Heat Distortion

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When metals are heated, they expand. The amount of expansion to be expected is well
defined in most cases as the coefficient of thermal expansion is a commonly reported
physical property for most engineering materials.

Thermal expansion, or the failure to properly account for the same, is a leading cause for
the failure of thermal processing equipment. Temperature differentials and localized
heating can affect structures in several ways.

During fabrication by welding it is important to

distribute heat as evenly as possible to prevent
distortion. Welding consecutive tacks will cause the
joint to close. Tacks should be staggered over the
joint to reduce distortion. A similar approach is
necessary when making circumferential welds.

The amount of growth due to thermal expansion can

be surprising to those not familiar with designing high temperature equipment. A four foot
long piece of 310 stainless will expand nearly 7/8” while going from room temperature to
1800° F. This metal will go somewhere and its growth must be accounted for or it will cause
buckling, structural distortion or cracking of welds. Austenitic stainless alloys expand at
nearly twice the rate of low alloy steels and at four times the rate of ceramics. These
differences in thermal expansion can create large tensile or compressive stresses when the
materials are combined for use in a cyclic thermal environment.
Another consideration is that heating and cooling is usually not
uniform. Uneven temperatures (or thermal gradients) create
stresses within the metal itself, and these stresses will create
distortion. Repeated cycling through thermal gradients can also
result in thermal fatigue cracking. The poor thermal conductivity of
stainless steels contributes to larger thermal gradients. Another
common example of thermal gradient induced distortion is that the
hot side of a piece of metal will usually become concave when it is
cooled to room temperature. Thermal gradients of as little as 200°
F from one side of a plate to the other are sufficient to create
stresses that can exceed the yield strength of the material. Under
cyclic conditions, the distortion will become a little more severe with each cycle. Using
higher strength alloys, which permit thinner cross sections, can reduce distortion due to
thermal gradients.

Distortion of components from heating can also arise from the relief of residual internal
stresses. When mill products are produced, they are straightened or flattened after
annealing. These residual stresses are what keep them straight and flat. There may also be
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residual stresses from fabrication. Once the components are exposed to elevated
temperature, these stresses can be relieved and distortion may result. This type of
distortion may be minimized in service by heating the component to about 100° F above
the maximum operating temperature and re-sizing or straightening before placing into
service.

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