Professional Documents
Culture Documents
©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 41
Screen readers read materials on the screen, via digital text using ReadHear—a sup
such as digital textbooks, and provide aural ported eText program. Students answered
feedback to individuals. Although screen questions about an algebraic expression
readers provide quality access to text mate (provide the exponent, describe the ex
rials, their application in mathematics is pression) after listening to the presenta
limited (Power & Jürgensen, 2010). tion via the technology. Alajarmeh and
Learning mathematics can be challeng Pontelli (2012) found that visually im
ing for students with visual impairments paired secondary students increased their
because of the typically visual nature of accuracy when solving algebraic equa
the way in which such content is pre tions using MathPlayer—a mathematical
sented (Alajarmeh, Pontelli, & Son, text-to-speech software—as compared to
2012). For this reason, mathematics is a their traditional ways of accessing printed
difficult area for the application of digital text. Conversely, Bouck & Weng (2014)
text (Bouck & Meyer, 2012; Power & conducted a single-subject design study
Jürgensen, 2010). With the digital presen to compare the performance of secondary
tation of mathematics, one needs to en students solving algebraic equations
sure the interpretation is unambiguous. when presented via ReadHear and via the
Many traditional screen readers treat a students’ traditional means of accessing
mathematical expression as an image; se text. The majority of students preferred
mantic cues are left out in order to aid their traditional textbooks, and students
interpretation (Archambault, Caprotti,
answered more problems correctly with
Ranta, & Saludes, 2012; Cooper, Lowe,
their traditional textbooks.
& Taylor, 2008). For example, consider
Despite the importance of providing ac
the expression, “y equals five over x plus
cess to mathematics, both the challenge in
2.” An individual with visual impairment
presenting higher-level mathematics to stu
who hears this expression from a screen
dents with visual impairments and the lim
reader may infer two different, yet techni
5 ited research regarding technology to do so
cally correct, interpretations: y = or remains. Through this qualitative study, the
x+2
5 authors sought to understand the experi
y = + 2. Access to one unambiguous ences and perceptions of five visually im
x
interpretation is essential for visually im paired high school students who were ac
paired students. cessing algebra via a digital textbook. The
Researchers are focused on providing study sought to understand the nature of the
quality access to digital text in algebra use of digital algebraic text to support sec
(Bouck & Meyer, 2012). Although the ondary students with visual impairments.
research base is limited, researchers
found that technologies offer the potential Methods
to provide digital text to students with PARTICIPANTS
visual impairments. Bouck, Joshi, Meyer, Five students with visual impairments
& Schleppenbach (2013) found that stu from the same state school for blind
dents with visual impairments could un individuals participated in this study. All
derstand algebraic expressions presented five students were enrolled in the same
42 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 ©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved
Algebra 1 class, taking it for the first time, was enucleated. Alana was also identified
and were the only students enrolled in with scoliosis and muscle contraction at
the class. Human subjects approval was the waist and hip. She primarily used
obtained by the Human Research Pro braille, and recently learned to use JAWS
tect Program at Purdue University, and on a computer. No ability or achievement
informed consent was received for all data were available. Alana wanted to be a
participants. teacher.
Ana Kim
Ana (a pseudonym) was a 22-year-old, Kim (a pseudonym) was a 17-year-old,
12th-grade, Hispanic, female student. She Caucasian, ninth-grade, female student
fluently spoke Spanish and English, and with total vision loss; she was totally
was identified in a medical report as le blind with bilateral prostheses, caused by
gally blind, with light perception in her a hereditary condition. Kim’s IQ data—
right eye. Ana’s file indicated multiple from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
diagnoses related to her visual impair Children, Fourth Edition (WISC-IV;
ment, including retinopathy of prematu Wechsler, 2004)—indicated 91 for Ver
rity with legal blindness, present at birth; bal Comprehension and 94 for Working
nystagmus; strabismus; microcornea; cat Memory index. Her file indicated that no
aract; and scarred central cornea with additional testing was deemed appropri
band keratopath. Ana’s achievement data ate. On the WJ-III (Woodcock et al.,
indicated a score of 112 for Broad Read 2001), completed using the braille adap
ing and 84 for Broad Mathematics (84 for tation version as well as with an abacus
Calculation and 86 for Reasoning) on the and Perkins Brailler, Kim’s standard
Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achieve scores were 97 for Brief Reading, 95 for
ment (WJ-III; Woodcock, Mather, & Reading Comprehension, 81 for Brief
McGrew, 2001); no intelligence quotient Math, 92 for Math Reasoning, and 98 for
(IQ) data were available. Ana read braille Basic Writing Skills. Kim wanted to pur
textbooks and used JAWS on her com sue music as a profession.
puter to access other materials. At the
time of the study, she was awaiting ac Josh
ceptance to a state university, where she Josh (a pseudonym) was a 17-year-old,
planned to major in psychology. Caucasian, male student in the 11th grade
who was identified in a medical report as
Alana having low vision. Josh’s individualized
Alana (a pseudonym) was an 18-year-old, education program (IEP) identification
female student enrolled in the 11th grade. was multiple disabilities, including visual
English was her second language; she impairment and ADHD. He was also
was adopted from Ethiopia as a teenager. identified with anxiety disorder and
Alana was identified in a medical report Axenfeld-Rieger syndrome. Josh’s vision
as blind, reportedly having lost her eye data indicated that he possessed 20/250
sight at the age of 8. She had no light vision in his right eye, no light perception
perception in either eye, and her left eye in his left eye, and that he had glaucoma.
©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 43
On the WISC-IV (Wechsler, 2004), majority of the students resided at the
Josh’s Verbal IQ was 106 and his Work school during the week and returned
ing Memory was 83; a full-scale IQ was home on the weekends. Researchers col
not available for Josh, since certain sub- lected data in one Algebra 1 class, which
tests were not administered. Achievement typically met for a 70-minute period each
scores for Josh included 92 for Broad day in a five-day week; observations oc
Reading and 86 for Broad Math (95 for curred on 23 different days throughout
Calculation and 58 for Math Fluency) on one academic year. The classroom was a
the WJ-III (Woodcock et al., 2001). Josh large room with desks arranged in a “U”
used large print and a desktop CCTV shape facing a large television screen.
magnifier. He wanted to attend culinary The course itself was provided by a
school and become a chef. “teacher-in-a-box,” as described by the
school. The students came to the class,
Jorge but the teacher was not physically pres
Jorge (a pseudonym) was a 16-year-old, ent. Regan (a pseudonym), a certified
Hispanic, male student in the ninth grade mathematics teacher for students with vi
who was identified as having low vision sual impairments, taught the course re
in a medical report. Jorge’s vision was motely in a distance-education model.
20/400 in his right eye and 8/400 in his She appeared on a television screen, con
left eye; his visual conditions were iden nected to a computer equipped with a
tified as microphthalmia; retinal, optic webcam. Each student in the class typi
nerve coloboma; and nystagmus. Jorge cally had a desktop computer; for the
self-disclosed that he had trouble focus purposes of the study, each student used a
ing visually on numbers as well as on laptop. The teacher accessed each stu
certain mathematical symbols (such as a dent’s individual computer through Mi
fraction symbol or a negative sign). On crosoft Lync. During all lessons, an aide
the WISC-IV, Jorge’s verbal IQ was 110 was in the classroom to provide face-to
and working memory was 97 (Wechsler, face assistance to the students.
2004). His achievement data, on the WJ
III (Woodcock et al., 2001), were an 89 MATERIALS
for Broad Reading and 86 for Broad The Algebra 1 course used the textbook
Math. Jorge’s WJ-III scores represented a Algebra 1 from Glencoe McGraw-Hill
5.1 grade-level equivalency for Calcula (Holliday et al., 2008). The textbook was
tion and 3.1 for Math Fluency. Jorge ac rendered as a digital version to be played
cessed print via large print with a magni on the ReadHear player produced by gh,
fier, CCTV, or portable RUBY handheld an assistive technology company; the dig
video magnifier. Jorge wanted to pursue a ital version was rendered by gh in DAISY
career in computers, music, or science. format. Students also had access to their
braille, and large- or standard-size print
SETTING versions of the textbook. ReadHear is a
The study occurred at a state school for supported electronic text player devel
blind individuals, which enrolled students oped by gh (2011) that was designed to
in kindergarten through 12th grade. The read digital text—specifically formats
44 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 ©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved
such as DAISY, Digital Talking Books, Training was complete once they could
and National Instructional Materials Ac perform each of these steps without as
cessibility Standard (NIMAS). ReadHear sistance. The in-class aide participated
supports MathML-embedded format with in the training.
the output language of MathSpeak (gh,
2006). ReadHear offers accessibility and Online survey
customization features: zooming; pan Students completed 16 preintervention
ning; different voices; color adjustment and 20 postintervention questions—pri
for background, text, highlighting, and marily open-ended— using the Survey-
tracking; speaking rate and volume con Monkey website; the website was recom
trol; and multiple navigation modes. mended because of its compatibility with
screen readers. The first questionnaire at
PROCEDURES the beginning of the school year consisted
This study used qualitative research of four parts: students’ current school ex
methodology to explore students’ use of a periences and their future plans; students’
digital algebra textbook via a supported perception of learning mathematics and
eText player (ReadHear) to learn the Al algebra, specifically; the strategies or
gebra 1 curriculum. Specifically, re technology used in learning content do
searchers examined the role of the digital main knowledge, including mathematics;
textbook to enact the algebra course and and students’ initial thoughts on the tech
algebraic understanding. Data were col nology. The second online survey ques
lected through online surveys and obser tionnaire, administered at the end of the
vations (Bogdan & Biklen, 2008). school year, contained three parts: stu
dents’ perceptions regarding learning al
Training gebra online and via a digital format; stu
Prior to students’ using the digital text dents’ experiences on using the specific
book, they were trained as a group by the technology; and 10 three-point Likert
researchers on how to use ReadHear and scale (agree, disagree, no opinion) state
the digital algebra textbook during an ex ments about algebra, types of textbooks,
tended class period. The researchers dem and ReadHear (see Table 1).
onstrated the accessibility features of
ReadHear and how to use it (for example, Observations
open the algebra book, read the text, skip Observations were conducted in the
to a new section). The training included classroom by the researchers primarily
the different aspects of navigation, such through video recordings via students’
as keyboard shortcuts or using the mouse. Dell laptops using Camtasia software
The researchers also discussed the Math- (TechSmith, 2012). Seventy-three sepa
Speak language and provided examples. rate Camtasia files existed, totaling 2,240
During the training, students selected minutes of recordings. Researchers took
their individual accessibility prefer field notes from the videos, noting activ
ences and demonstrated that they could ities, actions, and statements of the par
open, navigate, read, and close the dig ticipants. Researchers documented the
ital algebra textbook using ReadHear. time of each observation and objective
©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 45
Table 1
Students’ end-of-school-year survey responses regarding ReadHear and traditional textbooks.
Easily
understand Easily Would rather Want to
algebra with understand use ReadHear Want to keep using Easy to
traditional algebra with than traditional keep using traditional understand and
Participant textbook ReadHear textbook ReadHear textbook use ReadHear
Note: One student, Alana, opted not to complete the survey at the end of the school year.
46 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 ©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved
print, or standard-size print. Not only did students, minus Josh, then completed
the majority of students indicate a prefer their assignments using their traditional
ence for using their traditional textbook textbooks (field notes, 10/1/12).
on the survey administered at the end of Of the five students, only Josh was in
school year (see Table 1), but students favor of the digital textbook on the sur
also repeatedly sought to use the tradi veys and in classroom observations. The
tional textbook, despite the intention for other students disagreed or were neutral
students to use the digital textbook as the about using the technology versus their
only textbook throughout the year. traditional textbooks, as well as about
Alana, a student who particularly strug continuing to use the technology (refer to
gled with the technology (with JAWS and Table 1). All of the students, with the
hot keys, for instance), would request and exception of Josh, felt it was easier to use
receive a traditional textbook in class, as physical books “to look at things” (Jorge,
evident in the following vignette. survey, 5/21/13); to “look back at errors,
graphs, and maps by touching” (Kim, sur
At the start of class, Regan was ex vey, 5/31/13); or just for their own com
plaining what the students were to fort—“I am more comfortable using
do. “Right on page 70. We’re going braille” (Ana, survey, 5/21/13).
on pages 70, 71, 72, 73. All the way
to check your understanding. There EDUCATORS’ REACTIONS
are two, three, four, five questions The second theme, educators’ reactions to
you are to answer as you listen [via the technology, was surprising given the
the digital textbook]. I want you to teacher’s initial positive perspective to
listen to the section, view the prob wards implementing the digital textbook
lem, listen to the next example, and and her involvement since the beginning
if you don’t understand, I just want of the overall project. The teacher and her
to see you do the best you can with in-class aide supported, and at times ap
out asking for help.” Alana requested peared to encourage, the students’ prefer
a hard copy text, “Do we have a ences for traditional textbooks. For exam
textbook for that?” And again, five ple, at the start of the second semester, the
seconds later, “Can I have a textbook teacher stopped asking the students to use
too?” When the classroom aide the digital textbook in class; instead, stu
brings her a textbook, she flips to the dents could access the digital textbook in
book to get the correct page (field their cottages in the evenings. Although
notes, 11/1/12). in theory this construction more closely
resembled a typical classroom situation,
In another example, Regan wanted to dis with students being expected to read the
cuss the assignment with students at the material prior to coming to class, it also
end of class. One of the students asked if subtly reinforced some disdain for the
they could close the digital textbook, to technology, particularly when coupled
which she replied, “Unless you want to with staff members trying to discourage
use it to read your assignment.” Both Kim students from using the digital textbooks,
and Ana verbally responded no; the four as illustrated in the following vignette.
©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 47
Regan instructed the students to read replaced by a single digital textbook, as
the section on evaluating algebraic well as the benefit of being able to carry
equations and expressions. Josh is all classroom materials inside a computer.
listening to the text via the digital Kim felt the physical trade-off of not hav
textbook, including going through ing to carry so many braille volumes was
two examples as requested. When a positive feature of digital technology
Josh is done listening, he tells his (Kim, survey, 5/31/13). In terms of phys
teacher[,] and she begins writing on ical comparison, the students also spoke
her whiteboard and asking the stu positively about the ease of navigation of
dents questions about order of oper the digital textbook. Many of them com
ations. After completing one exam mented that they could find the correct
ple, Regan instructs the students to pages more easily or that, “Navigation
independently do another one from within the book is quite easy and fast”
the text. Josh puts on his headset and (Ana, survey, 9/18/12).
the classroom aid[e] asks, “Do you
have your textbook with you?,” [sic] Discussion
to which Josh replies “My dog ate Given the increased access and use of
it.” The aide responds by telling him sophisticated technology in all education,
his textbook is right next to him and let alone in the education of students with
to turn on the CCTV to see the text visual impairments, it is important to un
book. Josh listens to the digital text derstand if and how such technology
book and does not open the hard works. Specifically, it is necessary to ex
copy (field notes, 9/19/12). amine the use of technology for specific
content areas and how it affects student
BENEFITS DESPITE RESISTANCE learning. This study sought to understand
The final theme that emerged from the the nature of the use of a digital textbook
data involved students acknowledging to support secondary students with visual
the benefits of digital algebra textbooks, impairments in algebra. The results suggest
despite their own and educator-enhanced that the majority of students preferred and
resistance. In terms of redeeming quali used their traditional textbooks. The general
ties, students noted that it was easy to resistance to the use of technology warrants
understand and use the digital textbook, caution in terms of schools proceeding with
and that they wanted to learn more about the adoption of digital textbooks and sug
technologies that would help them access gests additional examination on the topic is
algebra (see Table 1). All of the students needed.
felt other students could benefit from us For all but one student, there was a
ing digital textbooks. For example, Kim clear preference for using a traditional
said that other students could benefit be textbook. Although the students began the
cause “They can carry less things on their study with optimism in their views of the
back and not have to worry about forget digital textbook and expressed the desire
ting anything.” Kim was referencing the to replace their traditional textbooks, after
large number of braille volumes that only a few uses of the digital textbook,
make up a single textbook that would be they were reluctant to use it and opted to
48 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 ©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved
use their traditional textbooks when given school students were not ready to change
the opportunity. With the exception of from something they knew worked pretty
Josh, all students spoke of the need to well (their traditional textbooks) to some
look at or touch things, such as numbers thing that was an unknown for mathemat
or graphics, within a physical textbook. ics course work.
Note that the digital textbook verbally A logical consequence of the lack of
described graphs, figures, tables, and pic preference for the digital textbook was an
tures, but students could not receive any underutilization of the technology, at both
tactile information from it. Although the the teacher and student level. The under-
majority of the students said that the dig utilization contributed to the underappre
ital textbook presented algebra in an easy ciation or devaluation of the digital text
to-understand and sometimes simple book. As noted, during the second
manner, resistance occurred regarding semester the students never used the dig
their inability to physically hold the ital textbook in class; if textbooks were
textbook. needed, students used their traditional
The preference for using a physical ones. Again, although reading the digital
textbook over a digital textbook is sup textbook in the evenings reflects what
ported in previous research. Woody, Dan typically occurs for students in mathemat
iel, and Baker (2010) found that college ics classes, one has to wonder why the
students without documented visual im technology was not also taken advantage
pairments preferred physical textbooks to of during class time. To best illustrate,
e-books, despite students possessing the after using the digital textbook for six
technological expertise and experience to months, the majority of the students
successfully use e-books. Although the stated that they had yet to actually solve a
preference for traditional textbooks of problem read from the digital textbook.
students in the present study mirrors re When asked to independently solve alge
sults from previous research, which braic problems, such as for homework,
largely involved college students without students used their traditional textbooks.
disabilities (Precel Eshet-Alkalai, & Alb
ertson, 2009; Woody et al., 2010), the IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTITIONERS
rationale may be different. Previous re This study holds implications for practice.
searchers found technological limitations It suggests that educators should proceed
with e-books, such as the discomfort stu with caution when implementing, or
dents reported from reading text on a when considering the implementation of,
computer screen (Spencer, 2006). How digital textbooks. Student preference, in
ever, any potential discomfort in this cluding willingness to use digital text
study was likely experienced differently, books, is an important aspect of assistive
since participants listened to the text technology considerations and decision
rather than reading it. Although the stu making for students with disabilities
dents indicated access to graphics via lis (Bryant & Bryant, 2003). It is important
tening as opposed to touching was diffi that educators select technology that
cult, there is also the possibility that the students will actually use, which helps
change was difficult and that these high to decrease assistive technology
©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 49
abandonment (Johnston & Evans, 2005). technology— or more willing to enforce
Educators also need to consider the pros students’ use of the technology—the re
and cons of students with visual impair sults would have been different and might
ments accessing mathematics solely via a have present a more positive proof of
digital textbook. Although reliance on au concept. Another potential limitation, al
dio for students who are blind and audio though the authors viewed it as data, is
and visual for students with low vision is the teacher’s discontinuation of the digital
potentially concerning, given the value of textbooks in the class during the second
tactile feedback, previous research sug semester. Finally, perhaps the amount of
gests the reliability of accessing mathe training time provided or the overall qual
matics aurally and students’ ability to un ity of the training was insufficient for
derstand mathematics presented aurally students’ sustained use of the technology
(Bouck et al., 2013; Wongkia, Naruedom or their preference for doing so.
kul, & Cercone, 2012). Support exists for Clearly, additional research is needed
the oral reading of mathematics assess regarding the access, use, and impact of
ments as an accommodation for students digital textbooks in algebra for students
with learning disabilities, indicating that with visual impairments. Within the in
an understanding of mathematics through creased adoption of digital text in and
listening is possible (Bolt & Thurlow, out of schools (Mardis & Everhart
2007). However, oral presentation is not 2013; Toppo, 2012), it is imperative
without its challenges (Nees & Berry, that educators understand the issues and
2013). impact of such decisions for all stu
dents, including students with visual
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS impairments. An area of need for future
This study has limitations. For one, given research includes additional studies
its qualitative nature, the results are not comparing learning outcomes for stu
intended to be generalized to a larger pop dents who access algebra through digi
ulation, but represent the experiences en tal textbooks as compared to traditional
countered by the students in this case textbooks.
study. Another limitation is the lack of
involvement of the teacher in the study in References
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52 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, January-February 2016 ©2016 AFB, All Rights Reserved