Digital Communication Systems

Lecture 4, Prof. Dr. Habibullah

Jamal
Under Graduate, Spring 2008

1
Chapter 4: Bandpass Modulation and Demodulation

 Bandpass Modulation is the process by which some characteristics

of a sinusoidal waveform is varied according to the message signal.

 Modulation shifts the spectrum of a baseband signal to some high

frequency.

 Demodulator/Decoder baseband waveform recovery

2
4.1 Why Modulate?
 Most channels require that the baseband signal be shifted to a higher
frequency
 For example in case of a wireless channel antenna size is inversely
proportional to the center frequency, this is difficult to realize for baseband
signals.
 For speech signal f = 3 kHz  =c/f=(3x108)/(3x103)

 Antenna size without modulation /4=105 /4 meters = 15 miles - practically

unrealizable
 Same speech signal if amplitude modulated using fc=900MHz will require
an antenna size of about 8cm.
 This is evident that efficient antenna of realistic physical size is needed for
radio communication system

 Modulation also required if channel has to be shared by several

transmitters (Frequency division multiplexing).

3
4.2 Digital Bandpass Modulation Techniques
Three ways of representing bandpass signal:
 (1) Magnitude and Phase (M & P)
 Any bandpass signal can be represented as:

s(t )  A(t ) cos[ t   A(t ) cos[0t   (t )]

 A(t) ≥ 0 is real valued signal representing the magnitude
 Θ(t) is the genarlized angle
 φ(t) is the phase

 The representation is easy to interpret physically, but often is not

mathematically convenient
 In this form, the modulated signal can represent information through
changing three parameters of the signal namely:
 Amplitude A(t) : as in Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 Phase φ(t) : as in Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Frequency dΘ(t)/ dt : as in Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

4
 Angle Modulation
 Consider a signal with constant frequency:

s(t )  A(t ) cos( (t ))  A(t ) cos(0t   )

 Its instantaneous frequency can be written as:
d (t )
i (t )   0
dt

or
t
 (t )   i ( )d


5
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) or PM
 Consider a message signal m(t), we can write the phase modulated
signal as
 (t )  ct  K p m(t )

sPM (t )  A cos[ct  K p m(t )]

d
i (t )    c  K p m(t )
dt

6
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) or FM
 In case of Frequency Modulation

i (t )  0  K f m(t )
t
 (t )   [0  K f m(t )]d


t
 0t  K f  m( )d

t
sFM (t )  A cos[0t  K f 

m( )d ]
 A cos[0t  K f a(t )]
where:
t
a(t )   m( )d


7
Example The message signal
1

0.5

-0.5

-1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15

The modulated signal

1

0.5

-0.5

-1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
Time

8
 4.2.1 Phasor Representation of Sinusoid

 Consider the trigonometric identity called the Euler’s theorem:

e j0t  cos(0t )  j sin(0t )

 Using this identity we can have the phasor representation of the sinusoids.
Figure 4.2 below shows such relation:

11
 Phasor Representation of Amplitude Modulation

 Consider the AM signal in phasor form:


 j0t  e jmt e jmt 

s(t )  Re e 1   

  2 2 


12
 Phasor Representation of FM

 Consider the FM signal in phasor form:


 j0t    jmt  jmt e jmt 

s(t )  Re e 1  e  e 

  2 2 2 


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Digital Modulation Schemes

 Basic Digital Modulation Schemes:

 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

 Amplitude Phase Keying (APK)

 For Binary signals (M = 2), we have

 Binary Amplitude Shift Keying (BASK)

 Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

 Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)

 For M > 2, many variations of the above techniques exit usually

classified as M-ary Modulation/detection

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Figure4.5: digital modulations, (a) PSK (b) FSK (c) ASK (d) ASK/PSK (APK)

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Amplitude Shift Keying
 Modulation Process
 In Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK),
the amplitude of the carrier is
switched between two (or more)
levels according to the digital data
 For BASK (also called ON-OFF
Keying (OOK)), one and zero are
represented by two amplitude
levels A1 and A0

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 Analytical Expression:
 Ai cos(ct ), 0  t  T binary 1
s(t )  
0, 0  t  T binary 0
where Ai = peak amplitude

s(t )  A cos(0t )  2 Arms cos(0t )  2

2 Arms cos(0t )

2E V2
 2 P cos(0t )  cos(0t )  P 
T R
Hence,
 2 Ei (t )
 cos(i t ), 0  t  T binary 1 , i  0,2,......M  1
si (t )   T

 0, 0  t  T binary 0
where
T
E   s i2 (t )dt , i  0,2,......M  1
0

22
 Where for binary ASK (also known as ON OFF Keying (OOK))

s1 (t )  Ac m(t ) cos(ct   ), 0  t  T binary 1

s0 (t )  0, 0  t  T binary 0

 Mathematical ASK Signal Representation

 The complex envelope of an ASK signal is:

g (t )  Ac m(t )
 The magnitude and phase of an ASK signal are:

A(t )  Ac m(t ),  (t )  0
 The in-phase and quadrature components are:

x(t )  Ac m(t )
y(t )  0, the quadrature component is wasted.

23
 • It can be seen that the
bandwidth of ASK
modulated is twice that
occupied by the source
baseband stream

 Bandwidth of ASK
 Bandwidth of ASK can be found from its power spectral density

 The bandwidth of an ASK signal is twice that of the unipolar NRZ

line code used to create it., i.e.,

2
B  2 Rb 
Tb
 This is the null-to-null bandwidth of ASK

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 If raised cosine rolloff pulse shaping is used, then the bandwidth is:

1
B  (1  r ) Rb  W  (1  r ) Rb
 Spectral efficiency of ASK is half that 2
of a baseband unipolar NRZ
line code
 This is because the quadrature component is wasted
 95% energy bandwidth

3
B   3Rb
Tb

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Detectors for ASK
Coherent Receiver

 Coherent detection requires the phase information

 A coherent detector mixes the incoming signal with a locally generated
carrier reference
 Multiplying the received signal r(t) by the receiver local oscillator (say
Accos(wct)) yields a signal with a baseband component plus a
component at 2fc
 Passing this signal through a low pass filter eliminates the high
frequency component
 In practice an integrator is used as the LPF

26
  The output of the LPF is sampled once per bit period
 This sample z(T) is applied to a decision rule
 z(T) is called the decision statistic
 Matched filter receiver of OOK signal

 A MF pair such as the root raised

cosine filter can thus be used to shape
the source and received baseband
symbols
 In fact this is a very common approach
in signal detection in most bandpass
data modems

27
Noncoherent Receiver
 Does not require a phase reference at the receiver
 If we do not know the phase and frequency of the carrier, we can
use a noncoherent receiver to recover ASK signal
 Envelope Detector:

 The simplest implementation of an envelope detector comprises

a diode rectifier and smoothing filter

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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 In FSK, the instantaneous carrier frequency is switched between 2 or
more levels according to the baseband digital data
 data bits select a carrier at one of two frequencies

 the data is encoded in the frequency

 Until recently, FSK has been the most widely used form of digital
modulation;Why?
 Simple both to generate and detect

 Insensitive to amplitude fluctuations in the channel

 FSK conveys the data using distinct carrier frequencies to represent

symbol states
 An important property of FSK is that the amplitude of the modulated
wave is constant
 Waveform

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 Analytical Expression
2 Es
si (t )  cos( i t   ), i  0,1,....M  1
Ts 
t
 i (t )  [ 0t   d  m( )d ] 
 
d Analog form
fi   i (t )  f 0  f d m(t ) 
dt 
 General expression is
2 Es
si (t )  cos(2f 0t  2ift ), i  0,1,....M  1
Ts

Where f  f i  f i 1

f i  f 0  if and Es  kEb , Ts  kTb

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Binary FSK
 In BFSK, 2 different frequencies, f1 and f2 = f1 + ∆ f are used to
transmit binary information

 Data is encoded in the frequencies

 That is, m(t) is used to select between 2 frequencies:
 f1 is the mark frequency, and f2 is the space frequency
2 Es
s0 (t )  cos 2 ( f1  1 ), 0  t  Tb
Tb

2 Es
s1 (t )  cos 2 ( f 2   2 ), 0  t  Tb
Tb
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  Ac cos(1t  1 ), when m(t )  1 or X n  1
s(t )  
 Ac cos(2t   2 ), when m(t )  1 or X n  0

 Binary Orthogonal Phase FSK

 When w0 an w1 are chosen so that f1(t) and f2(t) are orthogonal, i.e.,



1 (t )2 (t )  0
 form a set of K = 2 basis orthonormal basis
functions
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Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

 General expression is

2 Es
si (t )  cos[2f 0t  i (t )], i  0,1,....M  1
Ts

 Where
2i
i (t )  i  0,1,....M  1
M

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3. Coherent Detection of Binary FSK

 Coherent detection of Binary FSK is similar to that for

ASK but in this case there are 2 detectors tuned to the 2
carrier frequencies

 Recovery of fc in receiver is made simple if the

frequency spacing between symbols is made equal to
the symbol rate.

34
 Non-coherent Detection
 One of the simplest ways of detecting binary FSK is to pass the
signal through 2 BPF tuned to the 2 signaling freqs and detect
which has the larger output averaged over a symbol period

35
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 In PSK, the phase of the carrier signal is switched between 2 (for
BPSK) or more (for MPSK) in response to the baseband digital data
 With PSK the information is contained in the instantaneous phase of
the modulated carrier
 Usually this phase is imposed and measured with respect to a fixed
carrier of known phase – Coherent PSK
 For binary PSK, phase states of 0o and 180o are used

 Waveform:

36
 Analytical expression can be written as

si (t )  A g (t ) cos[ct  i (t )], 0  t  Tb , i  1, 2,...., M

where
 g(t) is signal pulse shape

 A = amplitude of the signal

 ø = carrier phase

 The range of the carrier phase can be determined using

2 (i  1)
i (t )  i  1,....M
M
 For a rectangular pulse, we obtain
2
g (t )  , 0  t  Tb ; and assume A  Eb
Tb

37
 We can now write the analytical expression as

2 Eb  2 (i  1) 
si (t )  cos ct  , 0  t  Tb , and i  1,2,....M
Tb  M 
carrier phase changes
Constant envelope abruptly at the beginning of
each signal interval

 In PSK the carrier phase changes abruptly at the beginning of each

signal interval while the amplitude remains constant

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 We can also write a PSK signal as:
2E  2 (i  1) 
si (t )  cos  ct  
T  M 

2E  2 (i  1) 2 (i  1) 
 cos cos  t  sin sin cos  t
T 
c c 
M M 

 Furthermore, s1(t) may be represented as a linear combination of

two orthogonal functions ψ1(t) and ψ2(t) as follows
2 (i  1) 2 (i  1)
si (t )  E cos  1 (t )  E sin  2 (t )
M M
Where
2 2
 1 (t )  cos[ ct ] and  2 (t )  sin[ ct ]
T T

39
 Using the concept of the orthogonal basis function, we can represent
PSK signals as a two dimensional vector

 2 (i  1) 2 (i  1) 
si (t )   Eb cos  1 , Eb sin 2 
 M M 
 For M-ary phase modulation M = 2k, where k is the number of
information bits per transmitted symbol

 In an M-ary system, one of M ≥ 2 possible symbols, s1(t), …, sm(t), is

transmitted during each Ts-second signaling interval

 The mapping or assignment of k information bits into M = 2k possible

phases may be performed in many ways, e.g. for M = 4

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 A preferred assignment is to use “Gray code” in which adjacent
phases differ by only one binary digit such that only a single bit error
occurs in a k-bit sequence. Will talk about this in detail in the next few
slides.

 It is also possible to transmit data encoded as the phase change

(phase difference) between consecutive symbols
 This technique is known as Differential PSK (DPSK)

 There is no non-coherent detection equivalent for PSK except for

DPSK

41
M-ary PSK

 In MPSK, the phase of the carrier takes on one of M possible values

2 (i  1)
i (t )  , i  1,2,....., M
M
 Thus, MPSK waveform is expressed as
M  2k MPSK
2E  2 (i  1)  2 BPSK
si (t )  cos  0t 
T  M  4 QPSK
8 8  PSK
 2 (i  1) 
si (t )  g (t ) cos  0t  16 16  PSK
 M 
...........

 Each si(t) may be expanded in terms of two basis function Ψ1(t) and
Ψ2(t) defined as
2
 1 (t ) 
2
cos  c t ,  2 (t )  sin  c t ,
Ts Ts

42
Quadrature PSK (QPSK)

 Two BPSK in phase quadrature

 QPSK (or 4PSK) is a modulation technique that transmits 2-bit of
information using 4 states of phases
 For example
2-bit Information ø
00 0 Each symbol corresponds
01 π/2 to two bits

10 π
11 3π/2
 General expression:
2 Es  2 (i  1) 
sQPSK (t )  cos 2f ct   , i  1,2,3,4 0  t  Ts
Ts  M 

43
 The signals are:
2 Es  2 Es
s0 
2 Es
cos( ct ) s1  cos( ct  )   sin( ct )
Ts Ts 2 Ts

2 Es 2 Es
s2  cos( ct   )   cos( ct )
Ts Ts

2 Es 3 2 Es
s3  cos( ct  )  sin( ct )
Ts 2 Ts

2 Es
s0, 2 (t )   cos  c t ,   shift o f 00 and 1800
Ts

2 Es
s1,3 (t )   sin  ct ,   shift o f 900 and 2700
Ts

44
 We can also have:
2 Es  2 (i  1)  
sQPSK (t )  cos  ct   , i  1,2,3,4 0  t  Ts
Ts  M 4

45
 One of 4 possible waveforms is transmitted during each signaling
interval Ts
 i.e., 2 bits are transmitted per modulation symbol → Ts=2Tb)

 In QPSK, both the in-phase and quadrature components are used

 The I and Q channels are aligned and phase transition occur once
every Ts = 2Tb seconds with a maximum transition of 180 degrees
 From
2 Es  2 (i  1) 
sQPSK (t )  cos 2f c t  
Ts  M 

 As shown earlier we can use trigonometric identities to show that

2 Es  2 (i  1)  2 Es  2 (i  1) 
sQPSK (t )  cos   cos( c t )  sin   sin( ct )
Ts  M  Ts  M 

46
 In terms of basis functions
2 2
 1 (t )  cos 2f ct and  2 (t )  sin 2f ct
Ts Ts
we can write sQPSK(t) as

  2 (i  1)   2 (i  1)  
sQPSK (t )   Es cos   1 (t )  Es sin  
 2 
(t )
  M   M  
 With this expression, the constellation diagram can easily be drawn
 For example:

47
Coherent Detection
1. Coherent Detection of PSK
 Coherent detection requires the phase information
 A coherent detector operates by mixing the incoming data signal
with a locally generated carrier reference and selecting the
difference component from the mixer output

 Multiplying r(t) by the receiver LO (say A cos(ωct)) yields a signal

with a baseband component plus a component at 2fc
 The LPF eliminates the high frequency component
 The output of the LPF is sampled once per bit period
 The sampled value z(T) is applied to a decision rule
 z(T) is called the decision statistic
48
 Matched filter receiver

 A MF pair such as the root raised cosine filter can thus be used to
shape the source and received baseband symbols
 In fact this is a very common approach in signal detection in most
bandpass data modems

49
2. Coherent Detection of MPSK

 QPSK receiver is composed of 2 BPSK receivers

 one that locks on to the sine carrier and
 the other that locks onto the cosine carrier

 1 (t )  A cos 0t

 2 (t )  A sin 0t

Ts Ts A2Ts
z0 (t )   s0 (t ) 1 (t )dt   ( A cos 0t ) ( A cos 0t )dt   L0
0 0 2
Ts Ts
z1 (t )   s0 (t ) 2 (t )dt   ( A cos 0t ) ( A sin 0t )dt  0
0 0

50
 Output S0(t) S1(t) S2(t) S3(t) A2Ts 
Z0 Lo 0 -Lo 0 L0  cos
2 4
Z1 0 -Lo 0 Lo

If  1 (t )  A cos(0t  45 ) and  2 (t )  A cos(0t  45 )

o o


Output S0(t) S1(t) S2(t) S3(t)

Z0 Lo -Lo -Lo Lo
Z1 Lo Lo -Lo -Lo
 Decision:
1. Calculate zi(t) as
T
zi (t )   r (t )  i (t )dt
0
2. Find the quadrant of (Z0, Z1)

51
 A coherent QPSK receiver requires accurate carrier recovery using
a 4th power process, to restore the 90o phase states to modulo 2π

52
4.3 Detection of Signals in Gaussian Noise

 Detection models at baseband and passband are identical

 Equivalence theorem (for linear systems):
 Linear signal processing on passband signal and eventual
heterodyning to baseband is equivalent to first heterodyning
passband signal to baseband followed by linear signal processing
 Where
Heterodyning = Process resulting in spectral shift in signal e.g.
mixing
 Performance Analysis and description of communication systems
is usually done at baseband for simplicity

53
4.3.2 Correlation Receiver reference signal

s1 (t ) Decision Stage
T

T
z 1 (T )   r ( t ) s 1 ( t ) dt


0

......
......
r (t )  si (t )  n(t ) comparator selects sˆi (t )
si(t)
sM (t ) with max zi(t)

T
z M (T )   r ( t ) s M ( t ) dt


0

reference signal
 1 (t ) Decision Stage

T
T z 1 (T )   r ( t )  1 ( t ) dt


0

0
......
......

r (t )  si (t )  n(t ) comparator selects

sˆi (t )
si(t)
 M (t ) with max zi(t)

T z M (T )   r (t )  ( t ) dt


M
0

54
4.4 Coherent Detection
4.4.1 Coherent Detection of PSK
 Consider the following binary PSK example
2E
s1 (t )  cos(0t   ) 0  t  T
T
2E 2E
s2 (t )  cos(0t     )  cos(0t   )
T T
n(t) = zero-mean Gaussian random process

 Where φ : phase term is an arbitrary constant

E: signal energy per symbol
T: Symbol duration
 Single basis function for this antipodal case:
2
 1 (t )  cos 0t for 0  t  T
T
55
 Transmitted signals si(t) in terms of ψ1(t) and coefficients ai1(t) are
si (t )  ai1 (t ) 1 (t )

s1 (t )  a11(t ) 1 (t )  E  1 (t )

s2 (t )  a21(t ) 1 (t )   E  1 (t )

 Assume that s1 was transmitted, then values of product integrators

with reference to ψ1 are

Ez1 | s1  E  T

0
E  12 (t )  n(t ) 1 (t )dt 
Ez2 | s   E  (t )  n(t ) (t )dt 
T
1  E  12 1
0

56
  T 2 
Ez1 | s1  E 
2
E cos 0t  n(t )
2
cos 0t dt   E
0 T T
 
 T 
Ez2 | s1  E  
2 2
E cos 0t  n(t )
2
cos 0t dt    E

0 T T 
where E{n(t)}=0

 Decision stage determines the the location of the transmitted signal

within the signal space
 For antipodal case choice of ψ1(t) = √2/T cosw0t normalizes E{zi(T)}
to ±√E
 Prototype signals si(t) are the same as reference signals ψj(t) except
for normalizing scale factor
 Decision stage chooses signal with largest value of zi(T)

57
4.4.2 Sampled Matched Filter
 The impulse response h(t) of a filter matched to s(t) is:
s(T  t ) 0  t  T
h(t )  
0 elsewhere (eq 4.26)

 Let the received signal r(t) comprise a prototype signal si(t) plus
noise n(t)
 Bandwidth of the signal is W =1/2T where T is symbol time then
 Fs= 2W = 1/T
 Sample at t =kTs . This allows us to use discrete notation:
r (k )  si (k )  n(k ) i  1,2 k  0,1,...

 Let ci(n) be the coefficients of the MF where n is the time index and
N represents the samples per symbol
ci (n)  si [( N  1)  n] (eq 4.27)

58
 Discrete form of convolution integral suggests
N 1
zi (k )   r (k  n) ci (n) K  0,1,....., modulo  N (eq 4.28)
n 0
 Since noise is assumed to have zero mean, so the expected value
of a received sample is:

Er (k )  si (k ) i  1,2

 Therefore, if si(t) is transmitted, the expected MF output is:

N 1
Ezi (k )   si (k  n) ci (n) K  0,1,....., modulo  N
n 0
(eq 4.29)
 Combining eq (4.27) and (eq 4.29) to express the correlator outputs
at time k = N –1 = 3:
3 3
z1 (k  3)   s1 (3  n) c1 (n)  2 z2 (k  3)   s1 (3  n) c2 (n)  2
n 0 n 0
(eq 4.30a) (eq 4.30b)

59
Sampled
Matched
Filter

Fig 4.10

60
4.4.3 Coherent Detection of MPSK
 The signal space for a multiple phase-shift keying (MPSK) signal set
is illustrated for a four-level (4-ary) PSK or quadriphase shift
keying(QPSK)

Fig 4.11

61
 At the transmitter, binary digits are collected two at a time for each
symbol interval
 Two sequential digits instruct the modulator as to which of the four
waveforms to produce
 si(t) can be expressed as:
2E 2i 0t T
si (t )  cos(0t  )
where:
T M i  1,...M
E: received energy of waveform over each symbol duration T
w0: carrier frequency

 Assuming an ortho-normal signal space, the basis functions are:

2 2
 1 (t )  cos 0t  2 (t )  sin 0t
T T

62
 si(t) can be written in terms of these orthonormal coordinates:
0t T
si (t )  ai1 1 (t )  ai 2 2 (t )
i  1,...M
 2i   2i 
 E cos 
 1 (t )  E sin   2 (t )
 M  M 
 The decision rule for the detector is:
 Decide that s1(t) was transmitted if received signal vector fall in

region 1
 Decide that s2(t) was transmitted if received signal vector fall in
region 2 etc
 i.e choose ith waveform if zi(T) is the largest of the correlator

outputs
 The received signal r(t) can be expressed as:

0t T
r (t ) 
2E
cos i cos 0t  sin i sin 0t   n(t )
T i  1,...M

63
 T
 The upper corelator computes X  
0
r (t )  1 (t ) dt
T
 The lower corelator computes Y   r (t )  2 (t ) dt
0

64
 The computation of the received
phase angle φ can be
accomplished by computing the
arctan of Y/X
Where:
X: is the inphase component of the
received signal
Y: is the quadrature component of
the received signal
ǿ: is the noisy estimate of the
transmitted φi

 The demodulator selects the φi

that is closest to the angle ǿ Fig 4.13

 Or it computes | φi - ǿ | for each φi

prototypes and chooses φi yielding
smallest output

65
4.4.4 Coherent Detection of FSK
 FSK modulation is characterized by the information in the frequency
of the carrier
 Typical set of FSK signal waveform:
2E 0t T
si (t )  cos(i t   )
T i  1,...M
Where Φ: is an arbitrary constant
E: is the energy content of si(t) over each symbol duration T
(wi+1- wi): is typically assumed to be an integral multiple of λ/T
Assuming the basis functions form an orthonormal set:
2
 j (t )  cos  j t j  1,...., N
T
 Amplitude √2/T normalizes the expected output of the MF

T 2E 2
aij   cos(i t ) cos( j t ) dt
0 T T
66
 Therefore
 E for i  j
aij  
0 otherwise
 This implies, the ith prototype signal vector is located on the ith
coordinate axis at a displacement √E from the origin of the symbol
space
 For general M-ary case and given E, the distance between any two
prototype signal vectors si and sj is constant:

d (si , s j )  || si  s j ||  2E for i  j

67
Signal space partitioning for 3-ary FSK

68