multiply both sides of (2) by (s + 3). We find

2 K2 (s + 3) s=−3 2
= K1 + =⇒ K1 = = 1.
s+5 s+5 −3 + 5
Similarly, we find K2 = −1.

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

Inverting the Laplace transform
So we have found
2 1 1
F (s) = = − .
(s + 3)(s + 5) s+3 s+5

From the table of Laplace transforms (Nise Table 2.1) we know that

· ¸
1
L−1 = e−3t u(t) and
s+3
· ¸
1
L−1 = e−5t u(t).
s+5

Using these and the linearity theorem we obtain

· ¸ · ¸
2 1 1
L−1 [F (s)] = L−1 = L−1 − = e−3t − e−5t .
(s + 3)(s + 5) s+3 s+5

The process we just followed is known as partial fraction expansion.

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

Use of the Laplace transform to solve ODEs

• Example: motor-shaft system from Lecture 2 (and labs)

J J ω̇(t) + bω(t) = Ts (t),
where Ts (t) = T0 u(t) (step function)
b and ω(t = 0) = 0 (no spin—down).
Ts (t) ω(t)

Taking the Laplace transform of both sides,

T0 T0 1 T 1
J sΩ(s) + bΩ(s) = ⇒ Ω(s) = ³ ´ = 0 ,
s b s (J/b)s + 1 b s(τ s + 1)

where τ ≡ J/b is the time constant (see also Lecture 2).

We can now apply the partial fraction expansion method to obtain

µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
T0 K1 K2 T0 1 τ T0 1 1
Ω(s) = + = − = − .
b s τs + 1 b s τs + 1 b s s + (1/τ )

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

Use of the Laplace transform to solve ODEs

• Example: motor-shaft system from Lecture 2 (and labs)

J J ω̇(t) + bω(t) = Ts (t),
where Ts (t) = T0 u(t) (step function)
b and ω(t = 0) = 0 (no spin—down).
Ts (t) ω(t)

We have found µ ¶
T0 1 1
Ω(s) = − .
b s s + (1/τ )

Using the linearity property and the table of Laplace transforms we obtain

−1 T0 ³ −t/τ
´
ω(t) = L [Ω(s)] = 1−e ,
b
in agreement with the time—domain solution of Lecture 2.

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

Transfer Functions

• Consider again the motor-shaft system :

J J ω̇(t) + bω(t) = Ts (t),
where now Ts (t) is an arbitrary function,
b but still ω(t = 0) = 0 (no spin—down).
Ts (t) ω(t)
Proceeding as before, we can write

Ts (s) Ω(s) 1
Ω(s) = ⇔ = .
Js + b Ts (s) Js + b

Generally, we define the ratio

h i
L output 1
h i = Transfer Function; in this case, TF(s) = .
L input Js + b

−1
We refer to the (TF) of a single element as the Impedance Z(s).
2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10
Transfer Functions in block diagrams

R(s) C(s) C(s)

Transfer Function(s) := .
R(s)

J
Ts (s) Ω(s) Ω(s) 1 .
TF(s) := =
Ts (s) Js + b
b

Important: To be able to define the Transfer Function,

the system ODE must be linear with constant coefficients.

Such systems are known as Linear Time-Invariant,

or Linear Autonomous.

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

 Impedances: rotational mechanical

Table removed due to copyright restrictions.

(In the notes,
we sometimes
Please see: Table 2.5 in Nise, Norman S. Control Systems Engineering. 4th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2004.
use b or B
instead of D.)

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

 Impedances: translational mechanical

Table removed due to copyright restrictions.

(In the notes,
we sometimes
Please see Table 2.4 in Nise, Norman S. Control Systems Engineering. 4th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2004.
use b or B
instead of fv .)

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

Transfer Functions: multiple impedances
System ODE: M ẍ(t) + fv ẋ(t) + Kx(t) = f (t).
x(t)

K
F(s) 1 X(s)
M f(t) Ms2 + fvs + K

fv

Figures by MIT OpenCourseWare.

£P ¤ £P ¤
Impedances X(s) = Forces .
x(t) x(t)

Kx(t) KX(s)
dx f(t) f(t)
fv
dt
M fvsX(s) M

d2x Ms2X(s)
M
dt2

Figures by MIT OpenCourseWare.

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10

Summary

• Laplace transform
Z +∞
L [f (t)] ≡ F (s) = f (t)e−st dt. h i
0− L f˙(t) = sF (s) − f (0−).
1 ·Z t ¸
L [u(t)] ≡ U (s) = . F (s)
s L f (ξ)dξ = .
£ ¤ 1 0− s
L e−at = .
s+a

• Transfer functions and impedances

J θ̈(t) = T (t) ⇒ ZJ = Js2 ; fv θ̇(t) = T (t) ⇒ Zfv = fv s; Kθ(t) = T (t) ⇒ ZK = K.

L Ω(s) 1
J ω̇(t) + bω(t) = Ts (t) =⇒ (Js + b) Ω(s) = Ts (s) ⇒ ≡ TF(s) = .
Ts (s) Js + b
X(s) 1
M ẍ(t) + fv ẋ(t) + Kx(t) = f (t) ⇒ ≡ TF(s) = .
F (s) M s2 + fv s + K

2.004 Fall ’07 Lecture 03 – Monday, Sept. 10