Chapter 6:Mechanical Properties

Why mechanical properties?

Need to design materials that can withstand applied load…
e.g. materials used in
building bridges that can
hold up automobiles, materials for
pedestrians… skyscrapers
in the Windy
City…
materials for space
exploration…

NASA

materials for and designing

MEMs and NEMs…
Space elevators?
Chapter 6 - 1
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

• Stress and strain: What are they and why are

they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?

Chapter 6 - 2
 Stress and Strain

Stress: Pressure due to applied load.

tension, compression, shear, torsion, and their

combination.
force
stress = σ =
area

Strain: response of the material to stress (i.e. physical

deformation such as elongation due to tension).

Chapter 6 - 3
 Compression
Tension

Shear Torsion
Chapter 6 - 4
 COMMON STATES OF STRESS

• Simple tension: cable

F F
Ao = cross sectional
Area (when unloaded)
F
σ= σ σ
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
From Callister 6e resource CD.

Chapter 6 - 5
 COMMON STATES OF STRESS

• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches σ= structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (σ < 0 here).
From Callister 6e resource CD.

Chapter 6 - 6
 COMMON STATES OF STRESS

• Hydrostatic compression:

Fish under water (photo courtesy

P.M. Anderson)

σh < 0 From Callister 6e resource CD.

Chapter 6 - 7
 Tension and Compression
Tension F
Engineering stress = σ =
Ao
li − lo ∆l
Engineering strain = ε = =
lo lo
Ao = original cross sectional area
li = instantaneous length
lo = original length
Note: strain is unitless.

Compression
Same as tension but in the opposite direction (stress and strain defined
in the same manner).
By convention, stress and strain are negative for compression.
Chapter 6 - 8
Shear

F
Pure shear stress = τ=
Ao
Pure shear strain = γ = tan θ

Strain is always
dimensionless.

Chapter 6 - 9
 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
δ
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
-a non-permanent deformation where the elastic
material completely recovers to its original δ
state upon release of the applied stress.
Chapter 6 - 10
 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

δplastic
δelastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
δ
δplastic
Chapter 6 - 11
 Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen

Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.) Chapter 6 - 12
 Linear Elastic Properties
F
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

• Hooke's Law:
σ=Eε
σ F
stress strain simple
tension
Modulus of elasticity E test
(Young’s modulus)

ε
Measure of material’s resistance to Linear-
elastic deformation (stiffness).
elastic

For metals, typically E ~ 45 – 400 GPa Chapter 6 - 13

Note: some materials do not have linear elastic region (e.g. cast iron,
concrete, many polymers…)

Define secant modulus and tangent modulus.

Tangent modulus = slope of the tangent line

σ

σ2
σ1
∆σ σ 1
Secant modulus = =
∆ε ε 1
ε1 ε

Chapter 6 - 14
Silicon (single crystal) 120 - 190 (depends on crystallographic direction)
Glass (pyrex) 70
SiC (fused or sintered) 207 - 483
Graphite (molded) ~12
High modulus C-fiber 400
Carbon Nanotubes ~1000

If we normalize to density: ~20 times that of steel wire

Density normalized strength is ~56X that of steel
Chapter 6 - 15 wire
 Poisson Ratio
So far, we’ve considered stress only along one dimension…

Along z: tension ∆l
εz =
lo
Along x: compression ∆d
z εx =
do
lo
x do lo+∆l Isotropic x and y: εy = εx
do+∆d
εx εy
Poisson ratio = υ = − =−
εz εz
Elongation
Compression

Relation between elastic and shear moduli: E = 2G(1+ν)

Chapter 6 - 16
 Poisson Ratio
• Poisson Ratio has a range –1 ≤ ν ≤ 1/2

Look at extremes
• No change in aspect ratio: ∆w /w = ∆l /l l w
∆w /w
ν =− = −1
∆l /l
• Volume (V = AL) remains constant: ∆V =0 or l∆A = - A ∆l σ

Hence, ∆V = (l ∆A+A ∆l) = 0.

In terms of width, A = w2,

and ∆A = w2 - (w+∆w)2 = 2w ∆w + ∆w2

then ∆A/A = 2 ∆w/w + ∆w2/w2

in the limit of small changes

∆w / w (− 12 ∆l / l)
∆A/A = 2 ∆w/w ν =− =− = 1/ 2
∆l / l ∆l / l
then
2 ∆w/w = -∆l/l Chapter 6 - 17
 Poisson's ratio, ν
• Poisson's ratio, ν:
εL

εL
ν=− ε
ε

metals: ν ~ 0.33 -ν
ceramics: ν ~ 0.25
polymers: ν ~ 0.40

Units: –ν > 0.50 density increases

E: [GPa] or [psi]
–ν < 0.50 density decreases
ν: dimensionless (voids form)

Chapter 6 - 18
 Poisson Ratio: materials specific

Metals: Ir W Ni Cu Al Ag Au
0.26 0.29 0.31 0.34 0.34 0.38 0.42
generic value ~ 1/3
Solid Argon: 0.25

Covalent Solids: Si Ge Al2O3 TiC

0.27 0.28 0.23 0.19 generic value ~ 1/4

Ionic Solids: MgO 0.19

Silica Glass: 0.20

Polymers: Network (Bakelite) 0.49 Chain (PE) 0.40

Elastomer: Hard Rubber (Ebonite) 0.39 (Natural) 0.49

Chapter 6 - 19
 Mechanical Properties
• Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal

Adapted from Fig. 6.7,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 20
 Other Elastic Properties
τ M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G: G simple
γ torsion
τ=Gγ test

M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
∆V ∆V P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= ∆V
E E
G= K=
2(1 + ν) 3(1 − 2ν)
Chapter 6 - 21
 Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda AFRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister 7e.
40
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE Chapter 6 - 22

 Useful Linear Elastic Relationships
• Simple tension: • Simple torsion:
2ML o
δ = FL o δ = −ν Fw o α=
L
EA o EA o πr o4 G
F M = moment
δ/2 α = angle of twist
Ao
Lo Lo
wo

2ro
δL /2
• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
Chapter 6 - 23
 Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),
Callister 7e.

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, σ at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

εp engineering strain, ε

plastic strain
•A permanent deformation (usually considered for T<Tm/3).
•Atoms break bonds and form new ones. Chapter 6 - 24
•In metals, plastic deformation occurs typically at strain ≥0.005.
 Tensile properties
A. Yield strength (σy): the strength required to produce a very
slight yet specified amount of plastic deformation.
What is the specified amount of strain?
Strain offset method 1. Start at 0.002 strain (for most metals).
2. Draw a line parallel to the linear region.
σ
3. σy = where the dotted line crosses the
σy stress-strain curve.
P
P = proportional limit (beginning of deviation
from linear behavior.

Mixed elastic-plastic behavior

For materials with nonlinear elastic region: σy is

0.002 ε defined as stress required to produce specific
amount of strain (e.g. ~0.005 for most metals).
Elastic region Chapter 6 - 25
 Tensile properties

Yield point phenomenon occurs when elastic-plastic transition is well-

defined and abrupt.

No offset methods required here.

Fig. 6.10 Callister Chapter 6 - 26

 Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt
σy(ceramics)
1000
>>σy(metals)
Yield strength, σy (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
>> σy(polymers)

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600 Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
400 Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd
300
Room T values
Hard to measure ,

Hard to measure,
Al (6061) ag
200 Steel (1020) hr ¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 7e.
100 a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Al (6061) a Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered

20

LDPE
Tin (pure) Chapter 6 - 27
10
 Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister 7e.
TS
F = fracture or
σy
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Typical response of a metal

Neck – acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
Chapter 6 - 28
 True stress and strain

TS Notice that past maximum stress point,

σ decreases.
engineering
stress

Does this mean that the material is

becoming weaker?
Typical response of a metal

Necking leads to smaller cross sectional

strain
area!
F
Recall: Engineering Stress = σ=
Ao Original cross sectional area!

F Ai = instantaneous area
True Stress = σ T = li = instantaneous length
Ai
li If no net volume change (i.e. Ai li = Ao lo)
ε
True Strain = T = ln
σ T = σ (1 + ε )
lo Only true at the onset of
ε T = ln(1 + ε ) necking
Chapter 6 - 29
Example problem

Calculate/determine the
following for a brass
specimen that exhibits
stress-strain behavior
shown on the left.
1) Modulus of elasticity.
2) Yield strength.
3) Maximum load for a
cylindrical specimen with
d = 12.8mm.
4) Change in length at
345MPa if the initial
length is 250mm.

Chapter 6 - 30
 Tensile Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)cw Si nitride
Cu (71500)
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
Steel (1020)
300 Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
200 Ta (pure) Room Temp. values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister 7e.
40 Concrete PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
PP CFRE( fiber)
30 hr = hot rolled
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 Chapter 6 - 31
 Tensile properties
C. Ductility:: measure of degree of plastic deformation that has been
sustained at fracture.
• Ductile materials can undergo significant plastic deformation
before fracture.
• Brittle materials can tolerate only very small plastic
deformation.

Chapter 6 - 32
 Ductility
L f − Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, σ larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister 7e.

Engineering tensile strain, ε

• Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao

Chapter 6 - 33
 Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering small toughness (ceramics)
tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, σ
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister 7e. (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, ε

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
Chapter 6 - 34
 Resilience, Ur
• Ability of a material to store energy
– Energy stored best in elastic region

εy
Ur = ∫ σdε
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur ≅ σy ε y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister 7e.
Chapter 6 - 35
Elastic recovery after plastic deformation

This behavior is exploited to

increase yield strengths of
metals: strain hardening (also
called cold working).

Chapter 6 - 36
 Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
Chapter 6 - 37
 Hardness: Measurement
• Rockwell
– No major sample damage
– Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
– Minor load 10 kg
– Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

Chapter 6 - 38
 Hardness scales

Indentation with
diamond pyramid tip
Indentation with
spherical hardened
steel and conical
diamond (for
hardest materials)

Indentation with spherical

hardened steel or tungsten
carbide tip. Chapter 6 - 39
Qualitative scale
 Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

Chapter 6 - 40
 True Stress & Strain
Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched

• True stress σT = F Ai σT = σ(1 + ε )

• True Strain εT = ln(l i l o ) εT = ln(1 + ε )

Adapted from Fig. 6.16,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 41
 Hardening
• An increase in σy due to plastic deformation.
σ
large hardening
σy
1
σy small hardening
0

ε
• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
n n = 0.15 (some steels)
σT = K εT ( ) to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 6 - 42
 Variability in Material Properties
• Elastic modulus is material property
• Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
• Statistics
n

– Mean Σ xn
x=
n
1
n 2 2

 Σ (x i − x ) 
– Standard Deviation s=
 n −1 
 
where n is the number of data points
Chapter 6 - 43
 Design or Safety Factors
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
σy between
σworking = 1.2 and 4
N
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d
σy 1045 plain
σworking = carbon steel:
N σy = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N 5 TS = 565 MPa
(
π d2 / 4)
F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
Chapter 6 - 44
 Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches σy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

Chapter 6 - 45