FST5206 – 2017/2018-1

(Microbiological Food Safety)

Lecture 3. Microbial Contamination, Damage and

Food Poisoning
2.1 Pollution and damage to cereals, fruit
vegetables, meat, milk and dairy products
2.2 Infection
2.3 Intoxication

Prof. Madya Dr. Yaya Rukayadi

yaya_rukayadi@upm.edu.my
01112307964

Department of Food Science

Faculty of Food Science and Technology
Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM)

Tuesday, 25-09- 2018

18.30 – 21.30 (BKS – 1. Food 5)
2.1 Pollution and damage to cereals, fruit vegetables, meat, milk
and dairy products
What is Food Pollution?
Causes of Food Pollution?
en.wikipedia.org
http://blog.cegtesthouse.com/food-and-water-pollution-in-india/
 Pollution and damage to cereals
Cereals
• Seed grains of cultivated grasses.
• Most common staple food in most countries as
they are relatively inexpensive & easy to grow.
Types of Cereals
Types Nutrients Uses
• Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, • Eaten as ‘corn-on-the-cob’
fibre, iron and vitamins especially • Used in soups & cereals
B1, B2 & B3 • Crushed corn grain – for making tortilla
Maize (corn)
• Yellow variety contains carotene • Fine corn flour – thickening agent for
that can be converted into vitamin gravies & soups
A by the body • Used in cakes, biscuits & blancmange
Higher fat, protein & soluble
For making oat porridge, muesli & oat
Oat dietary fibre content than other
brans
cereals
• Used in barley drinks, soups and local
desserts
Barley Similar to other cereals
• Added to cattle feed & used in the
whisky-making industry

Rye Similar to other cereals For making breads, biscuits & pancakes
 MICROBES IN CEREALS
 Moulds are the most important microbes associated with cereals
during growth, harvest, storage and shipping. They are divided
into two groups: field fungi which cause disease in the growing
plants storage fungi which can spoil the dried grains.
 Field fungi need plenty of moisture for active growth, but storage
fungi such as Penicillium and Aspergillus can grow with much
less. Fungal spores get into the harvested crop from processing
equipment and dust in the environment.
 Good storage conditions are the key to keeping rice fresh as the
spores only germinate if the moisture, temperature and oxygen
levels are just right. Moulds cannot grow in rice grains kept at
below 14% moisture. Warmth also encourages fungal growth.
 Spoiled rice grains can be discoloured, smell "off" and lose their
goodness. Once they have started to break down, a wide range
of other microbes complete the process of decay.
 Pollution and damage to meat and poultry
Meat
• Refers to the flesh of animals, which is
made up of muscles & fats.
• Animals are reared on farms for their meat.
Nutrients in Meat
Types of Meat • Proteins
• Beef (from cattle) • Fats
• Mutton (from goat & sheep) • Cholesterol
• Pork (from pig) • Vitamin D
• Vitamins, especially B1,
• Veal (from calf) B2 & B3Phosphorus
• Venison (from deer) • Sulphur
• Iron
• Water
 Meat spoilage
The spoilage of meat occurs, if the meat is untreated, in a matter of
hours or days and results in the meat becoming unappetizing,
poisonous or infectious. Spoilage is caused by the practically
unavoidable infection and subsequent decomposition of meat by
bacteria and fungi, which are borne by the animal itself, by the
people handling the meat, and by their implements. Meat can be
kept edible for a much longer time – though not indefinitely – if
proper hygiene is observed during production and processing, and if
appropriate food safety, food preservation and food storage
procedures are applied
The organisms spoiling meat may infect the animal either while still
alive ("endogenous disease") or may contaminate the meat after its
slaughter ("exogenous disease").. There are numerous diseases that
humans may contract from endogenously infected meat, such as
anthrax, bovine tuberculosis, brucellosis, salmonellosis, listeriosis,
trichinosis or taeniasis.
Infected meat, however, should be eliminated through systematic
meat inspection in production, and consequently, consumers will
more often encounter meat exogenously spoiled by bacteria or
fungi after the death of the animal.
One source of infectious organisms is bacteraemia, the presence of
bacteria in the blood of slaughtered animals. The large intestine of
animals contains some 3.3×1013 viable bacteria, which may infect
the flesh after death if the carcass is improperly dressed.

Contamination can also occur at the slaughterhouse through the

use of improperly cleaned slaughter or dressing implements, such
as powered knives, on which bacteria persist. A captive bolt pistol's
bolt alone may carry about 400,000 bacteria per square centimeter.
 After slaughter, care must be taken not to infect the meat
through contact with any of the various sources of infection in
the abattoir, notably the hides and soil adhering to them,
water used for washing and cleaning, the dressing implements
and the slaughterhouse personnel.

Bacterial genera commonly infecting meat while it is being

processed, cut, packaged, transported, sold and handled include
Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., E. coli, B. proteus, S. epidermidis
and Staph. aureus, Cl. welchii, B. cereus and faecal streptococci.
These bacteria are all commonly carried by humans; infectious
bacteria from the soil include Cl. botulinum. Among the molds
commonly infecting meat are Penicillium, Mucor, Cladosporium,
Alternaria, Sporotrichium and Thamnidium.
The presence of infectious agents can be detected with a number of
tests during the production and processing of meat, but testing by
itself is not sufficient to ensure adequate food safety. The industry-
standard Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) system
provides for a comprehensive quality management framework as a
part of which such tests can be conducted. Testing methods applied
include phage and serological typing, direct epifluorescence filter
techniques (DEFT) and plasmid profiling.
As these microorganisms colonize a piece of meat, they begin to
break it down, leaving behind toxins that can cause enteritis or food
poisoning, potentially lethal in the rare case of botulism. The
microorganisms do not survive a thorough cooking of the meat, but
several of their toxins and microbial spores do.
The microbes may also infect the person eating the meat, although
against this the microflora of the human gut is normally an effective
barrier.
 Microbial spoilage
Depending on oxygen availability, meat spoilage by
micro-organisms can manifest itself as follows:
Oxygen Microbial agent Symptoms
•Surface slime
•Discolouration
Present Aerobic bacteria •Gas production
•Change in odor
•Fat decomposition
•Surface slime
•Discoloration
Present Yeasts
•Change in odor and taste
•Fat decomposition
•Sticky and "whiskery" surface
•Discoloration
Present Molds
•Change in odor
•Fat decomposition
•Putrefaction and foul odors
Absent Anaerobic bacteria •Gas production
•Souring
 Poultry
• Domesticated birds such as: Using Poultry in Cooking
– Chickens
– Ducks • Method of cooking depends on
age of the bird.
– Geese
• Young bird is tender & has very
– Turkeys little fat – best fried, grilled or
roasted whole.
Nutrients in Poultry
• Over-roasting tends to toughen
• Proteins the meat & make the flesh dry.
• Fats • Older bird is tougher as it has
• Cholesterol more connective tissue in the
muscles – suitable for simmering,
• Vitamin B-group boiling & steaming.
• Phosphorus
• Can be used to make stews,
• Iron soups, pies & burgers.
• Water
 Offal
• Edible internal parts of the
animals such as:
– Liver
– Heart
– Kidneys
– Tripe (stomach)
– Tongue
– Brain
– Intestines

Nutrients in Offal
• Proteins (high)
• Fats
• Cholesterol (high) Source: http://www.halalmeat.com.au/offal.html, 2006
 Bacteria in Raw Chicken & Poultry
Here's a list of some of the bacteria that are associated with
poultry products: Salmonella enteritidis may be found in the
intestinal tracts of livestock, poultry, dogs, cats and other warm-
blooded animals. This strain is only one of about 2,000 kinds of
Salmonella bacteria; it is often associated with poultry and shell
eggs.
1. Staphylococcus aureus can be carried on human hands, in nasal
passages, or in throats. The bacteria are found in foods made
by hand and improperly refrigerated, such as chicken salad.
2. Campylobacter jejuni is one of the most common causes of
diarrheal illness in humans. Preventing cross- contamination
and using proper cooking methods reduces infection by this
bacterium.
3. Listeria monocytogenes was recognized as causing human
foodborne illness in 1981. It is destroyed by cooking, but a
cooked product can be contaminated by poor personal hygiene.
Observe "keep refrigerated" and "use-by" dates on labels.
 Pollution and damage to seafood
• Comprises:
– Fish Seafood
– Shellfish
Nutrients in Seafood
Types of Fish • Proteins
Types of Shellfish • Cholesterol
• White fish • Crustaceans • Calcium
– Pomfret • Iron
– Crabs
• Iodine
– Red snapper – Prawns • Unsaturated fats
– Threadfin – Lobsters (little or no)
• Vitamin A, D & B-
groupPotassium
• Molluscs
• Oily fish – Cockles • Sodium
– Mackerel – Clams • Phosphorus
– Shad – Oysters • Water
 Microbes in Seafood
Microorganisms in fish depend on:
• Temperature
• Season
• Marine or fresh water
• Post-harvest handling (ice)
• pH of fish > 6

• High level of free amino acids but no carbohydrates

• Amino acid metabolism produces ammonia and hydrogen sulfide
• Main spoilage bacteria: Pseudomonas spp.
 Pathogenic Bacteria in Fish
• Vibrio paraheamolyticus (water borne)
• Listeria monocytogenes (post-harvest contamination)
• Bacillus and Clostridium spp.
Canned tuna was associated with an outbreak of botulism in the
1980s

• Oysters (shellfish)
• Act like filters for the water and they can accumulate
contamination
• Major pathogenic contaminants are enteric viruses and
waterborne pathogens
E.g. Vibrio vulnificus
 Pollution and damage to egg
• Economical food source that can be used in a variety of ways.
• One of the most common breakfast foods.
Types of Eggs
• Eggs of:
– Chicken
– Ducks
– Geese
– quails
Structure of Eggs
• Composed of 3 main parts:
– Eggshell
– Egg white
– Egg yolk
 Microbes in Eggs
Contamination of Eggs

Eggs are not laid in a sterile environment. In fact, eggs may be

contaminated via two different routes: vertical transmission through
the ovary or transvarian or horizontal transmission through the shell
or trans-shell.
Through vertical transmission, bacteria are introduced from
infected reproductive tissues to eggs prior to shell formation. This
form of transmission is mostly associated with pathogenic bacteria,
namely Salmonella.

Horizontal transmission usually occurs from faecal contamination

on the egg shell as the eggs are released via the cloaca, where the
excretion of faeces also takes place. It also includes contamination
through environmental vectors, such as farmers, pets and rodents.
Bacteria may enter through pores or cracks on shell of eggs. Although there are
numerous pores (ranging from 6000 – 10000) on the egg shell, there is an outer
layer of protection called cuticle that can help to retard the penetration of
bacteria on egg shells. As eggs with cracks on the shell allow the entry of
bacteria into the egg content, cracked eggs should be removed from sale. In
addition, bacteria may contaminate egg contents at breaking.

Contamination of Hatching Eggs

Where Does Microbial Contamination Come From?
Bacteria and mold which can affect hatching eggs are found everywhere in the
environment - in soil, in manure, and even on the dust particles in the air. The
most common way hatching eggs become contaminated is by allowing fresh eggs
to lay in dirty nests or on the floor and slats.
How Does Microbial Contamination Affect the Eggs and Chicks?
When a large number of bacteria get onto the shell surface, the
chances of bacteria invading the egg increase. Bacteria inside the
egg may use the nutrients found in the egg to multiply, robbing the
embryo of a crucial food source or perhaps producing a toxin
harmful to the embryo. During incubation, bacteria can actually
prevent embryonic development, ultimately causing the embryo to
die. Even if the embryo of a contaminated egg survives hatching, the
chick will either die in the broiler house or simply not grow as it
should.
Contaminated eggs that fail to hatch in
the incubator can also affect other,
healthy eggs. If one contaminated egg
should crack in the incubator, it may
spread bacteria to other eggs or newly
hatched chicks. In fact, one egg can
affect an entire incubator.
Does the Egg Possess Any Anti-microbial Defenses?
Although bacteria and mold can easily find a path into a cracked
egg, the intact egg possesses many defenses that prevent microbial
infection. Barriers that protect the egg include the cuticle, the shell,
the shell membrane and the albumen or egg white.
However protected the egg may seem, if the number of bacteria is
too great, the natural defenses cannot prevent invasion. Good
management practices are essential to minimize the assault of
bacteria upon freshly laid hatching eggs
A protein layer located on the
shell surface is called the
"cuticle." The cuticle helps
occlude, or cover over, some of
the pore openings to minimize
bacterial penetration. Sometimes,
though, if the cuticle layer is thin,
the pores are too large or the
shell too thin, bacteria can enter
through the pore of the shell. If
this should happen, the shell has
two membranes lining the inside
of it which act like a filter to
prevent penetration. Additionally,
the albumen contains natural
compounds which can kill any
bacteria that may evade the
egg's other protective features.
What Management Strategies Can Be Practiced to Reduce Egg
Contamination?
 Collect eggs frequently to minimize the time that they are exposed to a
contaminated environment.
 Keep egg laying areas as clean as possible, including the nest litter or
pads.
 Remove eggs to the egg cooler as soon as possible after lay; cooler
temperatures will slow the growth of bacteria on the shell surface.
 Prevent moisture from accumulating on the shell. Moisture provides a
needed nutrient for microbial growth and might also provide a medium
to aid the movement of microbes through the shell.
 Use authorized egg shell sanitation or fumigation programs properly.
 Minimize the number of cracked or broken eggs. Egg contents can
provide nutrients for the bacteria to multiply and spread.
 Avoid abrasive cleaning of the egg which can affect the integrity of the
shell.
 Increase efforts to minimize contamination as the breeder flock's age
increases. The shell becomes thinner with age and more prone to
bacterial infection.
 Pollution and damage to chees and milk
Milk
Usually obtained from cows.
Milk of other animals such as goats & mares is
also consumed by people.
Milk & its products such as butter, cream &
cheese are known as dairy foods.
Types of Milk
Types Properties
Milk from which some water has been removed by
Evaporated milk evaporation; contains 25% less water than fresh
milk; sterilised at 115.5°C for 20 min

Milk from which some water has been removed by

Condensed milk
evaporation; sweetened with sugar
Milk from which all water has been removed; in
Powdered milk
powder form

Skimmed milk Milk with fats skimmed off

 Microbial Pathogens in Raw Milk
Milk and other dairy products are of superior quality and safety

Milk
Quality

00 29 49 69 89 99 1000 Milkborne diseases

Pasteurization of milk

500

Milk
Quality
250

00 49 99
00 29 49 69 89 99
• Historical perspective
– 1900 -1940s: Tuberculosis, Bang’s disease, Diptheria, Typhoid
fever highly prevalent

– 1930s: Pasteurization of milk

– 1940-1960s: Eradication of animal diseases (Brucellosis,

Tuberculosis)

– 1970s: Few human cases reported

– 1990s: Few human cases still reported

Why ?
 Improved farm hygiene and milking practices

Improved milk handling and processing technology

Educated consumers and higher consumer awareness

on food safety

Still……………….

Newspapers inform public about outbreaks!

Milk makes kids sick ………

Salmonella outbreak traced to daIrY farm ……..
Milk contains bugs that makes people sick ……….
Scientists say …….. Dairy farming ......
Dairy cows ….. All infected with dangerous bugs
Killer bug on the loose …… dairy cows responsible
 Why do milkborne illnesses occur ?
- Faulty pasteurization of fluid milk
• Defective pasteurizer -- less likely
– Post-pasteurization contamination of milk and milk products
• -- likely
– Raw milk consumption
• Rural communities with access to raw milk
• Holistic / new age / back to nature - city folks ?
• Visitors on farms
• raw milk products

How prevalent is consumption of raw milk ?

– Highly prevalent in the rural communities
• Rohrbach & others: 1991, Eastern Tennessee - 34.9%
• Jayarao & others: 1997, South Dakota & Minn.- 60%
• Jayarao & others: 1998, Pennsylvania - 54%
 The Epidemiology of Raw Milk - Associated Foodborne
Disease Reported in the United States 1973-1992
[ Headrick and others, Am. J. Pub. Hlth. 88, 1219-1221; 1998]

Legal to sell raw • Results of the study

milk
WA, CA, OR, MO, ID, – 46 raw milk associated outbreaks
NV, AR, NM,TX, UT, reported were during the study period
SD, NE, KS, OK, MN,
MO, AR, OH, PA, NY,
– 40 outbreaks (87%) occurred in states
ME, VT, NH, CONN, where the intrastate sale of raw milk was
MA legal
SC,IL, RI, WI
Illegal to sell raw milk • Conclusions of the study
ND, WY, CO, IA, MI, – Consumption of raw milk remains a
IN, KY, TN, LA, AL,
GA, FL, NC, AL, PR,
preventable cause of foodborne disease
WV, VA, MD, NJ, HA, outbreaks
DE, MD
Health risks associated with raw milk ?
– Several reports on foodborne outbreaks due to
consumption of raw milk : Escherichia coli O157:H7,
Salmonella typhimurium DT104, Campylobacter jejuni,
Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia entercolitica, Salmonella
spp.

How do pathogens get into raw milk ?

 How do Pathogens gain access to a farm ?

Most
important
sources of
infection Replacement calves
trucks
heifer/ cows

birds /pests feed water

visitors
Other routes of entry
Putting it all together !
 Salmonella
• Occur in humans, warm and cold blooded animals, food and
environment
• Pathogenic to humans and many animals
• Causes typhoid, enteric fevers, gasteroenteritis and septicaemia
• More than 2200 types of Salmonella Light Microscope

• Prevalence in bulk tank milk

– 1987 4.7%* USA
– 1988 0.2% United Kingdom
– 1988 2.9% Canada
– 1992 0.16% Ireland Electron Microscope

– 1992 8.9% USA

– 1995 0.36% England & Wales
– 1997 6.1% USA ……...
– 1998 0.17% Canada
 Salmonella Typhimurium DT 104

• Emerging foodborne pathogen

• Detected in several countries
• Why is DT 104 of concern ?
– Multiple antibiotic resistance
• Ampicillin
• Chloramphenicol
• Streptomycin
• Sulfonamides
• Tetracycline
• DT 104 has been isolated from;
– poultry, swine, cattle and wild animals, and from bulk tank
milk
 Campylobacter jejuni
• Inhabitant in the reproductive tract, intestine, and oral cavity to
humans and animals
• Excreted in large numbers in feces
• 1983- Campylobacterosis associated with raw milk consumption
in PA
• Prevalence in bulk tank milk

1982 0.9% USA

1983 1.5% USA
1986 4.8% USA
1988 5% Netherlands
1988 6% UK
1988 4% USA
1992 12.3% USA
1997 9.2% USA ……...
1998 0.47% Canada
 Escherichia coli
• Occur as normal flora in the lower part of intestine of warm
blooded animals
• Toxin producing strains of E. coli are important agents of food-
borne illnesses
• Emerging pathogen E. coli O157:H7; dairy cattle considered as
reservoirs.
• Prevalence of enterotoxigenic E. coli in bulk tank milk

1989 1.4% Canada

1997 3.9% Germany
1997 12.3 % Canada
1997 3.8% USA ……...
1998 0.87% Canada
 Yersinia enterocolitica
• Occur in a broad spectrum of habitats including man, animals,
rodents, birds, soil, water, dairy products and other foods.
• Yersinia enterocolitica causes chronic diarrhea and severe
septicaemia
• Prevalence of Y. entercolitica in BTM

Natural hosts 1978 22% Ontario Canada

1978 18% Ontario Canada
1981 81% France
1984 37% Italy
1992 15.1% USA
1997 6.1% USA….
 Listeria monocytogenes
• Widely distributed in the environment
• Listeria monocytogenes pathgoenic to humans and animals
• Several reported outbreaks following consumption of raw milk
• Prevalence of L. monocytogenes in bulk tank milk

1987 4.2% USA Why do people consume

1988 1.3% Canada raw milk ?
1988 5.4% Canada
1990 5.2% South Africa – Access to raw milk
1992 4.9% Ireland – Less access to
1992 4.1% USA pasteurized milk
1995 5.1% England and Wales
1997 4.6% USA... – Drinking raw milk
1998 2.7% Canada practiced over time
– A notion that raw
milk is better than
pasteurized milk
• Should one discontinue drinking raw milk ?
– Yes ! If you are,
• Concerned about pathogens in raw milk such as Salmonella DT
104 or E. coli O157:H7
• Elderly / young / immunocompromised/ expectant mothers
• Genetic type HLA-27, which makes you more disposed to
reactive arthritis if exposed to foodborne pathogens such as
Campylobacter jejuni
• Guilliame Barre’s syndrome
• Concerned about long term effects on health
• Can we pasteurize milk in our home ?
– Yes ! you can,
• Nasco- Safeguard Home Pasteurizer ( ~ $ 200)
 Milk and Dairy Products
Raw Milk
Pathogens associated:
• E. coli O157:H7
• Salmonella typhimurium
• Campylobacter jejuni
• Listeria monocytogenes
• Staphylococcus aureus (mastitis)
 Why is raw milk consumed?
• Easy access to raw but less access to pasteurized
• Drinking raw milk has been practiced over time
• A notion that raw milk is better than pasteurized

Spoilage bacteria
Bacteria that limits the shelf life:
 Total Psychrotrophic counts in raw milk
Needs to be <100,000 cfu/ml single farm or 300,000 cfu/ml combined farms
 Psychrotrophic spore formers
Bacilus cereus

 Lipolytic and proteolytic psychrotrophs:

Pseudomonas fluorescens
Release heat resistant enzymes
 Post-Pasteurization Contamination

• Pseudomonas spp.
• Bacillus cereus
• Lactic acid bacteria
Standards for Pasteurized Milk and Milk Products

• Temperature cooled to 10oC or less

• Bacterial counts < 20, 000 cfu/ml
• Coliform counts < 10 cfu/ml
•Antibiotic presence: negative
• Phosphatase < 1Цg
 Dried Milk
• Low water activity prevents growth of pathogens and spoilage
bacteria
• Largest foodborne illness outbreak associated with
Staphylococcus aureus was in Japan 2000, 13,000 cases
• The incident was the result of post-pasteurization contamination
with Staph aureus toxin that is not destroyed by drying

Fermented milk products: produced by bacterial or fungal

transformation for carbohydrate (lactose-lactate)
• Fermented products are preserved by acids and
alcohol produced by the beneficial bacteria that
inhibits spoilage bacteria and pathogens
 Cheese
• Concentrated form of milk
• A means of preserving the nutritive value of milk –
most important milk product

Types of Cheese Nutrients in Cheese

• Proteins
• Very hard cheese
• Fats
– Parmesan cheese
• Cholesterol
• Hard cheese
• Calcium
– Cheddar cheese
• Potassium
• Soft cheese
• Vitamin A, B1, B2, B3, C & D
– Cream cheese
• Sodium
– Processed cheese
– Cottage cheese • Chlorine
• Phosphorus
• Water
 Cheese
• Product made from the curd of the milk of cows or other animals
• Casein coagulated by rennin and acid
• Subsequent heating, salting, pressing, aging
Classified into:
1- Soft unripened: cream cheese
2- Soft ripened (neutral pH, high aw): Camembert
3- Semisoft: Blue cheese
4- Hard (low pH, low aw) : Cheddar, Swiss
5- Very Hard: Parmesan
Using Cheese in Cooking
• When cheese is heated, the fat melts & separates, & the cheese
becomes soft.
• On further heating, the proteins over-coagulate & become stringy
& tough.
• Used in macaroni & cheese, cheese biscuits, cheesecake, cheese
scones & cheese sauce.
• Also used as topping for food items like pizza, lasagne and salads.
 Pathogens in Cheeses
Mainly Soft cheeses. E.g. Brie
• Listeria monocytogenes
• E. coli O157:H7
• Salmonella
• Brucella

Yoghurt
• Prepared by adding starter cultures to milk at 0.1-2% w/v
• Starter cultures used:
Streptococcus thermophilius
Lactobacillus bulgaricus
• Lactic Acid formed results in a final product pH of 4.4-4.6
• Acetaldehydes responsible for flavor and aroma of the product
 Symbiotic Growth in Yoghurt
Streptococcus produces formic acid to stimulate Lactobacillus

Lactobacillus Streptococcus

Lactobacillus breaks down proteins to peptides and amino acids

stimulating growth of Streptococcus
• Low pH inhibits pathogens
• An outbreak in the UK in 1997 with Clostridium botulinum when
hazelnut conserve was added to yoghurt. 27 cases of botulism
• Spoilage can occur as a result of contamination at pre-fermentation
• Yeasts and molds
• Heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria
 Pollutant and Damage to Legumes, Vegetables & Fruit
 Plants with seeds that grow in special fruits known as pods
 Legumes – pods
 Pulses – edible dried seeds within the pods
Types of Legumes & Pulses
Legumes: French beans, Long beans
Pulses: Peas, Lentils, Peanuts
Nutrients in Legumes & Pulses
Carbohydrates; Proteins; Fats; Fibre; Vitamin B-groupIron; Calcium;
Potassium
Using Legumes & Pulses in Cooking
Pulses need to be soaked in water prior to cooking – causes them to
swell & soften –> easier to cook, usually by boiling or simmering.
Used in soups, stews, salads & dhal curries.
Used to make tofu, soya milk, tempeh, soya sauce & salted soya beans.
Textured soya protein is known as textured vegetable protein.
 Types of Vegetables

Types Examples Nutrients

Lettuce, spinach, cabbage, kale, Vitamin A, C, E & K, calcium, iron,
Leaves
mustard greens sulphur, phosphorus
Vitamin A, B1, B2, B6, folic acid,
Stems Celery, asparagus
potassium
Potato, sweet potato, yam,
Tubers Carbohydrates, vitamin C
tapioca, water chestnut
Carbohydrates, vitamin A, B6 & C,
Roots Carrot, turnip
calcium

Types of Vegetables

Types Examples Nutrients

Carbohydrates, vitamin A, B6 & C,
Bulbs Onion, garlic
calcium
Vitamin A, B-group, C & E, folic acid,
Flowers Cauliflower, broccoli
potassium, phosphorus, magnesium

Tomato, cucumber,
Fruits Vitamin A, B-group & C, potassium
eggplant
 You know it when you see it
Or smell it
Or taste it

Inmagine.com Mahalo.com
 What are the steps of food spoilage?
• Introduce microbes to food
• Food environment is favorable for growth
• Food is stored at a temperature that favors growth
• Enough time elapses
• Thermoduric microbes survive heat treatment
• Heat-stable enzymes can degrade food
• Bacteria, molds, and yeasts cause most food spoilage

Microbes and food

• Most nonsterile foods contain many types of microbes
• Spoiled foods have one or a few- that outgrew the others
(much more slowly than in laboratory conditions!)
– Aerobic foods: Pseudomonas
– Anaerobic foods: Lactobacillus or Leuconostoc
 Animal muscle tissue contains few bacteria
• Hide, hair, hooves, GI tract
– Hide removal
– Breaching GI tract
– Processing environment and tools
– Staphylococcus, Micrococcus,
Pseudomonas Scienceblogs.com

Poultry

• Skin, feathers, and feet

• Feces and litter from coops
• Potable water for chilling

Goldcoastcommodities.com
 Finfish and shellfish
• Water temperature and feeding patterns
– Warm vs cold
• Psychrotrophic vs mesophilic
microbes
– Bottom feeders, filter feeders (molluscs)
• Harvesting methods
– Trawling vs line caught
• Storage

Americanvision.org
 What kinds of microbes cause meat spoilage?

Common bacterial species Mechanisms

• Pseudomonas • Adherence (pili)
• Acinetobacter • Formation of glycocalyx
• Moraxella • Motility
• Micrococcus • Adaptation to temperature,
• Staphylococcus pH
• Shewanella in poultry
• Fungi
• Among others
 Recall types of microbes

Oxygen requirements Temperature optima

So different types of microbes can grow as conditions change

 Growth under storage conditions
• Microbes were intrinsic or introduced by processing
• Generally few species grow
– Aerobic conditions: Pseudomonas favored
– Vacuum packed: lactobacilli if low pH
– Bacillus and Shewanella can grow at higher pH
– Lowering aw reduces microbial growth

Meat, poultry, and fish are good food sources for microbes
• High aw
• Protein > lipids > carbohydrates
• Microbial metabolism will lower pH
• Slow cooling may favor the growth of anaerobes in deep tissue
• Fungi may grow if surface gets dry
• Fish vary in lipid content
• Molluscs have higher carbohydrate content and are spoiled by
fermenters
 Spoilage factors are diverse like the food environment
• Carbohydrates metabolized first, then lipids, then proteins (as
microbial count increases)
• Products from:
– Carbohydrates- carbon dioxide or fermentation products
– Lipids- aldehydes, ketones, short-chain fatty acids
– Proteins- amino acids, amines, short peptides
– Nonprotein nitrogenous compounds (usu. breakdown products
from lysed cells)
How does microbial metabolism adversely affect food?
• Volatile end products produce odor
• Oxidation of pigmented products can change color
• Breakdown of tissues by degradative enzymes can change
texture
• Production of dextran or sheer numbers can produce slime
• Water can be released (“purge”)
 Specific spoilage organisms: meats
• High protein, low carbohydrate
• High aw, pH tends to be acidic
• Aerobes: Pseudomonas (grows fast), expends glucose
• Acintobacter and Moraxella prefer to utilize amino acids
• Facultative anaerobes and anaerobes if oxygen is limited (vacuum-
packed meats)
• Comminuted (ground) meats spoil faster due to increased surface
area
Different issues with processed meats
Heat-resistant organisms
Introduced by handling
Preservatives often added
Lactobacillus
Leuconostoc
Amino acid metabolism
Putrefaction, odor, sliminess
Eggshells do not protect against microbial infection!
Eggs do have natural protection: lysozyme, alkaline pH,
chelators, protease inhibitors
Gram-negative motile rods green, black, red rots
Dried eggs not susceptible to spoilage

Pasteurization does not kill everything in milk

• Micrococcus, Enterococcus, and others can survive
• Pseudomonas, spore formers, and others can be introduced
afterward
• UHT (ultra high temperature, 150oC for a few seconds) is
essentially sterilized
• Concentrated milk products are heat treated
• Butter tends to be contaminated by yeasts and molds
 Fermented foods are not immune to spoilage

Generally yeasts and acidophilic bacteria

 Canned foods
Heat treated to kill microbes
Low acid: kill most spore formers
flat sour- no gas
thermophilic anaerobe-gas
sulfide stinker- gas and
discoloration
High acid: all vegetative bacteria
Refrigerated foods
• Psychrophilic and
psychrotrophic microbes
• Handling introduces
microbes
• Some pathogens can grow
at low temperatures
• With long storage, microbes
can increase to disease
causing levels
– Competitive advantages:
adaptation to cold. Low
O2, production of
bacteriocins
• Clostridium grow in vacuum-
packed foods
 2.2 and 2.3 Infection and Intoxication
Infection
– eating food contaminated with pathogens
Intoxication
– eating food contaminated with the toxins (poisons) formed by bacteria
– eating food contaminated with other biological or chemical toxins (poisons) X
Toxin-mediated infection
– Eating food contaminated with pathogens that grow in the body and form
toxins (poisons)
Infections Intoxication Toxin-mediated infection
Salmonella Staphylococcus aureus Clostridium perfringens
Shigella Clostridium botulinum Bacillus
E. coli Aspergillus Vibrio cholera
Yersinia Penicillin E. coli
Vibrio
Campylobacter jenuni
Listeria monocytogenes
 Food Poisoning Infection vs. Food Poisoning Intoxication
What’s the difference?

 Food infection : where the microorganism itself grows inside body and is
the source of symptoms.
 Food intoxication, where a chemical or natural toxin (often produced as a
by-product of bacteria present in the food - known as an exotoxin) causes
symptoms or illness.
 Most bacterial food poisonings are actually food infections.
 The symptoms of food infection and food intoxication are similar. Both
can produce food poisoning related symptoms, such as headaches,
vomiting, abdominal pain, cramps, diarrhea, dehydration, and so it is not
always clear which you are experiencing.
 Depending on the severity of your symptoms, or if you are a higher risk
person, (i.e. infant, child, elderly person, pregnant woman, or an already
ill person with weakened immune system - cancer, kidney disease,
diabetes etc.) the treatment for either will be the same – rest, light fluids
etc.
 Infection
Symptoms More prevalent symptoms include
diarrhea, stomach cramps, fever and
chills (fever and chills are rarer in an
intoxication).
With an infection, remember it is
the actual cells, or virus that is
causing your symptoms and it takes
time for the cells to reproduce and
start attacking your intestine or
other parts or your body as may be
the case for viruses.
Microorganims The most common microorganisms
responsible for food infections
include Salmonella, Campylobacter
jejuni, Listeria monocytogenes,
Shigella, Vibrio parahaemolyticus,
Norwalk Viruses, and Hepatitis A
Intoxication
More prevalent symptoms include
nausea and vomiting and the onset
time, or time between consumption
of food and first sign of symptoms, is
shorter.
This makes sense because essentially
you are experiencing a chemical
poisoning and your body tends to
react or respond quicker.
Depending on the amount of toxin
present and your body’s reaction,
you can experience symptoms in as
little as 2 hours after consumption.
The most common microorganisms
responsible for food intoxications
include Staphylococcus aureus,
Escherichia coli O157, Clostridium
perfigens, and Clostridium botulinum.
 Spoilage
•Meat
•Cutting board contamination General Principles
•Conveyor belts
•Temperature •Minimize contamination by:
•Failure to distribute quickly •Good management
•Fecal bacteria from intestines processes
•Fish
•Polluted waters •Acceptable sanitary
•Transportation boxes practices
•Poultry and Eggs
•Human contact •Rapid movement of food
•Penetration by bacteria through processing plant
•Milk and Dairy Products
•Lactobacillus and Streptococcus species •Well-tested preservation
that survive pasturization (sour milk) procedures
•Breads
•Spores and fungi that survive baking
•Grains
•Fungi produce toxins
Concepts:

 Food is any substance, usually composed primarily of carbohydrates, fats, water

and/or proteins, that can be eaten or drunk and metabolized by an human for
nutrition or pleasure.
 Microorganisms: bacteria, fungal, virus, some parasites (Protozoa)
 Food microorganisms: microorganisms found in the food – not all
microorganisms found in food will cause human health problems (illness, disease,
poisoning).
 Microorganisms found in food and can cause human health problems –
foodborne microorganism (foodborne bacteria, foodborne fungal, foodborne
viral)
 Pathogens: A pathogen (Greek: πάθος pathos, "suffering, passion" and γἰγνομαι
(γεν-) gignomai (gen-) "I give birth to") or infectious agent — colloquially, a
germ — is a microbe or microorganism such as a virus, bacterium, prion, or
fungus that causes disease in its human, animal or plant host. - An agent that
causes disease, especially a living microorganism such as a bacterium or fungus.
 Pathogens = pathogenic microorganisms
 Foodborne Pathogens = pathogenic microorganisms found in the food
 Foods can be contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms –
foodborne pathogens
 Foodborne disease: a disease caused by consuming
contaminated (foodborne pathogens) food or drink.
 Foodborne illness (also foodborne disease and colloquially
referred to as food poisoning) is any illness resulting from the
consumption of contaminated food, pathogenic bacteria, viruses,
or parasites that contaminate food, rather than chemical or natural
toxins.
 Definition of foodborne illness: Foodborne illnesses are defined
as diseases, usually either infectious or toxic in nature, caused by
agents that enter the body through the ingestion of food (WHO).
 Foodborne pathogens = causative agents for foodborne illness
or forborne disease.
 Foodborne illness or foodborne disease is colloquially referred to
as food poisoning..
 Incidences of foodborne illness or food poisoning in world wide – WHO
www.who.int

 The global incidence of foodborne disease is difficult to estimate, but it has been reported
that in 2005 alone 1.8 million people died from diarrheal diseases. A great proportion of
these cases can be attributed to contamination of food and drinking water. Additionally,
diarrhea is a major cause of malnutrition in infants and young children.

 In industrialized countries, the percentage of the population suffering from foodborne

diseases each year has been reported to be up to 30%. In the United States of America
(USA), for example, around 76 million cases of foodborne diseases, resulting in 325,000
hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths, are estimated to occur each year.

 While less well documented, developing countries bear the brunt of the problem due to the
presence of a wide range of foodborne diseases, including those caused by parasites. The
high prevalence of diarrheal diseases in many developing countries suggests major
underlying food safety problems.

 While most foodborne diseases are sporadic and often not reported, foodborne disease
outbreaks may take on massive proportions. For example, in 1994, an outbreak of
salmonellosis due to contaminated ice cream occurred in the USA, affecting an estimated
224,000 persons. In 1988, an outbreak of hepatitis A, resulting from the consumption of
contaminated clams, affected some 300,000 individuals in China.
Others

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that in the United States, 1
in 6 people becomes sick from eating contaminated food.

In 2001, the CDC estimated that food poisoning causes about 48 million illnesses, 128,000
hospitalizations, and up to 3,000 deaths each year.

Norovirus and Salmonella are the most common infectious forms of food-borne illness.
Salmonella causes the most deaths followed by Toxoplasma and Listeria

Worldwide, diarrheal illnesses are among the leading causes of death. Travelers to
developing countries often encounter food poisoning in the form of traveler's diarrhea or
"Montezuma's revenge." Additionally, there are possible new global threats to the world's
food supply through terrorist actions using food toxins as weapons.

Increased virulence of known pathogens has caused deadly outbreaks such as the E. coli
STEC outbreak in Germany in 2011.

More than 250 known diseases can be transmitted through food. The CDC estimates
unknown or undiscovered agents cause 68% of all food-borne illnesses and related
hospitalizations. Many cases of food poisoning are not reported because people suffer mild
symptoms and recover quickly. Also, doctors do not test for a cause in every suspected case
because it does not change the treatment or the outcome.
Major foodborne diseases from microorganisms – WHO

1. Salmonellosis is a major problem in most countries. Salmonellosis is caused by

the Salmonella bacteria and symptoms are fever, headache, nausea, vomiting,
abdominal pain and diarrhea. Examples of foods involved in outbreaks of
salmonellosis are eggs, poultry and other meats, raw milk and chocolate.

2. Campylobacteriosis is a widespread infection. It is caused by certain species of

Campylobacter bacteria and in some countries, the reported number of cases
surpasses the incidence of salmonellosis. Foodborne cases are mainly caused by
foods such as raw milk, raw or undercooked poultry and drinking water. Acute
health effects of campylobacteriosis include severe abdominal pain, fever, nausea
and diarrhea. In two to ten per cent of cases the infection may lead to chronic
health problems, including reactive arthritis and neurological disorders.

3. Infections due to enterohaemorrhagic (causing intestinal bleeding) E. coli, e.g.

E.coli O157, and listeriosis are important foodborne diseases which have
emerged over the last decades. Although their incidence is relatively low, their
severe and sometimes fatal health consequences, particularly among infants,
children and the elderly, make them among the most serious foodborne
infections.
4. Cholera is a major public health problem in developing countries, also causing
enormous economic losses. The disease is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.
In addition to water, contaminated foods can be the vehicle of infection. Different
foods, including rice, vegetables, millet gruel and various types of seafood have
been implicated in outbreaks of cholera. Symptoms, including abdominal pain,
vomiting and profuse watery diarrhea, may lead to severe dehydration and possibly
death, unless fluid and salt are replaced.

Salmonella - Salmonellosis Campylobacter- Campylobacteriosis E. coli - enterohaemorrhagic

Listeria - Listeriosis Vibrio cholerae - Cholera

Costs of foodborne diseases

Food contamination creates an enormous social and economic burden on

communities and their health systems. In the USA, diseases caused by the major
pathogens alone are estimated to cost up to US $35 billion annually (1997) in
medical costs and lost productivity. The re-emergence of cholera in Peru in 1991
resulted in the loss of US $500 million in fish and fishery product exports that
year.

Two types of diseases which result from foodborne pathogenic

microorganisms

1. Foodborne infection is caused by the ingestion of food containing live

foodborne pathogens which grow and establish themselves in the human
intestinal tract.

2. Foodborne intoxication is caused by ingesting food containing toxins formed

by foodborne pathogens which resulted from the bacterial growth in the food
item. The live microorganism does not have to be consumed.
 From intake of foodborne pathogens
containing food to occurring illness
(food poisoning)
For a foodborne illness (poisoning) to
occur, the following conditions must be
present:

1. The microorganism or its toxin must

be present in food.

2. The food must be suitable for the

microorganism to grow.

3. The temperature must be suitable for

the microorganism to grow.

4. Enough time must be given for the

microorganism
to grow (and to produce a toxin).

5. The food must be eaten.

Food Poisoning Symptoms

Symptoms of food poisoning depend on the type of contaminant and the amount
eaten. The symptoms can develop rapidly, within 30 minutes, or slowly, worsening
over days to weeks. Most of the common contaminants cause:

Nausea

Vomiting

Diarrhea

Abdominal cramping

Fever

Usually food poisoning is not serious, and the illness runs its course in 24-48 hours.
Food poisoning is a common, usually mild, but sometimes deadly
illness.

Typical symptoms include nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramping,

and diarrhea that occur suddenly (within 48 hours) after consuming a
contaminated food or drink.

Depending on the contaminant, fever and chills, bloody stools,

dehydration, and nervous system damage may follow.

These symptoms may affect one person or a group of people who ate
the same thing (called an outbreak).
Food Poisoning Causes

The known causes of food poisoning can be divided into two categories:
infectious agents and toxic agents.

1. Infectious agents include viruses, bacteria, and parasites.

2. Toxic agents include poisonous mushrooms, improperly prepared exotic

foods (such as barracuda - ciguatera toxin), or pesticides on fruits and
vegetables.

Food usually becomes contaminated from poor sanitation or preparation.

Food handlers who do not wash their hands after using the bathroom or
have infections themselves often cause contamination. Improperly
packaged food stored at the wrong temperature also promotes
contamination.