You are on page 1of 12

Digital versus Traditional:

Secondary Students with Visual


Impairments’ Perceptions
of a Digital Algebra Textbook
Emily C. Bouck, Pei-Lin Weng, and Rajiv Satsangi
Structured abstract: Introduction: Digital textbooks are increasingly marketed
and used, yet little research examines this medium. Within the limited research,
even less investigates the role of digital textbooks in mathematics—a challenging
content area for many students, but especially for students with visual impairments.
Methods: Through a qualitative analysis, this study sought to understand the nature
of the use of a digital algebra textbook to support secondary students with visual
impairments in algebra. Results: The results suggest three main themes: (a)
students’ dependence on their traditional textbook medium, (b) educators’ re­
actions to the technology, and (c) the benefits of using the digital textbook
despite resistance. The three themes culminate in clear student preferences for
traditional textbooks. Discussion: The general resistance to use of the technology
warrants caution in terms of schools moving forward with the adoption of digital
textbooks, and it suggests that additional examination of the topic is needed.
Implications for practitioners: Practitioners can consider using digital text­
books, but they will need to ensure that they and their students are both
properly motivated and adequately trained to use such technology.

Digital-based learning is increasingly be­ ily available, specialized software (Doug­


ing used in primary and secondary edu­ las et al., 2011; Siu & Lam, 2012).
cation, and it is likely to continue (Collins Even with digital learning, students
& Halverson, 2010). Publishers are more with visual impairments do not possess
and more often producing digital text­ equal access to all information. These stu­
books for students—a venture that has dents generally experience greater access to
been supported by the U.S. government, digital learning in literacy as compared to
which indicated the goal of providing a mathematics (Nees & Berry, 2013). They
digital textbook for every child by 2017 regularly use screen readers such as Job
(Mardis & Everhart, 2013; Toppo, 2012). Access With Speech (JAWS) and optical-
However, not everyone receives equal ac­ character recognition software such as
cess to digital learning. Students with vi­ Complete Reading System to access text
sual impairments face greater challenges (Fichten, Asuncion, Barile, Ferraro, & Wol­
in accessing digital learning without read­ forth, 2009; Freedom Scientific, 2013).

©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 41
Screen readers read materials on the screen, via digital text using ReadHear—a sup­
such as digital textbooks, and provide aural ported eText program. Students answered
feedback to individuals. Although screen questions about an algebraic expression
readers provide quality access to text mate­ (provide the exponent, describe the ex­
rials, their application in mathematics is pression) after listening to the presenta­
limited (Power & Jürgensen, 2010). tion via the technology. Alajarmeh and
Learning mathematics can be challeng­ Pontelli (2012) found that visually im­
ing for students with visual impairments paired secondary students increased their
because of the typically visual nature of accuracy when solving algebraic equa­
the way in which such content is pre­ tions using MathPlayer—a mathematical
sented (Alajarmeh, Pontelli, & Son, text-to-speech software—as compared to
2012). For this reason, mathematics is a their traditional ways of accessing printed
difficult area for the application of digital text. Conversely, Bouck & Weng (2014)
text (Bouck & Meyer, 2012; Power & conducted a single-subject design study
Jürgensen, 2010). With the digital presen­ to compare the performance of secondary
tation of mathematics, one needs to en­ students solving algebraic equations
sure the interpretation is unambiguous. when presented via ReadHear and via the
Many traditional screen readers treat a students’ traditional means of accessing
mathematical expression as an image; se­ text. The majority of students preferred
mantic cues are left out in order to aid their traditional textbooks, and students
interpretation (Archambault, Caprotti,
answered more problems correctly with
Ranta, & Saludes, 2012; Cooper, Lowe,
their traditional textbooks.
& Taylor, 2008). For example, consider
Despite the importance of providing ac­
the expression, “y equals five over x plus
cess to mathematics, both the challenge in
2.” An individual with visual impairment
presenting higher-level mathematics to stu­
who hears this expression from a screen
dents with visual impairments and the lim­
reader may infer two different, yet techni­
5 ited research regarding technology to do so
cally correct, interpretations: y = or remains. Through this qualitative study, the
x+2
5 authors sought to understand the experi­
y = + 2. Access to one unambiguous ences and perceptions of five visually im­
x
interpretation is essential for visually im­ paired high school students who were ac­
paired students. cessing algebra via a digital textbook. The
Researchers are focused on providing study sought to understand the nature of the
quality access to digital text in algebra use of digital algebraic text to support sec­
(Bouck & Meyer, 2012). Although the ondary students with visual impairments.
research base is limited, researchers
found that technologies offer the potential Methods
to provide digital text to students with PARTICIPANTS
visual impairments. Bouck, Joshi, Meyer, Five students with visual impairments
& Schleppenbach (2013) found that stu­ from the same state school for blind
dents with visual impairments could un­ individuals participated in this study. All
derstand algebraic expressions presented five students were enrolled in the same

42 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 ©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved
Algebra 1 class, taking it for the first time, was enucleated. Alana was also identified
and were the only students enrolled in with scoliosis and muscle contraction at
the class. Human subjects approval was the waist and hip. She primarily used
obtained by the Human Research Pro­ braille, and recently learned to use JAWS
tect Program at Purdue University, and on a computer. No ability or achievement
informed consent was received for all data were available. Alana wanted to be a
participants. teacher.

Ana Kim
Ana (a pseudonym) was a 22-year-old, Kim (a pseudonym) was a 17-year-old,
12th-grade, Hispanic, female student. She Caucasian, ninth-grade, female student
fluently spoke Spanish and English, and with total vision loss; she was totally
was identified in a medical report as le­ blind with bilateral prostheses, caused by
gally blind, with light perception in her a hereditary condition. Kim’s IQ data—
right eye. Ana’s file indicated multiple from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
diagnoses related to her visual impair­ Children, Fourth Edition (WISC-IV;
ment, including retinopathy of prematu­ Wechsler, 2004)—indicated 91 for Ver­
rity with legal blindness, present at birth; bal Comprehension and 94 for Working
nystagmus; strabismus; microcornea; cat­ Memory index. Her file indicated that no
aract; and scarred central cornea with additional testing was deemed appropri­
band keratopath. Ana’s achievement data ate. On the WJ-III (Woodcock et al.,
indicated a score of 112 for Broad Read­ 2001), completed using the braille adap­
ing and 84 for Broad Mathematics (84 for tation version as well as with an abacus
Calculation and 86 for Reasoning) on the and Perkins Brailler, Kim’s standard
Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achieve­ scores were 97 for Brief Reading, 95 for
ment (WJ-III; Woodcock, Mather, & Reading Comprehension, 81 for Brief
McGrew, 2001); no intelligence quotient Math, 92 for Math Reasoning, and 98 for
(IQ) data were available. Ana read braille Basic Writing Skills. Kim wanted to pur­
textbooks and used JAWS on her com­ sue music as a profession.
puter to access other materials. At the
time of the study, she was awaiting ac­ Josh
ceptance to a state university, where she Josh (a pseudonym) was a 17-year-old,
planned to major in psychology. Caucasian, male student in the 11th grade
who was identified in a medical report as
Alana having low vision. Josh’s individualized
Alana (a pseudonym) was an 18-year-old, education program (IEP) identification
female student enrolled in the 11th grade. was multiple disabilities, including visual
English was her second language; she impairment and ADHD. He was also
was adopted from Ethiopia as a teenager. identified with anxiety disorder and
Alana was identified in a medical report Axenfeld-Rieger syndrome. Josh’s vision
as blind, reportedly having lost her eye­ data indicated that he possessed 20/250
sight at the age of 8. She had no light vision in his right eye, no light perception
perception in either eye, and her left eye in his left eye, and that he had glaucoma.

©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 43
On the WISC-IV (Wechsler, 2004), majority of the students resided at the
Josh’s Verbal IQ was 106 and his Work­ school during the week and returned
ing Memory was 83; a full-scale IQ was home on the weekends. Researchers col­
not available for Josh, since certain sub- lected data in one Algebra 1 class, which
tests were not administered. Achievement typically met for a 70-minute period each
scores for Josh included 92 for Broad day in a five-day week; observations oc­
Reading and 86 for Broad Math (95 for curred on 23 different days throughout
Calculation and 58 for Math Fluency) on one academic year. The classroom was a
the WJ-III (Woodcock et al., 2001). Josh large room with desks arranged in a “U”
used large print and a desktop CCTV shape facing a large television screen.
magnifier. He wanted to attend culinary The course itself was provided by a
school and become a chef. “teacher-in-a-box,” as described by the
school. The students came to the class,
Jorge but the teacher was not physically pres­
Jorge (a pseudonym) was a 16-year-old, ent. Regan (a pseudonym), a certified
Hispanic, male student in the ninth grade mathematics teacher for students with vi­
who was identified as having low vision sual impairments, taught the course re­
in a medical report. Jorge’s vision was motely in a distance-education model.
20/400 in his right eye and 8/400 in his She appeared on a television screen, con­
left eye; his visual conditions were iden­ nected to a computer equipped with a
tified as microphthalmia; retinal, optic webcam. Each student in the class typi­
nerve coloboma; and nystagmus. Jorge cally had a desktop computer; for the
self-disclosed that he had trouble focus­ purposes of the study, each student used a
ing visually on numbers as well as on laptop. The teacher accessed each stu­
certain mathematical symbols (such as a dent’s individual computer through Mi­
fraction symbol or a negative sign). On crosoft Lync. During all lessons, an aide
the WISC-IV, Jorge’s verbal IQ was 110 was in the classroom to provide face-to­
and working memory was 97 (Wechsler, face assistance to the students.
2004). His achievement data, on the WJ­
III (Woodcock et al., 2001), were an 89 MATERIALS
for Broad Reading and 86 for Broad The Algebra 1 course used the textbook
Math. Jorge’s WJ-III scores represented a Algebra 1 from Glencoe McGraw-Hill
5.1 grade-level equivalency for Calcula­ (Holliday et al., 2008). The textbook was
tion and 3.1 for Math Fluency. Jorge ac­ rendered as a digital version to be played
cessed print via large print with a magni­ on the ReadHear player produced by gh,
fier, CCTV, or portable RUBY handheld an assistive technology company; the dig­
video magnifier. Jorge wanted to pursue a ital version was rendered by gh in DAISY
career in computers, music, or science. format. Students also had access to their
braille, and large- or standard-size print
SETTING versions of the textbook. ReadHear is a
The study occurred at a state school for supported electronic text player devel­
blind individuals, which enrolled students oped by gh (2011) that was designed to
in kindergarten through 12th grade. The read digital text—specifically formats

44 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 ©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved
such as DAISY, Digital Talking Books, Training was complete once they could
and National Instructional Materials Ac­ perform each of these steps without as­
cessibility Standard (NIMAS). ReadHear sistance. The in-class aide participated
supports MathML-embedded format with in the training.
the output language of MathSpeak (gh,
2006). ReadHear offers accessibility and Online survey
customization features: zooming; pan­ Students completed 16 preintervention
ning; different voices; color adjustment and 20 postintervention questions—pri­
for background, text, highlighting, and marily open-ended— using the Survey-
tracking; speaking rate and volume con­ Monkey website; the website was recom­
trol; and multiple navigation modes. mended because of its compatibility with
screen readers. The first questionnaire at
PROCEDURES the beginning of the school year consisted
This study used qualitative research of four parts: students’ current school ex­
methodology to explore students’ use of a periences and their future plans; students’
digital algebra textbook via a supported perception of learning mathematics and
eText player (ReadHear) to learn the Al­ algebra, specifically; the strategies or
gebra 1 curriculum. Specifically, re­ technology used in learning content do­
searchers examined the role of the digital main knowledge, including mathematics;
textbook to enact the algebra course and and students’ initial thoughts on the tech­
algebraic understanding. Data were col­ nology. The second online survey ques­
lected through online surveys and obser­ tionnaire, administered at the end of the
vations (Bogdan & Biklen, 2008). school year, contained three parts: stu­
dents’ perceptions regarding learning al­
Training gebra online and via a digital format; stu­
Prior to students’ using the digital text­ dents’ experiences on using the specific
book, they were trained as a group by the technology; and 10 three-point Likert­
researchers on how to use ReadHear and scale (agree, disagree, no opinion) state­
the digital algebra textbook during an ex­ ments about algebra, types of textbooks,
tended class period. The researchers dem­ and ReadHear (see Table 1).
onstrated the accessibility features of
ReadHear and how to use it (for example, Observations
open the algebra book, read the text, skip Observations were conducted in the
to a new section). The training included classroom by the researchers primarily
the different aspects of navigation, such through video recordings via students’
as keyboard shortcuts or using the mouse. Dell laptops using Camtasia software
The researchers also discussed the Math- (TechSmith, 2012). Seventy-three sepa­
Speak language and provided examples. rate Camtasia files existed, totaling 2,240
During the training, students selected minutes of recordings. Researchers took
their individual accessibility prefer­ field notes from the videos, noting activ­
ences and demonstrated that they could ities, actions, and statements of the par­
open, navigate, read, and close the dig­ ticipants. Researchers documented the
ital algebra textbook using ReadHear. time of each observation and objective

©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 45
Table 1
Students’ end-of-school-year survey responses regarding ReadHear and traditional textbooks.
Easily
understand Easily Would rather Want to
algebra with understand use ReadHear Want to keep using Easy to
traditional algebra with than traditional keep using traditional understand and
Participant textbook ReadHear textbook ReadHear textbook use ReadHear

Josh Agree Agree Agree Agree Disagree Agree


Ana Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
Jorge Agree Neutral Neutral Neutral Agree Agree
Kim Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Agree Agree

Note: One student, Alana, opted not to complete the survey at the end of the school year.

observations (what was objectively oc­ Context


curring in the video, such as 0:13 “Josh The school, in collaboration with the au­
opens the start menu” and 0:16 “Josh thors and other entities, received a grant
closes the start menu”) in the field notes. to implement and investigate digital alge­
Researchers also noted subjective obser­ bra textbooks for students with visual im­
vations, where researchers noted infer­ pairments. The course was to be taught
ences. In the objective example above through the use of the digital textbook.
involving Josh, for instance, the re­ This study represents the second year of
searcher wrote, “Is Josh confused?” given data collection, but the first year of full
that Josh was opening and closing the implementation; year one of the study
incorrect menu for opening the ReadHear involved implementation with different
program, which is what he was asked to students for one chapter of an algebra
do. textbook.

Data analysis Results


Researchers analyzed the data by reading Three main themes emerged from the
the field notes from the video recordings data: students’ dependence on their tradi­
and interviews. The field notes were or­ tional textbook medium, educators’ reac­
ganized into a binder chronologically. tions to the technology, and benefits of
The observations formed the basis of the using the digital textbook despite resis­
data, although the interviews and survey tance. The first two themes demonstrated
responses were used to corroborate. The that most students preferred their tradi­
researchers repeatedly read the data to tional textbooks, despite their acknowl­
identify inductive codes. The inductive edgements of the benefits of the digital
codes were condensed to develop themes, textbook. The preference for print varied
and the data were coded into the themes. among students and was not neatly parsed
The researchers sought typical analytical by severity of visual impairments.
vignettes to support their assertions (Bog­
dan & Biklen, 2008). The researchers also DEPENDENCE ON TRADITIONAL
calculated frequencies for the Likert scale Students demonstrated a dependence on
survey responses. their traditional textbooks— braille, large

46 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 ©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved
print, or standard-size print. Not only did students, minus Josh, then completed
the majority of students indicate a prefer­ their assignments using their traditional
ence for using their traditional textbook textbooks (field notes, 10/1/12).
on the survey administered at the end of Of the five students, only Josh was in
school year (see Table 1), but students favor of the digital textbook on the sur­
also repeatedly sought to use the tradi­ veys and in classroom observations. The
tional textbook, despite the intention for other students disagreed or were neutral
students to use the digital textbook as the about using the technology versus their
only textbook throughout the year. traditional textbooks, as well as about
Alana, a student who particularly strug­ continuing to use the technology (refer to
gled with the technology (with JAWS and Table 1). All of the students, with the
hot keys, for instance), would request and exception of Josh, felt it was easier to use
receive a traditional textbook in class, as physical books “to look at things” (Jorge,
evident in the following vignette. survey, 5/21/13); to “look back at errors,
graphs, and maps by touching” (Kim, sur­
At the start of class, Regan was ex­ vey, 5/31/13); or just for their own com­
plaining what the students were to fort—“I am more comfortable using
do. “Right on page 70. We’re going braille” (Ana, survey, 5/21/13).
on pages 70, 71, 72, 73. All the way
to check your understanding. There EDUCATORS’ REACTIONS
are two, three, four, five questions The second theme, educators’ reactions to
you are to answer as you listen [via the technology, was surprising given the
the digital textbook]. I want you to teacher’s initial positive perspective to­
listen to the section, view the prob­ wards implementing the digital textbook
lem, listen to the next example, and and her involvement since the beginning
if you don’t understand, I just want of the overall project. The teacher and her
to see you do the best you can with­ in-class aide supported, and at times ap­
out asking for help.” Alana requested peared to encourage, the students’ prefer­
a hard copy text, “Do we have a ences for traditional textbooks. For exam­
textbook for that?” And again, five ple, at the start of the second semester, the
seconds later, “Can I have a textbook teacher stopped asking the students to use
too?” When the classroom aide the digital textbook in class; instead, stu­
brings her a textbook, she flips to the dents could access the digital textbook in
book to get the correct page (field their cottages in the evenings. Although
notes, 11/1/12). in theory this construction more closely
resembled a typical classroom situation,
In another example, Regan wanted to dis­ with students being expected to read the
cuss the assignment with students at the material prior to coming to class, it also
end of class. One of the students asked if subtly reinforced some disdain for the
they could close the digital textbook, to technology, particularly when coupled
which she replied, “Unless you want to with staff members trying to discourage
use it to read your assignment.” Both Kim students from using the digital textbooks,
and Ana verbally responded no; the four as illustrated in the following vignette.

©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 47
Regan instructed the students to read replaced by a single digital textbook, as
the section on evaluating algebraic well as the benefit of being able to carry
equations and expressions. Josh is all classroom materials inside a computer.
listening to the text via the digital Kim felt the physical trade-off of not hav­
textbook, including going through ing to carry so many braille volumes was
two examples as requested. When a positive feature of digital technology
Josh is done listening, he tells his (Kim, survey, 5/31/13). In terms of phys­
teacher[,] and she begins writing on ical comparison, the students also spoke
her whiteboard and asking the stu­ positively about the ease of navigation of
dents questions about order of oper­ the digital textbook. Many of them com­
ations. After completing one exam­ mented that they could find the correct
ple, Regan instructs the students to pages more easily or that, “Navigation
independently do another one from within the book is quite easy and fast”
the text. Josh puts on his headset and (Ana, survey, 9/18/12).
the classroom aid[e] asks, “Do you
have your textbook with you?,” [sic] Discussion
to which Josh replies “My dog ate Given the increased access and use of
it.” The aide responds by telling him sophisticated technology in all education,
his textbook is right next to him and let alone in the education of students with
to turn on the CCTV to see the text­ visual impairments, it is important to un­
book. Josh listens to the digital text­ derstand if and how such technology
book and does not open the hard works. Specifically, it is necessary to ex­
copy (field notes, 9/19/12). amine the use of technology for specific
content areas and how it affects student
BENEFITS DESPITE RESISTANCE learning. This study sought to understand
The final theme that emerged from the the nature of the use of a digital textbook
data involved students acknowledging to support secondary students with visual
the benefits of digital algebra textbooks, impairments in algebra. The results suggest
despite their own and educator-enhanced that the majority of students preferred and
resistance. In terms of redeeming quali­ used their traditional textbooks. The general
ties, students noted that it was easy to resistance to the use of technology warrants
understand and use the digital textbook, caution in terms of schools proceeding with
and that they wanted to learn more about the adoption of digital textbooks and sug­
technologies that would help them access gests additional examination on the topic is
algebra (see Table 1). All of the students needed.
felt other students could benefit from us­ For all but one student, there was a
ing digital textbooks. For example, Kim clear preference for using a traditional
said that other students could benefit be­ textbook. Although the students began the
cause “They can carry less things on their study with optimism in their views of the
back and not have to worry about forget­ digital textbook and expressed the desire
ting anything.” Kim was referencing the to replace their traditional textbooks, after
large number of braille volumes that only a few uses of the digital textbook,
make up a single textbook that would be they were reluctant to use it and opted to

48 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 ©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved
use their traditional textbooks when given school students were not ready to change
the opportunity. With the exception of from something they knew worked pretty
Josh, all students spoke of the need to well (their traditional textbooks) to some­
look at or touch things, such as numbers thing that was an unknown for mathemat­
or graphics, within a physical textbook. ics course work.
Note that the digital textbook verbally A logical consequence of the lack of
described graphs, figures, tables, and pic­ preference for the digital textbook was an
tures, but students could not receive any underutilization of the technology, at both
tactile information from it. Although the the teacher and student level. The under-
majority of the students said that the dig­ utilization contributed to the underappre­
ital textbook presented algebra in an easy­ ciation or devaluation of the digital text­
to-understand and sometimes simple book. As noted, during the second
manner, resistance occurred regarding semester the students never used the dig­
their inability to physically hold the ital textbook in class; if textbooks were
textbook. needed, students used their traditional
The preference for using a physical ones. Again, although reading the digital
textbook over a digital textbook is sup­ textbook in the evenings reflects what
ported in previous research. Woody, Dan­ typically occurs for students in mathemat­
iel, and Baker (2010) found that college ics classes, one has to wonder why the
students without documented visual im­ technology was not also taken advantage
pairments preferred physical textbooks to of during class time. To best illustrate,
e-books, despite students possessing the after using the digital textbook for six
technological expertise and experience to months, the majority of the students
successfully use e-books. Although the stated that they had yet to actually solve a
preference for traditional textbooks of problem read from the digital textbook.
students in the present study mirrors re­ When asked to independently solve alge­
sults from previous research, which braic problems, such as for homework,
largely involved college students without students used their traditional textbooks.
disabilities (Precel Eshet-Alkalai, & Alb­
ertson, 2009; Woody et al., 2010), the IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTITIONERS
rationale may be different. Previous re­ This study holds implications for practice.
searchers found technological limitations It suggests that educators should proceed
with e-books, such as the discomfort stu­ with caution when implementing, or
dents reported from reading text on a when considering the implementation of,
computer screen (Spencer, 2006). How­ digital textbooks. Student preference, in­
ever, any potential discomfort in this cluding willingness to use digital text­
study was likely experienced differently, books, is an important aspect of assistive
since participants listened to the text technology considerations and decision
rather than reading it. Although the stu­ making for students with disabilities
dents indicated access to graphics via lis­ (Bryant & Bryant, 2003). It is important
tening as opposed to touching was diffi­ that educators select technology that
cult, there is also the possibility that the students will actually use, which helps
change was difficult and that these high to decrease assistive technology

©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 49
abandonment (Johnston & Evans, 2005). technology— or more willing to enforce
Educators also need to consider the pros students’ use of the technology—the re­
and cons of students with visual impair­ sults would have been different and might
ments accessing mathematics solely via a have present a more positive proof of
digital textbook. Although reliance on au­ concept. Another potential limitation, al­
dio for students who are blind and audio though the authors viewed it as data, is
and visual for students with low vision is the teacher’s discontinuation of the digital
potentially concerning, given the value of textbooks in the class during the second
tactile feedback, previous research sug­ semester. Finally, perhaps the amount of
gests the reliability of accessing mathe­ training time provided or the overall qual­
matics aurally and students’ ability to un­ ity of the training was insufficient for
derstand mathematics presented aurally students’ sustained use of the technology
(Bouck et al., 2013; Wongkia, Naruedom­ or their preference for doing so.
kul, & Cercone, 2012). Support exists for Clearly, additional research is needed
the oral reading of mathematics assess­ regarding the access, use, and impact of
ments as an accommodation for students digital textbooks in algebra for students
with learning disabilities, indicating that with visual impairments. Within the in­
an understanding of mathematics through creased adoption of digital text in and
listening is possible (Bolt & Thurlow, out of schools (Mardis & Everhart
2007). However, oral presentation is not 2013; Toppo, 2012), it is imperative
without its challenges (Nees & Berry, that educators understand the issues and
2013). impact of such decisions for all stu­
dents, including students with visual
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS impairments. An area of need for future
This study has limitations. For one, given research includes additional studies
its qualitative nature, the results are not comparing learning outcomes for stu­
intended to be generalized to a larger pop­ dents who access algebra through digi­
ulation, but represent the experiences en­ tal textbooks as compared to traditional
countered by the students in this case textbooks.
study. Another limitation is the lack of
involvement of the teacher in the study in References
terms of participating in interviews. The Alajarmeh, N., & Pontelli, E. (2012). A non­
data represent the students’ perspective, visual electronic workspace for learning
algebra. In K. Miesenberger et al. (Eds.),
but fail to fully account for the teacher’s
ICCHP 2012, Part I (pp. 158 –165).
point of view. In addition, the teacher— Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.
while initially interested in and willing to Alajarmeh, N., Pontelli, E., & Son, T. (2011).
implement the digital textbook—ap­ From “reading” math to “doing” math: A
peared to grow quickly and increasingly new direction in non-visual math accessi­
reluctant to do so. The results, as with all bility. In C. Stephanidis (Ed.), Universal
access in HCI, Part IV (pp. 501–510).
qualitative case studies, are limited to the
Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
situation examined. Most likely, if the Archambault, D., Caprotti, O., Ranta, A., &
case study had involved a teacher who Saludes, J. (2012). Using GF in multimodal
had been more willing to implement the assistants for mathematics. Digitization

50 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 ©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved
and E-Inclusion in Mathematics and Sci­ formation technologies for students with
ence, 1 (1), 1–10. visual impairments in postsecondary edu­
Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (2008). Qual­ cation. Journal of Visual Impairment &
itative research for education: An intro­ Blindness, 103, 543–557.
duction to theories and methods (5th ed.). Freedom Scientific. (2013). JAWS for Win­
New York: Pearson. dows screen reading software. Retrieved
Bolt, S. E., & Thurlow, M. L. (2007). Item- from http://www.freedomscientific.com/
level effects of the read-aloud accommo­ products/fs/jaws-product-page.asp
dation for students with reading disabili­ gh. (2006). MathSpeak. Retrieved from http://
ties. Assessment for Effective Intervention, www.gh-MathSpeak.com/.
33(1), 15–28. gh. (2011). ReadHear. Retrieved from http://
Bouck, E. C., Joshi, G. S., Meyer, N., & www.gh-accessibility.com/products/
Schleppenbach, D. (2013). Accessing alge­ readhear_pc
bra via MathSpeak: Understanding the po­ Holliday B., Carter, J. A., Casey, R. M., Cue-
tentials and pitfalls for students with visual vas, G. J., Hayek, L. M., Luchin B., Marks,
impairments. Journal of Special Education D., & Day, R. (2008). Algebra 1. Colum­
Technology, 28(1), 49 – 63. bus, OH: Glencoe McGraw-Hill.
Bouck, E. C., & Meyer, N. K. (2012). eText, Johnston, S. S., & Evans, J. (2005). Consid­
mathematics and students with VI: What ering response efficiency as a strategy to
teachers need to know. Teaching Excep­ prevent assistive technology abandonment.
tional Children, 45(2), 42– 49. Journal of Special Education Technology,
Bouck, E. C., & Weng, P.-L. (2014). Reading 20, 45–50.
math: A comparison of reading and listen­ Mardis, M., & Everhart, N. (2013). From
ing to algebraic problems. Journal of Spe­ paper to pixel: The promise and challenges
cial Education Technology, 29(4), 1–13. of digital textbooks for K–12 schools. In
Bryant, D. P., & Bryant, B. R. (2003). Assis­ M. Orey, S. A. Jones, & R. M. Branch
tive technology for people with disabilities. (Eds.), Educational media and technology
Boston: Allyn and Bacon. yearbook (Vol. 37, pp. 93–118). New
Collins, A., & Halverson, R. (2010). The sec­ York: Springer.
ond educational revolution: Rethinking ed­ Nees, M. A., & Berry, L. F. (2013). Audio
ucation in the age of technology. Journal of assistive technology and accommodations
Computer Assisted Learning, 26, 18 –27. for students with visual impairments: Po­
Cooper, M., Lowe, T., & Taylor, M. (2008). tentials and problems for delivering cur­
Access to mathematics in web resources ricula and educational assessments. Per­
for people with a visual impairment. In K. formance Enhancement & Health, 2,
Miesenberger, J. Klaus, W. Zagler, & A. 101–109.
Karshmer (Eds.), Computers Helping Peo­ Power, C., & Jürgensen, H. (2010). Accessi­
ple with Special Needs (Vol. 5105, pp. ble presentation of information for people
926 –933). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer with visual disabilities. Universal Access in
Berlin Heidelberg. the Information Society, 9, 97–119. Re­
Douglas, G., McLinden, M., McCall, S., trieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/
Pavey, S., Ware, J., & Farrell, A. M. s10209-009-0164-1
(2011). Access to print literacy for children Precel, K., Eshet-Alkalai, Y., & Albertson, Y.
and young people with visual impairment: (2009). Pedagogical and design aspects of
Findings from a review of literature. Euro­ a blended learning course. The Interna­
pean Journal of Special Needs Education, tional Review of Research in Open and
26(1), 25–38. Distance Learning, 10(2). Retrieved from
Fichten, C. S., Asuncion, J. V., Barile, M., http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/
Ferraro, V., & Wolforth, J. (2009). Acces­ article/view/618/1221
sibility of e-learning and computer and in­ Siu, K. W. M., & Lam, M. S. (2012). Public

©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 51
computer-assisted learning facilities for for Thai blind and visually impaired stu­
children with visual impairment: Universal dents. Computers and Mathematics with
design for inclusive learning. Early Child­ Applications, 64, 2128 –2140.
hood Education Journal, 40, 295–303. Woodcock, R. W., Mather, N., & McGrew,
Spencer, C. (2006). Research on learners’ K. S. (2001). Woodcock–Johnson III Tests
preferences for reading from a printed text of Cognitive Abilities Examiner’s Manual.
or from a computer screen. Journal of Dis­ Rolling Meadows, IL: Riverside.
tance Education, 21(1), 33–50. Woody, W. D., Daniel, D. B., & Baker, C. A.
TechSmith. (2012). Camtasia. Retrieved (2010). E-books or textbooks: Students
from http://www.techsmith.com prefer textbooks. Computers & Education,
Toppo, G. (2012, January 31). Obama wants 55, 945–948.
schools to speed digital transition. USA
TODAY News. Retrieved from http:// Emily C. Bouck, Ph.D., associate professor,
usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/education/ Michigan State University, 620 Farm Lane, East
Lansing, MI 48824; e-mail: <ecb@msu.edu>.
story/2012-01-31/schoolse-textbooks/ Pei-Lin Weng, Ph.D., assistant professor, Wil­
52907492/1 liam Patterson University, 1600 Valley Road,
Wechsler, D. (2004). Wechsler Intelligence Room 3099, Wayne, NJ 07470; e-mail:
Scale for Children. London: Pearson <wengp@wpunj.edu>. Rajiv Satsangi, Ph.D.,
assistant professor, George Mason University,
Assessments. 4400 University Drive, MS 1F2, Finley Build­
Wongkia, W., Naruedomkul, K., & Cercone, ing, Room 209, Fairfax, VA 22030; e-mail:
N. (2012). i-Math: Automatic math reader <rsatsang@gmu.edu>.

52 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 ©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved

You might also like