Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

Space frames

I. Basic concepts.
The design of a building is generally accomplished by considering the structure as an assemblage
of planar frames, each of which is designed as an independent two-dimensional frame. In some
instances however, it is necessary to consider the building as a whole and design it as a three-
dimensional structure.
In a most general way of speaking the term space frame indicates three dimensional structure
capable of resisting loads in different planes.
Displacements in a space structure may occur in six directions: a displacement in x, y and z
directions and a rotation about x, y and z axes. The sign convention for displacements is shown in
Fig. 1a. The arrows indicate the positive directions of the displacement components, and, using
the right hand screw system, rotations are considered positive when acting clockwise as viewed
from the origin. A total of six displacement components define the positive restraints in a fixed
support given in Fig. 1b.

a) z b) Rz
φz Mz

y Ry
φx φy Mx My
x Rx
Figure 1 Sign convention: a) Displacements; b) Reactions

1. Support reactions.
A three dimensional structure is externally determinate when six external restraints are applied to
the structure, since the reactions in these restraints may be determined by the available six
equations of static equilibrium. The six equations of statics, which may be applied at any point of
the structure and at each support, are:
ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣFz = 0,
ΣM x = 0, ΣM y = 0, ΣM z = 0.

1.1 Space frame supports.

Space frames are connected to their foundation using four different types of supports:
1) A spherical movable support;
2) A spherical roller support;
3) A spherical fixed support;
4) A fixed support.

The spherical movable support consists of two flat parallel slabs with a ball in between (Fig. 2).
This type of support allows rotation about all the three axes, as well as the displacements along
any direction in xy plane. Only the displacements along z- axis are prevented. Thus, only one
vertical reaction arises in this support, along the direction of z- axis.

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

y Rz
x

Figure 2 Spherical movable support

The second type of support consists of two rockers, with a ball inserted in their sockets. The
lower rocker lie on ribs (rollers) set on a flat slab as shown in Fig. 3.

y
x Rz
Rx
z z

y x
Figure 3 Spherical roller support

This type of supports permits free rotation about axes, passing through the centre of the ball and a
longitudinal displacement in a direction perpendicular to the roller axes. It prevents displacement
along two directions one being perpendicular to the plane of the roller axes and the other parallel
to their axes. Two reactions Rx and Ry develop at support of this type (Fig. 3).

The spherical fixed support consists of a pair of similar rockers with a ball, but no rollers, so that
the upper rocker can only rotate about any axes passing through the centre of the ball, but cannot
move in any direction. A support of this type imposes three constraints, respectively three
reactions Rx, Ry and Rz may develop. The spherical fixed support is illustrated in Fig. 4.

z
Ry
y
x Rz
Rx

Figure 4 Spherical fixed support

The fixed support which imposes six constraints can be applied only in case of space cantilever,
as shown in Fig. 5, in other case the structure will become statically indeterminate.

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

F
Mx
Rx
My Ry
z Rz
y
x Mz

Figure 5 Space cantilever

The minimum number of constraints necessary to maintain a body in a fixed position is always
equal to the number of equilibrium equations, six for the case of space structures. If the structure
restrained with six spherical movable supports does not constitute an unchangeable system the
supports should be modified properly, or if the modification is impossible the supports must be
increased properly.
The six constraints of a body should be arranged in such a way to prevent displacements along
the three axes x, y and z, and to prevent rotation of the structure as a free body about any axis of
the space. Although the supports impose six constraints it may happen that one part of the
structure will have redundant constraints and will become statically indeterminate, while the
other will retain one or more degrees of freedom. An example of faulty distribution of the support
constraints is given in Fig. 6.

a) b)

C C C C
z
D
y D
x
D D

Ay A B Ay A B

Az B Az B
Ax Ax
Figure 6 Space frame with six spherical movable supports: a) Faulty distribution of the supports;
b) Correct distribution forming unyielding combination.

The displacements of joint A are fully restricted, which means that the translations of the
structure as a free body in three directions are prevented. The rotations about x- axis with origin
at point A is restricted by the support of point B, the rotation about y- axis is constrained by the
support at point C, the rotation about z- axis is prevented again by the support at point C (Fig.
6a). If we consider the axis formed by joints A and C all the support reactions intersect this axis,

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

therefore the rotation of the structure along the axis into consideration is allowed. It could be
guess in advance that the part of the frame between points A and D is statically indeterminate,
because the extension or flexion of this part is not allowed, thus any other part will retain one
degree of freedom. The rotation about axis AD, will be restricted if the spherical movable support
at point D being rotated as shown in Fig. 6b.
Based on this example it can be concluded that the support reactions must form at least three
couples of forces in three different non coincident and non parallel planes in order to prevent the
rotation of the body in any direction.
If we consider Fig. 6b reactions Az and B form a couple in yz plane; D and Ay make a couple in
xy plane; reactions Ax and C constitute a couple of forces in plane ADC, which is different and
non parallel to xy- and yz- planes. Whereas, if we return to Fig. 6a reactions Az and B form a
couple of forces in yz plane; Ax and C make a couple of forces in plane ADC, but there is no
third couple of forces in a third different plane.

2. Internal forces
In general internal forces acting at the cut section of the member, of a space frame, will consist of
a normal force (N), two shear forces (Qy and Qz), two bending moments (My and Mz) and torsion
moment (Mx). If the internal forces at a specified point in a member are to be determined, the
method of sections must be used. This requires that a “cut” or section be made perpendicular to
the axis of the member at the point where the internal loading is to be determined. A free body
diagram of either segment of the cut member is isolated and the internal loads are then
determined from the six equations of equilibrium applied to the segment.
In order to find the internal forces we need to establish a sign convention to define their positive
and negative values. In the space frame structures each member has its own local coordinate
system used to define positive directions of the six internal forces. Although the choice of the
local coordinate system is arbitrary, the sign convention to be adopted here has been used in
structural analysis software programs, as well as in the engineering practice.

2.1 Sign convention for local element coordinate systems

The first x axis is directed along the length of the element from first to the second node of the
element, the remaining two axes lie in the plane perpendicular to the element axis with an
orientation that we specify. Usually the local coordinate system is right handed system, although
it is not a strong requirement. The first axis must be along the element the definition of the
remaining two axes is up to us. They can be introduced arbitrary in such a way to simplify the
interpretation of the results (Fig. 7a).

Qz
j My j j
y Mx
x N Mz
Qy

Qz N My
i z i i Mx
Mz Qy
a) b) c)
Figure 7 Sigh convention: a) Local coordinate system; b) Internal forces for free body containing
first node of the element; c) Internal forces for free body containing second node of the element.

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

2.1 Sign convention for internal forces.

The sign convention which is adopted here is illustrated in Fig 7b and 7c. The positive normal
force always acts outward of the section cut, which responds to a pure tension. In that respect on
the left hand face of the cut member the normal force acts to the right. An equal but opposite
normal force acts to the right hand face of the cut member. The same rule is applicable to the
torsion moment. The positive direction of torsion coincides with positive normal force.
The positive direction of internal shear forces depend on the element local coordinate system
introduced in advance. When the direction of positive normal force coincides with local x axis
(positive x axis is always from first to the second joint of the member), then the positive shear
forces, Qy and Qz, follow the positive y- and z- local axis, as shown in Fig. 7b. When the positive
normal force is contrary to the local x axis then the positive shear forces are contrary to the local
y and z axes. This case is illustrated in Fig. 7c. The same rules are valid for positive bending
moments, My and Mz, as vectors.

II. Numerical example

In the following example we shall construct the internal forces diagrams for the given in Fig. 8
space frame structure. The introduced global coordinate system is shown in the same figure.

D Dx

100 Dz
z

y
Ay
A
100 Ax
3.5

50
3
20

B x
C
B C
4

Figure 8 Numerical example

The introduced local coordinate systems of the different elements of the space frame are
presented in Fig. 9. The typical sections where the internal forces must be calculated, in order to
construct the relevant diagrams, are numbered from 1 to 8 in the same figure. The typical sections
are placed at least at the beginning and at the end of each element (segment) of the frame. The
internal forces diagrams, in the limits of each element, could be derived by using the
corresponding reference and base diagrams.

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

D
8
x

y
E7 z
6
x z
A
x 1 y

y
2 z x 5
B C
3 4
y z

Figure 8 Element local exes

1. Support reactions
The accepted positive directions of the support reactions are shown in Fig. 7. The equations of
static equilibrium are (note that we use the global coordinate system:
ΣFx = 0 Ax + Dx − 100 = 0,
ΣFy = 0 Ay + C = 0,
ΣFz = 0 B + Dz − 100 − 20 ⋅ 4 = 0,
ΣM x = 0 Dz ⋅ 3 − 100 ⋅ 1.5 + 50 = 0,
ΣM y = 0 − Dz ⋅ 4 + Dx ⋅ 3.5 − 100 ⋅ 3.5 + 20 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 2 = 0,
ΣM z = 0 − Ax ⋅ 3 − Dx ⋅ 3 + C ⋅ 4 + 100 ⋅ 1.5 = 0.

The magnitudes of the support reactions in the sequence of their obtaining are as follow:
Dz = 33.333; B = 146.67; Dx = 92.381;
Ax = 7.619; C = 37.5; Ay = −37.5.
The support reactions with the obtained directions are illustrated in Fig. 9.

2. Internal forces
In order to obtain the internal forces at a specified point, we should make section cut
perpendicular to the axis of the member at this point. This section cut divides the structure in two
parts. The portion of the structure removed from the part into consideration should be replaced by
the internal forces. The internal forces ensure the equilibrium of the isolated part subjected to the
action of external loads and support reactions. A free body diagram of either segment of the cut
member is isolated and the internal loads could be derived by the six equations of equilibrium
applied to the segment into consideration.
We shall skip the derivation of internal forces in section 1 from Fig. 8, because they can be
derived without any troubles. Let us go direct to the internal forces in section 2. If we pass a
section cut at point 2 the space frame will be separated as shown in Fig. 10. The positive
directions of internal forces, in accordance with the introduced local coordinate system for the

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 Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

member where the section 2 belongs to, for both of the separated parts, are given in the same
figure. Obviously it is more convenient to consider the left hand part of the frame.
92.381

100 33.333

37.5

100 7.61905
3.5

50
3
20

146.667 37.5
4

Figure 9 Support reactions

92.381

100 33.333

37.5

100 7.61905 Mz Mx
Mz 50

Qz Qz N 20
Qy My My Qy

N
Mx 146.667 37.5

Figure 10 Internal forces in section 2

The equilibrium equations for the left hand part of the frame can be written as follow:

ΣN = 0 N + 37.5 = 0 ⇒ N = −37.5,
ΣQ y = 0 Q y − 7.619 = 0 ⇒ Q y = 7.619,
ΣQz = 0 Qz − 100 = 0 ⇒ Qz = 100,

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

ΣM x = 0 M x = 0,
ΣM y = 0 M y + 100 ⋅ 1.5 = 0 ⇒ M y = −150,
ΣM z = 0 M z − 7.619 ⋅ 3 = 0 ⇒ M z = 22.857.

92.381

100 33.333

37.5

100 7.61905 Mz
Mz 50

My Qz 20
Qz
Mx Mx N
Qy N
Qy 37.5
146.667

My
Figure 11 Internal forces in section 3

Next the internal forces at section 3 (Fig. 8) may be obtained. Both parts of the space frame as a
result of section cut passed through point 3 with the introduced internal forces are shown in Fig.
11. It is easier to consider the equilibrium of left hand part again, the corresponding equilibrium
equations are very similar to those for section 2.

ΣN = 0 N + 7.619 = 0 ⇒ N = −7.619,
ΣQ y = 0 Q y + 37.5 = 0 ⇒ Q y = −37.5,
ΣQz = 0 Qz + 100 − 146.667 = 0 ⇒ Qz = 46.667,
ΣM x = 0 M x − 100 ⋅ 1.5 = 0 ⇒ M x = 150,
ΣM y = 0 M y = 0,
ΣM z = 0 M z + 7.619 ⋅ 3 = 0 ⇒ M z = −22.857.

What follows is the determination of the internal forces in section 4. The corresponding parts of
the space frame formed after passing the section cut at point 4 are shown in Fig. 12. The relevant
internal forces for both the parts are depicted in the same figure. Here will be examined the
equilibrium of the right hand part.

ΣN = 0 N + 100 − 92.381 = 0 ⇒ N = −7.619,

ΣQ y = 0 Q y + 37.5 = 0 ⇒ Q y = −37.5,
ΣQz = 0 Qz + 33.333 = 0 ⇒ Qz = −33.333,
ΣM x = 0 M x − 33.333 ⋅ 3 − 50 = 0 ⇒ M x = 150,

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

ΣM y = 0 M y − 100 ⋅ 3.5 + 92.381 ⋅ 3.5 = 0 ⇒ M y = 26.667,

ΣM z = 0 M z + 100 ⋅ 1.5 − 92.381 ⋅ 3 = 0 ⇒ M z = 127.14.

92.381

100 33.333

37.5

100 7.61905 Mz
Mz 50

20 Qz Qz
My
Mx Mx N
Qy N Qy
146.667 37.5
My

Figure 12 Internal forces in section 4

92.381

100 33.333

37.5

100 7.61905 Mz
Mx 50
Qz Mz
20 N
My Qy
Qy My
N
Qz
146.667 37.5
Mx
Figure 13 Internal forces in section 5

The free body diagrams for section cut in point 5 are shown in Fig. 13. In this case the
equilibrium equations will be formed easier for the right hand portion of the frame.

ΣN = 0 N − 33.333 = 0 ⇒ N = 33.333,
ΣQ y = 0 Qy = 100 − 92.381 = 0 ⇒ Qy = −7.619,

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

ΣQz = 0 Qz = 0,
ΣM x = 0 M x − 100 ⋅ 1.5 + 92.381 ⋅ 3 = 0 ⇒ M x = −127.14,
ΣM y = 0 M y − 33.333 ⋅ 3 − 50 = 0 ⇒ M y = 150,
ΣM z = 0 M z + 100 ⋅ 3.5 − 92.381 ⋅ 3.5 = 0 ⇒ M z = −26.667.

92.381

Mz 33.333
Mx 100
Qz
N
Mz
37.5 Qy My My Qy
N
Qz
100 Mx
7.61905
50

20

146.667 37.5

Figure 14 Internal forces in section 6

92.381

Mz Mx
Mz 33.333
Qz N Qz 100
Qy My
Qy My
37.5 N
Mx

100 7.61905
50

20

146.667 37.5

Figure 15 Internal forces in section 7

What is left to get the internal forces in sections 6 and 7. The corresponding free body diagrams
are given in Figs. 14 and 15. The derivation of internal forces in these sections will be skipped
here because the equilibrium equations are similar to those for the previous sections 2-5.

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 Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

Finally, the diagrams of internal forces should be constructed. The rules for the construction of
internal force diagrams in space frames are identical with those for plane frame. There are some
specific moments with respect to the local axes..
The normal force and torsion moment diagrams, with their signs, can be depicted in xy or xz
planes, no matter which one we choose.
The shear force Qz should be drawn in local xz plane, likewise shear force Qy must be set in local
xy plane for the element into consideration.
The bending moment diagram should be drawn in the local plane where the bending moment
acts. In that respect the moment My is a vector which rotates in local xz plane, and must by drawn
in this plane. The bending moment Mz acts in local xy plane, and the corresponding diagram must
be set in this local plane. The bending moment diagrams must be drawn on the tension side with
no signs, as those in the plane frames.
The bending moment diagram My must be depicted together with Qz, and vice versa the bending
moment diagram Mz corresponds to Qy. In such a way the relations M y = ± dQz / dx and
M z = ± dQy / dx could be easily traced.

The internal force diagrams are shown in Figs. 16, 17 and 18.

92.381

138.57 +
7.619
92.381
-
127.14 7.619
7.62

7.619

127.14
+
Mz Qy
22.857 7.619 7.62
26.67
22.857 -
37.5 37.5

Figure 16 Bending moment, M z , and shear force, Q y , diagrams

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

33.333
100
-
150

100

100
33.333

100
150

150

100
+

46.667
My + Qz
26.667 - 33.333

53.333

Figure 17 Bending moment, M y , and shear force, Qz , diagrams

37.5

127.14 33.333

-
37.5

- +

Mx N

127.14 - 33.333
7.619 7.619
+
150
150

Figure 18 Torsion moment and axial force diagrams

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

3. Verification – equilibrium of the joints

37.5 92.381
D
A 92.381
7.619 33.333
7.61905
33.333
37.5

22.857 100 37.5

150 7.619
46.667
150
B B
7.619
146.667 22.857 146.667
37.5

127.143 33.333
26.667

127.143 150 33.333

7.619
150 7.619
C C
26.667 37.5 37.5 37.5

127.143 33.333

100
7.619
E E

100 7.619

127.143 33.333

Figure 19 Equilibrium of the joints

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Lecture notes: Structural Analysis II

References
DARKOV, A. AND V. KUZNETSOV. Structural mechanics. MIR publishers, Moscow, 1969

WILLIAMS, А. Structural analysis in theory and practice. Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint

of Elsevier , 2009

HIBBELER, R. C. Structural analysis. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Singapore, 2006

2011 S. Parvanova, University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy - Sofia 110