DESIGN OF MEDIUM AND HIGH VOLTAGE RECTIFIERS WITH

AVALANCHE DIODES

Clovis N. L. Gajo, Ricardo A. Prado

SEMIKRON Semicondutores Ltda. – Field Application Engineering (FAE)
Av. Inocêncio Seráfico, 6300 – CEP 06366-900
Carapicuíba – SP, BRAZIL
e-mail: clovis.gajo@semikron.com, ricardo.prado@semikron.com

Abstract – The purpose of this document is to discuss
the design of medium and high voltage rectifiers with
avalanche diodes, pointing out advantages and
disadvantages, critical steps and details about them.
Keywords – Avalanche, Diode, High voltage, Series
Connection.
NOMENCLATURE
form a N type type semiconductor with abundance of free
electrons. When those dopped materials are joined, those free
charges of opposite polarity moved close to the junction
between them and an electrical field is formed. This region
became free of free charges and is called depletion region:
Electrical field

VBR Breakdown Voltage

PRSM Maximum reverse power dissipation

I. INTRODUCTION

Although many new power semiconductor devices and

Depletion
converter topologies have been introduced on recent years, N Region
P
the basic rectifier continues to be the silicon p-n diode, used
in both new and older topologies. The silicon p-n rectifier
was not static, though, and currently there are types capable
of much higher current, voltage and blocking speed than the Fig. 1. Representation of a p-n junction, showing positive and
originally available devices. negative ions (+ and – inside circles), free electrons and holes
(carriers; not circled - and + signs), the electrical field and the
This paper addresses one particular type of silicon p-n
depletion region, which has no free electrons or holes.
junction diode, the controlled avalanche rectifier, why it
should be used in medium and high voltage rectifiers instead
The depletion region width grows when reverse polarized
of other types, its main characteristics and how to design
and reduces when direct polarized, effectively blocking
rectifiers with it.
almost all the current flow when reverse polarized and
allowing it when direct polarized. The different behavior
II. THE p-n JUNCTION SILICON DIODE
according to polarizing bias allows the use of p-n junction
diodes as rectifiers.
The diode was the first electronic device, initially in
thermionic (vacuum tube) versions and after in solid state /
semiconductor versions based on cuprous oxide (Cu2O), Electrical field
selenium (Se), germanium (Ge), silicon (Si), gallium
arsenide (GaAs), gallium nitride (GaN), silicon carbide
(SiC) and others. The p-n junction silicon diode is the
currently most used type for power rectification and its basic
theory and current-voltage characteristics were established
by W. Shockley. This theory was after extendend by C.T.
Sah, R.N. Noyce and W. Shockley and further extended by
J.L. Moll [1].
Depletion
Semiconductors are materials that, as implied in their
denomination, have intermediate characteristics between
N Region
P
conductors/metals and isolants; their typical resistivity lays
between 10 and 1000 Ω.cm while metals have resistivities
lower than 10-6 Ω.cm and isolants higher than 1010 Ω.cm. To Fig. 2. Impact ionization, also called Avalanche multiplication; free
allow their use as diodes they are dopped with impurities like electrons are accelerated by the electric field, impacting with atoms
boron (B) to form a P type semiconductor with positive and freeing more electrons.
“holes” (lack of electrons) in silicon and phosphorus (P) to

978-1-5090-6248-5/17/$31.00 ©2017 IEEE

 The reverse bias has a voltage limit though; the electrical small increases on voltage. Its reverse behavior is similar to
field grows when reverse polarized until the silicon dielectric the found on voltage reference diodes, as expected, because
strength is reached and so can break down if further voltage higher voltage reference diodes are also based on the
increase is applied. Silicon can bear electrical fields up to avalanche multiplication effect.
0,2x106 to 106 before breaking down. When that occurs free The instantaneous power dissipated over the diodes on
carriers are generated, accelerated to high speeds when that condition can be very high, specially when high voltage
passing by the depletion region by the electric field, diodes are used; there is a limit on the reverse pulse period
impacting with the crystal atoms, freeing more carriers with that is allowed, as show below:
the impact and so on, thus resulting in high reverse current
flow by the diode junction. This effect is known as impact 10000
SKNa26.xls-11
10000
ionization, although it is more usually called avalanche SKNa 26
W W
multiplication or avalanche effect. It is a very fast
PRSM
phenomenon and so, when properly designed for it, diodes
1000 1000
that can work on this state can be used to limit voltage rise
over more sensitive devices, effectively protecting them
against voltage transients.
Avalanche multiplication is not the only motive that can 100 100
lead to junction breakdown, there are other important effects
like thermal instability (or thermal runaway) and also the
quantum tunneling effect, which is the predominant reverse 10 PRRM 10
breakdown mode on zener diodes up to 5.6 volts. The PRSM PRRM
quantum tunneling effect is also known as Zener effect.
1 1
III. THE CONTROLLED AVALANCHE DIODE 0,000001 t 0,0001 0,01 1
s
100

When reverse voltage reachs the limit of standard rectifier

diodes and avalanche breakdown occurs it will probably lead
to catastrophic failure unless the reverse flowing current is
limited to low values by external devices. This is not the
case on Avalanche diodes, which get their name from the
avalanche multiplication effect because they are designed to
break down at a defined reverse voltage and operate at least
for some time with high levels of reverse current without
being damaged.
I only until 5.6 V and so any “zener” diode above that voltage
Fig. 4. Curve of maximum allowed reverse power dissipation
(PRSM) vs. pulse time of a 25 A, 1700 V avalanche diode [4].
There are 2 main types of avalanche diodes; the rectifier
type, which is designed to conduct mainly in the forward
direction even being able to bear very high reverse energy
pulses for short periods, and the voltage reference types
above 5.6 volts which are intended to continuous conduct
reverse power at lower levels; the later are usually called
zener diodes, although being in fact avalanche diodes, as the
quantum tunneling effect from real zener diodes is prevalent
is an avalanche diode.

Forward

VBR

V
Avalanche

Standard
diode

Reverse
diode

Fig. 3. Comparison between the reverse bias behavior of Avalanche

Fig. 5. 350 A, 4500 V single chip controlled avalanche rectifier
and Standard rectifier diodes. Avalanche diodes show almost no
diode [4].
leakage current till breakdown, and a steeply rise after that.
It is important to note that the breakdown voltage (VBR) of
Avalanche diodes show almost no reverse leakage current
avalanche rectifier diodes is usually specified as a minimum
until the reverse voltage over them reaches the breakdown
value and so can occur at higher voltages than indicated.
point; after that the reverse current grows fast, with very
These diodes cannot be directly used as voltage reference
diodes.
Both breakdown voltage and current leakage (at voltage
levels below breakdown voltage) varies according to
temperature.
VBR has positive temperature coefficient and so
breakdown voltage increases with temperature.
A measurement on avalanche diodes with VBR of about
5300 V @ 25°C showed an average increase of 14% when
measured at 160°C, as show in table below:
Avalanche Diode VBR (V) @ 25°C VBR (V) @ 160°C
SKNa 22/50 5314 6150
SKNa 47/50 5307 6050
SKNa 102/50 5409 6120
SKNa 202/50 5335 6017
SKNa 402/50 5359 6129
Leakage current, conversely, increases with temperature,
typically doubling its value by each 12...14 K.
Controlled avalanche rectifier diodes are recommended
for applications where high energy reverse pulses can occur,
like on power supplies for solenoids (e.g.: magnets, motor
brakes and motor fields). As usual with “zener” diodes, the
avalanche rectifier diodes can also be connected in series to
form higher voltage diodes to use in applications like high
voltage test supplies, X-Ray power supplies, dust
precipitators and others.
Fig. 6. 2.5 A, 8000 V controlled avalanche rectifier diode
composed by 7 avalanche p-n diode chips connected in series in a
single case [4].
IV. DIODES IN SERIES CONNECTION
A typical application of avalanche diodes is to build
higher voltage diodes formed by series connection of discrete
avalanche diodes or by connecting various avalanche chips in
series inside a single case.
The fact that avalanche diodes can be used in series on
most cases without sharing devices like resistors or
capacitors, allow easy assembly of those higher voltage
devices or assemblies, although precautions must be taken
when designing the series connection. The main points are
the following ones:
A. Diode Voltage and Quantity for Series Connection.
To avoid excessive reverse power, and consequent
damage of the diodes, the repetitive reverse peak voltage that
will be applied must be considered and divided across the
diodes in series connection. Besides that, a safety margin
should be applied.
For sinusoidal waveforms the repetitive peak voltage is
equal to:
𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 × √2 (1)
Where Vpeak is the repetitive peak voltage and Vrms is the
input alternate voltage.
It is necessary to use a safety factor of at least 2 above the
repetitive peak voltage when there are no diodes in series and
at least 10% more when diodes are connected in series. So
the formula will be as below when diodes without series
connection are used:
𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑀 ≥ 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 × √2 × 𝑆𝑓 (2)
where VRRM is the repetitive reverse voltage of the applied
diode (datasheet value), Vrms is the input alternating voltage
and Sf is the applied safety factor.
The safety factor of 2 is the minimum recommended;
factors of 2.5 to 3 or even more can be used on critical
applications. The safety factor can also be changed when the
expected voltage transients or surges on a particular
application are known or can be estimated.
When diodes are used in series, the formula will be as
below:
𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑀 × 𝑛 ≥ 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 × √2 × 𝑆𝑓 × 1.1 (3)
Where Vdiodes is the total reverse voltage of the connected
diodes, VRRM is the repetive reverse voltage of the used
diode, n is the quantity of diodes connected in series, Vrms is
the input alternating voltage and Sf is the applied safety
factor.
The formula also can be used to determine the minimum
quantity of diodes in the series connection:
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ×√2×𝑆𝑓×1.1
𝑛≥ (4)
𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑀
The repetitive peak voltage over each diode, if all diodes
were identical, would be:
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ×√2
𝑉𝐷𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = (5)
𝑛
Where VDpeak is the repetive peak voltage over each diode of
the series connection.
 DIODE
𝑭𝒇 𝑭𝟐𝒇
WAVEFORM
sin 180 π/2 π²/4
rect 180 √𝟐 2
rect 120 √𝟑 3
rect 60 √𝟔 6

𝑃𝐹𝐴𝑉 = 𝑉𝐹0 . 𝐼𝐹𝐴𝑉 + 𝑟𝐹 . 𝐹𝑓2 . 𝐼𝐹𝐴𝑉

2
(8)

Power dissipation from formula above can be used,

together with ambient temperature (T amb), device termal
resistances (RTH(J-C) and RTH(C-S)) and heatsink thermal
resistance (RTH(S-A)) to estimate the operation junction
temperature or to correct dimension the required heatsink [3].
Fig. 7. Stack with series connection of 180 avalanche diodes of
20 A, 5000 V each inside its transport package. The stack is
C. Repetitive Reverse Dynamic Pulses
equivalent to a 810 kV diode.
Although on well designed series connections the diodes
will have no significant repetitive reverse high current
Of course, as there are differences from diode to diode,
pulses, they still can have to bear those pulses due to the
the voltage will not be evenly distributed between diodes, so
different reverse recovery times of each diode. Slower diodes
the VDpeak value calculated as above is only an average value.
will take more time to block the reverse current when
Diodes with lower leakage will have higher reverse voltage
polarity is reversed, inducing the rising voltage on the faster
between their anode and cathode terminals than diodes with
diodes that are already starting to block the reverse current.
higher leakage values. However, the maximum voltage over
As only part of the diodes will be blocking, they probably
each diode will be limited by its avalanche breakdown
will reach the breakdown voltage and will start to conduct
voltage (VBR), and this is one of the main motives that allow
high reverse current, simultaneously with VBR voltage levels.
the series connection of avalanche diodes without voltage
sharing resistors.
The exposed issue is not significant at steady state or at
The reverse current over the series connection will be at
low frequency applications, although can be a problem for
leakage levels (µA or mA) unless a voltage spike pass the
other cases, and so its effect must be evaluated.
sum of all VBR from the connection, leading all diodes to
avalanche breakdown and so allowing high reverse current
flow through all of them. Even with high reverse current
flowing, the avalanche diodes can survive, if their reverse
power dissipation (PRSM) vs. time limit is not exceeded (see IF trr
figure 4). di/dt

B. Forward Conduction Losses

Avalanche rectifier diodes behave like any rectifier diode t
on forward conduction, and the way to determine their
IRM
forward losses is the standard one. The method, using
datasheets, is below:
VF
2
𝑃𝐹𝐴𝑉 = 𝑉𝐹0 . 𝐼𝐹𝐴𝑉 + 𝑟𝐹 . 𝐼𝐹𝑅𝑀𝑆 (6) t
Where PFAV is the average forward power dissipation, VF0 is VR
the threshold voltage, IFAV is the mean forward current per PRmax
diode arm, rF is the On-state slope resistance and IFRMS is the
RMS on-state current per diode arm. VF0 and rF are datasheet
values. Fig. 8. Typical reverse recovery curves of a p-n diode.

As the form factor from standard rectifier waveforms is Unfortunately most datasheets from high power avalanche
easy to find or calculate, the formula can be modified to use diodes do not have detailed reverse recovery data; the only
it to calculate IFRMS from IFAV, leaving only one value of the value supplied is the maximum recovery charge Qrr and its
current through diode: measurement conditions (IF, -diF/dt and TJ), and so it should
be used in the evaluation [2]. The minimum Qrr is usually
𝐼𝐹𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝐹𝑓 = (7) not supplied, and although the minimum should be close to
𝐼𝐹𝐴𝑉
zero, it is reasonable to consider it as half of the maximum With tp and PRS estimated, they can be compared with the
Qrr for this evaluation. limits from diode PRSM vs. time curve (e.g.: figure 4) if the
Qrr value is equivalent to the reverse area delimited by expected pulse is still inside the allowed reverse pulse power.
IRM and trr on figures 8 and 9. As di/dt should be known from The PRS calculated this way is only a estimate of the real
the application, and Qrr area is close to a triangle, the value; it is recommended to use some safety margin above it.
following formula can be used for trr: If diode PRSM is above estimated PRS, it means that the
diodes can cope with the reverse power resulting from Qrr
𝑄𝑟𝑟 ×2 unbalancing and can safely be used in the application.
𝑡𝑟𝑟 = √ 𝑑𝑖 (9)
𝑑𝑡
If estimated PRS is above chosen diode PRSM, it will be
necessary to use diodes able to bear higher power reverse
pulses or capacitors for dynamic voltage sharing (installed in
parallel with each diode of the series connection).
I
IF
trr2
di/dt trr1

Qrr1 t
IRM1 Qrr2

IRM2
tp

Fig. 9. Overlapped and simplified reverse recovery curves of two

diodes with different Qrr for PRS estimation.
If we also consider, for this estimation, that the Qrr area
will be simetrical, similar to an isosceles triangle, the
following formula can be used to determine IRM:
𝑑𝑖 𝑡𝑟𝑟
𝐼𝑅𝑀 = × (10)
𝑑𝑡 2
As shown on figure 8, the period between the peak reverse
current (IRM) and diode recovery (end of trr) is when
maximum reverse power is dissipated over the diode,
because both high reverse current and high reverse voltage
are simultaneously present over it. Changing to figure 9,
which shows a simplified diagram of the reverse recovery of
two diodes with different Qrr, it is reasonable to conclude
that the faster diode (D1) will have high power over it from
its reverse current peak (IRM1) until slower diode (D2)
recover (end of trr2), and the reverse pulse period over D1
will be:
Fig. 10. Schematics of a 3Ø rectifier using 24 avalanche diodes.
Each diode is composed by a series connection of 4 diodes.
V. CONCLUSION
The main advantages of avalanche diodes over standard
rectifier diodes are their sturdiness against high power
reverse pulses and the sharp limit of their breakdown voltage,
with very low leakage current below that voltage level.
The voltage limit provided by the sharp avalanche
breakdown, associated with their ability to survive to high
energy reverse pulses and the speed which the breakdown
occurs allow series connection of those diodes for high
voltage applications without any sharing devices on the
majority of cases, greatly improving the reliability due to the
simple arrangement.
ACKNOLEDGEMENTS

𝑡𝑟𝑟1 The authors thank Alexandre Sansigolo Lujan for his

𝑡𝑃 = 𝑡𝑟𝑟2 − (11)
2 work with the SKNa series of 5000 V avalanche diodes.
That work was the inspiration for this paper.
𝑄𝑟𝑟1 ×2
√ 𝑑𝑖
𝑄𝑟𝑟2 ×2 𝑑𝑡 REFERENCES
𝑡𝑝 = √ 𝑑𝑖 − (12)
2
𝑑𝑡
[1] S. M. Sze, Physics of Semiconductor Devices, John
The average dissipated power on the faster diode due to Wiley & Sons, 2nd Edition, New York, 1981.
the reverse pulse, considering the reverse current during [2] Barry W Williams, Principles and Elements of POWER
recover and constant voltage VBR over the diode, will be: ELECTRONICS. Devices, Drivers, Applications, and
Passive Components, published by Barry W Williams,
𝑉𝐵𝑅 2006 - ISBN 978-0-9553384-0-3
𝑃𝑅𝑆 = × ((𝐼𝑅𝑀2 + 𝐼𝑅𝑀1 ) × (𝑡𝑟𝑟2 − 𝑡𝑟𝑟1 ) + 𝐼𝑅𝑀2 × 𝑡𝑟𝑟2 ) (13)
4×𝑡𝑝
[3] A. Wintrich, U. Nicolai, W. Tursky, T. Reimann,
Application Manual Power Semiconductors,
SEMIKRON International, 2015
[4] Avalanche diode datasheets; SKNa 26, SKNa 402 and
SKHE 3500. SEMIKRON International.