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Seismology
1. Focal mechanisms – double couple source model
2. Magnitude and seismic moment
3. The energy released by earthquakes
4. Imaging the Earth’s internal structure
Stress and Strain
The theory of elasticity relates the forces applied to the external surface of a body to the
resulting changes in size and shape.
𝜎𝜎 = 𝐴𝐴𝐹𝐹 σ xx σ xy σ xz
Shear stress
σ = σ yx σ yy σ yz components
σ σ σ
zx zy zz
Normal stress
components
𝑥𝑥 δ𝑥𝑥
0 L M
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
εxx = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑢 δ𝑥𝑥 + δ𝑢𝑢
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
0 L’ M’
𝐿𝐿′ 𝑀𝑀′ − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
=
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝜕𝜕𝑈𝑈𝑖𝑖
Elementary strain is : εij =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Elastic constants
Rocks usually rupture at strains ~10-3 – 10-4
In our Cartesian coordinate system our 9 components of stress, σij, are each related to 9
components of strain, εij, by 81 coefficients.
Anti-symmetric combinations of eij above yield simple rotations of the body without
changing its shape:
1 𝜕𝜕𝑈𝑈𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
e.g., ( − ) yields rotation about the 'y' axis.
2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
So, the case of = is called pure shear strain (no rotation)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
The changes in dimensions given by the normal strains (i=j), result in volume changes
when a body is stressed. The relative volume change during deformation is called the
dilatation:
∆ = ∇ ⋅ U = ε xx + ε yy + ε zz
Elastic constants
Further, for and isotropic media, the stress/strain relation is described by only 2 coefficients:
λ, μ ‒ Lamé’s constants
𝟐𝟐
• Bulk modulus (k = λ + μ) and Shear modulus (μ) - quantify the material’s resistance
𝟑𝟑
to changes in volume and to shearing deformation, respectively.
An experiment for
determining Young's
modulus and h
F
Poisson's ratio
A
h- ∆h l
l+∆l
∂ 2U
ρ 2 = (λ + µ )∇∆ + µ∇ 2U
∂t
Equations of motion
∂ 2U
ρ 2 = µ∇ 2U
∂t
µ
vS =
ρ
Equations of motion
Assuming that U is free of rotation (compressional wave) and using the same identity,
∂ 2U
ρ 2 = (λ + 2µ )∇ 2U
∂t
λ + 2µ
vP =
ρ
Equations of motion
λ + 2µ µ λ, μ > 0 → Vp > Vs
vP = vS =
ρ ρ
Vp Vs ρ
Examples of seismic (km/s) (km/s) (kg/m3)
velocities and physical
properties of different Fresh water at 25oC 1.509 0.0 1000
materials and rocks are Granite 5.1 2.79 2665
given by Press (1966) in (at 10 bars)
the “Handbook of Physical Eclogite 7.31 4.26 3441
Properties” (at 10 bars)
(S.P. Clark, Ed.).
Dunite 7.0 4.01 3264
(at 10 bars)
Propagation of elastic waves
∂ 2 u (λ + 2 µ ) ∂ 2 u 2 ∂ u
2
= = vP 2 The displacement u in the propagation direction x
∂t 2 ρ ∂x 2 ∂x
moves with the P-wave velocity and the
∂ 2v µ ∂ 2v 2 ∂ v
2
= = vS 2 displacement v (and w), perpendicular to the
∂t 2 ρ ∂x 2 ∂x
propagation direction move with the S-wave
∂2w µ ∂2w 2 ∂ w
2
velocity.
= = vS
∂t 2 ρ ∂x 2 ∂x 2
y
Plane waves
S-wave travelling
in positive x-
z direction.
Propagation of elastic waves
at an interface separating two homogeneous media the ratio between the sine of
the incidence angle and the velocity for a given ray is constant, equal to the ray
parameter, p:
sin i
p=
v
The ray path of a P-wave in a medium with velocity increasing linearly with depth.
When the velocity is constant there is no change of the incidence angle and the ray path
is a straight line.
v( z ) = v 0 + gz
sin i0 sin i ( z )
p= =
v0 v( z )
Surface waves
Rayleigh wave - rolls along the ground (‘ground roll’)
Particle motion
consists of elliptical
motion in the vertical
plane and parallel to
the direction of
propagation.
http://bc.outcrop.org
Surface waves
The velocity at which surface waves depends on their wavelength:
, 2π 2π 2πf ω
v( x, z ) ∝ exp(iκ ( x − ct )) κ= = = =
λ cT c c
Long period waves, as they penetrate deeply into the Earth travel at higher velocities;
short period waves travel at slower velocities
Seismology - introduction
The first half of the 20th century a basic understanding of the gross subdivision of the
inner earth was established :
~ 1900 - modern earthquake seismology started to develop
1906 - San Francisco earthquake - observed world wide in America, Japan and Europe
(including the Uppsala seismograph installed in 1904)
1909 - Mohorovicic discovered the crust-mantle interface
1914 - Gutenberg determined the depth to the fluid core
1934- Lehman discovered the inner solid core.
Gutenberg and Richter developed two magnitudes for application to distant earthquakes:
mb (body wave)– measured using the first five seconds of a teleseismic (distant) P-wave. The scale
gives a good estimate of the elastic energy release for magnitudes between 3 to 7.
MS (surface wave)– scale for shallow earthquakes using Rayleigh waves in the 20 sec period range.
This scale gives a good estimate of the elastic energy release for magnitudes between 5 to 8.5.
Magnitude and seismic moment
Seismic moment (M0) - a measure of the size of an EQ based on the area of fault rupture, the
average amount of slip, and the force that was required to overcome the friction sticking the rocks
together that were offset by faulting.
Moment = μ A S
μ = shear modulus
A = LW = area
S = average displacement during rupture
Magnitude and seismic moment
Seismic Moment = µ S A
S = average displacement or slip during fault rupture - estimated from observed surface
displacements or from displacements on the fault plane reconstructed from instrumental or
geodetic modeling
Magnitude and seismic moment
MW - magnitude scale based on seismic moment (Moment magnitude)
- calculated from seismic moment using the relation of Hanks and Kanamori (1979)
- works over a wider range of earthquake sizes
- based on the total moment release of the earthquake
Magnitude Summary
S or Surface
Local (Richter) ML 0.8 s
Wave*
Body-Wave mb P 1s
Surface-Wave Ms Rayleigh 20 s
Rupture Area,
Moment Mw > 100 s
Slip
*at the distances appropriate for local magnitude, either the S-wave or the
surface waves generally produce the largest vibrations.
The energy released by earthquakes
the total elastic energy released by an earthquake:
W = σ shear As = 12 (σ shear
before
+ σ shear
after
) As
, where the average shear stress is taken to be the average before and after the earthquake
A large part of the stored elastic energy is converted into frictional heat:
H = σ friction As
, where the frictional shear stress is the minimum stress required to initiate sliding
The difference between W and H makes up the radiated elastic energy, i.e. THE SEISMIC
ENERGY RELEASE, E :
E = W − H = (σ shear − σ friction ) As
σ shear
after
≈ σ friction E = (σ shear − σ friction ) As = 12 ∆σ shear As
Developed by the IRIS Consortium, U.S. Geological Survey, University of Colorado, and Reel Illusions Inc
Imaging the Earth’s internal structure
By studying the
propagation of
waves, we are able
to estimate Earth’s
internal structure.
Seismic raypaths -
used to determine
the Earth structure.
Partial cross section of the Earth showing major layer boundaries, app. P-wave seismic velocities
(Vp), and app. ray path for P- and S-waves from a shallow earthquake to a seismograph at about
18 degrees (~2000 km) distance.
Imaging the Earth’s internal structure