The Design of Ships to Avoid

Propeller-Excited Vibrations
By F. Everett Reed, M e m b e r 1

New methods have been developed within recent years for the prediction and
avoidance of propeller-excited hull vibrations in ships. These make use of the tech-
nology developed for vibration prediction in rockets and large aircraft and the
ability of large computers to make detailed and long calculations rapidly and inex-
pensively; Like all vibration problems, the prediction involves the detei'mination of
the excitation and the response. The excitation, resulting from the nonuniform wake
at the propeller and the propeller pressure field on the hull, has been the subject of
analytical and experimental research in the recent past and the present and is be-
comingwell-enough defined for use in precfictions. The response of the complicated
ship structure is shown to be strongly influenced by the details of that structure. In
particular the support and dynamic characteristics of the propeller and shaft system
and the local resonances of substructures in the hull are shown to have a strong in-
fluence on the level of hull vibration. Methods of incorporating these effects into the
response of the main hull are presented.

THE OBJECT of this paper is to acquaint mem-
bers of the Society witli the state of the art in the
px~ediction of ship hull vibration. With ships
be!ng built of ever-increasing size and higher
powers, hull vibration considerations become an
important element in the design. For example,
m o d e m ships carry powers on a single screw that
would have been unthinkable a dozen years ago.
The choice between a design using a single high-
power centerline propeller and a design that is
more expensive in cost and efficiency using twin
screws must be determined primarily from con-
siderations of hull vibration. In the past these
decisions had to be based upon extrapolated ex-
perience. This paper shows that hull vibration
need no longer be an empirical art, but that meth-
ods exist and are being developed that can be used
to predict levels of hull vibration while the ship is
being designed. In our times there is no excuse
xPresidefit and Technical Director, Littleton Research ally unsuccessful even for the fundamental natural
and Engineering Corp., Littleton, Mass.
Presented at the Annual Meeting, New York, N. Y.,
November 11 and 12, 1971, of THE SOCIETYOS NAVAL
ARCHITECTSANDMARINEENGINEI~RS.
244
for building a ship that has large vibrations in the
living quarters.
Historical Background
Concern with hull vibration in ships began when
they were propelled by mechanical power instead
of wind. The first reference in English to ship
hull vibration is a paper by Otto Schliek before
the Institution of Naval Architects in 1884 [1]. 2
The early excitations came from unbalance in the
engines and suggestions for improving the balance
appear in a paper b y A. F. Yarrow in 1892 [2].
Schlick's second and third papers [3, 4] discuss
measured vertical, lateral, and torsional vibrations
on a ship, the famous formula for approximating
the fundamental frequency of a ship, N =
,pX/I/AL ~, as well as nodes, antinodes, and excita-
tion.
Efforts to analytically predict hull vibrations,
although increasingly sophisticated, Were gener-
Numbers in brackets designate References at end of
paper.
frequency until the influence of water inertia was
appreciated. Procedures for incorporating water-
inertia effects in the calculations were developed
by F. M. Lewis [5] and Lockwood Taylor [6] in
1929 and 1930. With this effect included, reason-
ably good predictions of the fundamental two-
node, and sometimes the three-node, natural fre-
quency in vertical bending could be made. How-
ever, the predictions of the natural frequencies of
higher modes were not reliable.
The calculation methods used for predicting
mode shapes and natural frequencies were gener-
ally based upon the methods of normal functions
developed by Stodola [7, 73] primarily for steam
turbine rotors. This method becomes increas-
ingly difficult to apply as the number of natural
frequencies and mode shapes increases• At the
conclusion of World War II, the science of hull
vibration was significantly advanced by R a y m o n d
T. McGoldrick [8-14] at the David Taylor Model
Basin and Jesse Ormondroyd [11] at the Uni-
versity of Michigan. Analytical procedures were
developed which are extensions of the Myklestad
[15, 16, 17] and Prohl [18] method for beams.
These procedures are well adapted to the use of
large digital computers.
Cgmpu.ter programs for determining the vertical
vibration response of ship hulls were developed by
Cuthill [19, 20]. The hull is defined by a beam
with bending and shearflexibility, sprung masses,
and mass-elastic subsystems, notably the pro-
peller-shaft system. Henderson [21] expanded
this program to include the coupled vibration of
torsion and bending in tile transverse direction.
This program is also applicable to the coupled
vibration of longitudinal compression and exten-
sion with vertical bending•
The first ship vibrations were generated by en-
gine unbalance. The procedures for reducing
these u/lbalaamed forces and moments to ac-
ceptable levels w e r e defined in the 1890's [2, 22]
and so engine unbalance has not generally been a
major source of vibration since, although oc-
casionally, through oversight, a diesel-propelled
ship will be excited by first- or second-order forces
or moments.
The major excitation of ship hull vibrations
comes from the propeller, both through the har-
monic forces and moments generated on the pro-
peller in work!ng through the nonuniform wake,
and by the harmonic forces and moments gener-
ated on the hull of the ship and its appendages by
the pressure field around the propeller. The
measurement of these harmonic .forces is difficult
because they are superposed on large random
pressures and forces due to wave action and turbu-
The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
lence. The first studies in this area were on
models by F. _-V[.Lewis [23] in 1935.
Within recent years a broad effort to compute
the propeller excitation has b e e n expended under
the sponsorship of the N a v y Ship Research and
Development Center, Fundamental HYdrody -
namics Research Program. Introductory work
b y Burrill [24] considered a variable wake but
assumed that at each angular location of the pro-
peller the wake is s t e a d y - - a quasi-steady-state
analysis of propeller forces and moments. More
recent analyses at Stevens [25, 26, 28, 29 ] and M I T
[30] include the effects of rate of change of wake
unsteady flow (i.e., the Theodorsen effects) and
blade width on the harmonic forces and moments
on the propeller. Procedures are available for
predicting from a propeller plan, a wake analysis,
and the lines plan of the stern, tile magnitudes and
phase of the propeller and hull harmonic forces
and moments. In general , these do not include
the effects of the interaction of the hull on tile
propeller nor the propeller on narrow surfaces
such as skegs, struts, and rudders.
Within recent years as ships have continued to
increase in size, the fundamental natural fre-
quencies iia vertical and transverse bending are
moving into ranges where there is significant
energy in the spectra of the sea waves. The
possibilities of wave-generated vibration must,
therefore, be considered [31, 32, 37].
General Considerations of ShiP Hull Vibration
Where there are differences between measured
and predicted vibration levels, natura 1frequencies,
and mode shapes, these differences can be ascribed
to (i) uncertainty of the excitation, o r (ii) an
inadequate representation of the mass,elastic
characteristics of the ship. Measured vibration
levels are not steady but change with time dePend-
ing on the conditions of the se.a, small changes in
propeller revolutions, and random motions in the
boundary layer. I t will always be difficult,
therefore, to make close comparisons between
measurements and predictions.
In the past it was quite impractical to represent
the mass and elastic structure of a ship in enough
detail ~o predict with any accuracy the response
over the range of blade beat frequencies. With
large computers and available programs for repre-
senting the ship in terms of beams and elemental
masses and elasticities, this limitation no longer
exists. Predictions of hull response at higher fre-
quencies require that attention be ~ v e n to shear
deflection in the hull, rotary inertia, local reso-
nances, and shear lag. For the fundamental natural
frequency of vibration, reasonably accurate predic-
tions can be made on the assumption that the hull
245
is a beam of variable mass (including water inertia)
and bending stiffness. For natura ! frequencies in
the third and higher modes, the shearing of the
ship becomes increasingly important so that, for
modes higher than the fourth, the bending effects
become negligible. For the higher frequencies,
compartments of the hull bounded by transverse
bulkheads and the sides are excited by the general
hull motion into local resonance. The local reso-
nances act as local vibration absorbers, tending to
enforce llullnodes in their area and absorbing the
energy input so that the rest of the hull motion is
reduced. Prediction of hull motions at higher
frequencies wittlout considerati9ns Of local reso-
nance is futile.
Whereas local resonances in the hull consider-
ably alter the hull response, resonances in the
propeller-shafting system strongly influence the
exciting force input to the hull. Breslin [33] has
shown that a propeller working below an infinite
flat plate is characterized theoretically by equal
and opposite harmonic blade o[der forces acting
between the propeller an`d the hull. This same
effect tends to be true of the ship, a n d if the pro-
peller an d shaft are rigid there !s a general cancella-
tion of the hull input from the two sources. I.f,
however, the propeller-shafting system has a
flexural resonance occurring within the blade beat
frequency range, then above this resonance the
phase of the harmonic force input to the hull from
t.he propeller'thr0ugh the shaft and beatings is out
of phase with the propeller fdrce. Then both the
hull force and the !?earing forces from the pro-
peller reinforce each other. '
The method of hull vibration analysis discussed
and recommended in this paper can be 'termed the
sophisticated beam procedure. Because of the
modifications and corrections that mu.st .be applied
to t h e Timoshenko beam [34] to obtain reliable
results, some have suggested [35, 36] ichat ship
vibration anal3;sis be undertaken using a finite-
element proceclure; i.e., an assemblage of point
masses with beam, plate, and elastic connections.
This procedure i.s quite desirable theoretically but
expensive if reliable results are to be obtained.
I t will be found that if the ship is to be well
represented the computer time required for the
analysis of the data becomes very large. The
tendency then is to approximate the ship by a
coarser grid. This rapidly becomes self-defeating
because the primary difficulty in analyzing any
complex system is its accurate representation in
the mathematical model. All o f the very real
advantages of the finite-element methods disap-
pear "if the grid is made too coarse. Although, as
will be demonstrated, we have found that a
method of solution based upon the Timoshenkq
246 The Design of Sh{ps to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
beam equation is versatile and practical for the
vibration of the whole ship, finite-element meth-
ods are very useful in determining the dynamic
properties of sections of the ship that come into
local resonance. These properties are then in-
corporated into the whole-ship model.
In the avoidance of propeller-exclted hull vibra-
tion, the most important part is to assure that the
design of the hull, propeller, and shafting is such
that the primary structure of the ship does not
have e'xcessive vibration. When the ship is in its
detailed structural design stage, it is important
that there be no serious accentuation of the vibra-
tions in critical spaces. Thus the avoidance of
hull vibrations should be given particular atten-
tion during (i) the preliminary design stage and
(ii) the middle stages of structural design. The
remainder of this paper discusses the work that
should be done at each of these stages and some
brief comments on measurements of hull vibra-
tion.
In Appendix 8 specifications for assuring that
adequate attention is given to hull vibration are
suggested.
Considerations in the preliminary Design Stag e
M a n y of the ship characteristics that cause vi-
bration difficulties are basic elements of the design
as determined during the s6ip preliminary design
and can be changed later only at an expensive
cost. Among these are the location of the pro-
peller relative to the hull, the size of the propeller
aperture on single-screw ships, t h e - c h o i c e of
propeller rpm, the determination of shafting sizes
and bearing locations, the location of the engine
room and superstructure, and the general ar-
rangement of the quarters in the superstructure.
When intelligent attention, from the point of view
of vibration, is given to these fact6rs, there can be
a reasonable assurance that the basic level of vi-
bration in the ship will not be high, and that such
local vibration as may exist after the ship is built
can be corrected through a reasonable expenditure
of time and effort.
Propeller Aperture and Propeller Clearance
One important factor in avoiding hull vibration
is the minimization of excitation forces. The pro-
peller excitation is minimized by having a smooth
water flow to the propeller and generous clear-
ances between the propeller and the hull. For the
many-bladed propellers (5 and more) that are
being used, it is found that the wake harmonics
which cause propeller forces are not as much in-
fluenced by the fullness of the ship or the location
of the propeller as is the case for propellers with
fewer blades. Furthermore, the forces generated
on the propeller are not as strongly influenced b y
location and clearance as are the pressure forces
generated b y the propeller on the hull. T h e
balance t h a t m u s t be made in the design is be-
tween the hull clearance and rigid support for the
propeller and shafting.
F o r guidance in the design of stern apertures,
some of the available recommendations for pro-
peller clearances are tabulated in Appendix 1.
T h e procedures outlined in Appendix 1 for de-
termining hull clearance are imperfect guides for a
decision t h a t should be based upon a more tech-
nical process. Their object is to assure an ac-
ceptable level of v i b r a t o r y force to tile hull. As
discussed in Appendix 2, computer programs have
been and are being developed t h a t predict the
harmonic forces on the hull. Thus the criterion
for propeller location should be the a m o u n t of
harmonic force generated on the ship. In this
way modifications in ship form---such as, for
example, a tunnel s t e r n - - o r propeller rake and
skewback, can be used to secure greater propul-
sion efficiency without generating excessive vibra-
tions. T h e amplitudes of the propeller harmonic
forces and m o m e n t s are not easily changed
through modifications to hull lines, aperture and
tip clearances, b u t can be changed to some degree
by the use of skewback in the blades. On the
other hand, the amplitudes of the hull pressures
and their integrated effects, the harmonic forces
and m o m e n t s on the hull, can be strongly in-
fluenced by propeller clearances.
I t is difficult at the present time to establish
reasonable limits for the harmonic: forces on the
hull because the methods for this prediction have
not been applied to enough cases to obtain ex-
perience. A large ship whose vertical harmonic
hull force was 0.60 percent and whose horizontal
harmonic hull force was 1.4 percent of the steady
propeller thrust and whose harmonic hull m o m e n t
about a transverse axis was 148.0 percent, a b o u t
a vertical axis 7.2 percent, and about a longitudi-
nal axis 54 percent of the steady propeller torque,
has been reported to be a quiet ship.
Shafting and Propeller Resonances
A second aspect of ship vibration t h a t should be
considered p a r t of the preliminary design process
is the vibrations of the propeller and shafting sys-
tems. Three aspects of these vibrations should be
considered: (i) torsional vibration, (ii) longi-
tudinal vibration, and (iii) lateral vibration.
Torsional Vibration
T h e analysis and prediction of torsional vibra-
tion of motor- and steam-powered ships is a well-
developed science. Reciprocating engine pro-
The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
pulsion plants (diesel and steam) are generally
analyzed b y the manufacturer of the engines.
The p r i m a r y excitation is the engine itself, and
the polar m o m e n t of inertia of the engine, if direct
drive, is generally lower than t h a t of the propeller.
For this reason the torsional vibration motions in
the engine are larger than those of the propeller
and the stresses in the engine are of as much or
more concern than those in the shaft. Engine
manufacturers have developed procedures for
analyzing these vibrations. One aspect of tor-
sional vibrations t h a t has not been developed is
the angular orientation of the propeller relative to
the engine so t h a t the blade-order excitation at the
propeller is out of phase with the engine excitation
of this order. At the present time the phase of
the propeller excitation is not generally known
and so the cancellation of energy input cannot be
obtained and may, in fact, b y random choice aug-
m e n t the inpnt from the engine.
For geared turbine drives, the procedures de-
veloped b y Poritsky and Robinson [41] provide a
good method for predicting the vibrations. The
problem is separation and hammering in the re-
duction gear teeth if the v i b r a t o r y torque exceeds
the steady torque. Where the power plant is not
located in the extreme stern of the ship, the lowest
torsional frequency generally occurs well down in
the operating range where the power and torque
are low and the vibration is not of concern. For
power plants in the stern of the ship, the torsional
vibration can be more serious and it m a y be neces-
sary to give special attention to the n u m b e r of
blades on the propeller and the diameter of the
shaft to avoid torsional vibration trouble. Gener-
ally there is also a second natural frequency, par-
ticularly noticeable in the turbine and gear portion
of the system, which falls within the operating
range in which the two turbines vibrate against
each other with a node near the bull gear. The
effects of this critical are generally nullified b y the
turbine and gear manufacturers b y making the
natural frequencies of the high-pressure and low-
pressure branches of the power trains against the
bull gear as an assumed ground, approximately
e q u a l - - a nodal drive. Where this balance is at-
tained, the higher mode is not excited b y harmonic
torques in the propeller.
The propeller excitation can be computed from
the propeller design and the harmonic wake b y
the methods discussed in Appendix 2 and the
propeller damping by the procedure presented b y
Lewis and Auslaender [42 ].
Longitudinal Vibration
For large ships it is frequently found t h a t the
natural frequency of the propeller and shafting
247
system will coincide with or be slightly above the
blade beat frequency, b u t will sometimes be within
the operating range of the ship. I t is desirable to
have the natural frequency of the system at least
15 percent over the m a x i m u m blade beat fre-
quency so t h a t there will not be large forced
vibration amplitudes. For very large ships, the
h e a v y propellers and long shafts and difficulties in
tying the thrust bearing rigidly to the hull m a y p u t
the longitudinal resonance within the operating
range. I t is then desirable to locate the reso-
nances well down in the operating range at a shaft
r p m t h a t can be avoided. Military Standard
M I L - S T D - 1 6 7 (Ships) [74] specifies the some-
times impossible requirement t h a t there be no
excessive alternating thrust within the operating
speed range of 0 to 115 percent of the design full-
power shaft rpm. Analysis and measurements on
trials are required to prove compliance with this
requirement.
There are several guides to the calculation of
longitudinal resonances. One of the earliest is the
BuShips Design D a t a Sheet [44] in which the
natural frequency of the shafting is approximated
b y a spring-supported two-mass system. Trou-
bles with longitudinal vibrations in the early
1940's led to the authoritative work b y Kane and
McGoldriek [75], who suggest calculation meth-
ods, ranges of stiffnesses for thrust bearings and
foundations, values of thrust excitation, and val-
ues of damping. Valuable information on longi-
tudinal vibration has also been developed in
England [76, 77 ].
T h e initial problem in the analysis of longi-
tudinal shaft vibration is the mechanical definition
of the system. The propeller and shafting system
is readily defined in terms of distributed and con-
centrated masses. The value of the mass of the
water entrained with the propeller is computed
from the propeller characteristics b y the pro-
cedures of Lewis and Auslaender [42] using the
reduction factor for the torsionally unrestrained
propeller (at least where it is known t h a t the tor-
sional natural frequency is well below the longi-
tudinal natural f r e q u e n c y - - a s is generally the
case). The shafting can be represented b y bars
of constant diameter. Usually one or two bars
are used to represent the outboard shafting and
one bar for the inboard shaft. The weights of the
flanges and sleeves are included b y increasing the
density of the shaft material, an increase of ap-
proximately 7 percent. Sleeves and flanges are
considered ineffective in the stiffness calculation.
Generally it is found t h a t the web of the second-
reduction gear is flexible compared to the other
stiffnesses in the system and for simplification it
m a y be acceptable to terminate the model at the
248 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
hub of the second-reduction (bull) gear. I t can
be shown that, even for low coefficients of friction,
dental couplings will lock up under their trans-
mitted torque and transmit axial forces as though
solid.
The critical elements in the longitudinal vibra-
tion calculation are stiffness of the thrust bearing
and its foundation. T h e thrust bearing stiffness
can be readily calculated in terms of a series of
elastic elements : the thrust collar, oil film, shoes,
leveling plates, backup end plate in the housing,
and, finally, the housing and its a t t a c h m e n t to the
foundation. Kane and McGoldrick [75] give
useful values for these stiffnesses t h a t can be used
for preliminary studies and as points of compari-
son for more detailed stiffness calculations.
T h e most difficult prediction is the stiffness of
the thrust bearing foundation. Although it is
convenient to consider this as a simple elastic
connection to a rigid h e a v y hull, the foundation is
in fact a connection to another elastic s y s t e m - -
the machinery space double b o t t o m together with
its inertial loadings of machinery and entrained
water. The correct method, therefore, for pre-
dicting the thrust bearing stiffness is to m a k e a
dynamic analysis of the b o t t o m structure under
the machinery space and express the stiffness of
the thrust bearing foundation as a function of fre-
quency. The most practical procedure for de-
termining the dynamic stiffness of the thrust
bearing foundation is b y a finite-element analysis.
Several finite-element computer programs are
available [43 ].
If time or budget does not permit the finite-
element analysis to be done, it is possible to m a k e
simplified analyses. T h e accuracy of such analy-
ses depends strongly on the engineering j u d g m e n t
of the analyst. This engineering j u d g m e n t has a
limited foundation until results of finite-element
studies or experimental d a t a are available for
guidance. Cashman [78] discusses some of the
factors t h a t enter into the determination of
foundation design b u t does not discuss the de-
termination of the spring constant in detail. T h e
following observations m a y be helpful in the pre-
diction of thrust foundation stiffness:
• A large p a r t of the deflection occurs in shear.
• Bending of the b o t t o m structure of the ship
is important.
• T h e elasticity solution for a truncated wedge
[79 ] m a y be helpful.
• Representing the foundation as a tube run-
ning between the sides of the ship m a y be helpful.
• The relatively heavy reduction gear and tur-
bine machinery on the same foundation can add a
dynamic aspect to the foundation stiffness [80 ].
 The excitation used to compute the amplitudes Lateral Vibration
of motion is calculated from the wake distribution Design practice has been considered good if
and the propeller characteristics b y the methods shafting is sufficiently well supported to avoid
discussed in Appendix 2. Where. time or the whirling (shaft rotational speed resonance) with a
availability of propeller design or wake data do reasonable margin [44]. Actually one of the most
not permit this calculation to be made, it is possi- important factors in the determination of the level
ble to estimate the harmonic excitation force by of vibration in a ship is the shafting natural fre-
the approximate formula given in Appendix 3. quencies. This importance arises for two reasons:
The hydrodynamic damping at the propeller (i) the lateral resonance in the shafting can mag-
can be computed using the procedure given by nify the force-and-moment input from the pro-
Lewis and Auslaender [42]. The required pro- peller to the hull manyfold, and (ii) the phase of
peller characteristics can be obtained with ade- the propeller forces as transmitted through the
quate accuracy from the propeller design curves bearings into the hull is shifted when the shaft
[81], from experimental data on the propeller, or operates above resonance. By this latter means
ship self-propulsion test. Vibration measure- even though the amplitude of the propeller force
ments [75, 76, 77] show that the amount of damp- is reduced at frequencies that are well above
ing thus determined is too small. I t has been resonance, its phase is changed so that instead of
found that reasonable agreement between calcula- obtaining the approximate cancellation between
tion and test is obtained if 8 percent of the vibra- hull and propeller forces the two forces are addi-
tional energy in addition to the propeller energy is five.
dissipated in each cycle. To accomplish this the The importance of shafting resonances was
Young's modulus of the shaft material m a y be dramatized in some calculations in which a sys-
expressed as a complex number equal to (1 + ~j)E tematic change in the stiffness of the rubber bear-
where ~ is the dissipation expressed as a fraction ings was explored. In Figs. 1, 2, and 3 are shown
of the vibration energy [82]. the predicted levels of vertical displacement for a
The matrices used for axial vibration calcula- one-pound excitation at the propeller, assuming
tions and a formula for approximating the exciting (a) rigid stern-tube bearings (stiffness at forward
forces are presented in Appendix 3. stern-tube bearing 700,000 lb-in, and aft stern-tube

14 j -,
INFLUENCE OF PROPELLER
f ~ /'~
i I SHAFT BEARING STIFFNESS ON

lz ; ] THE LEVEL OF VIBRATION OF THE

PROPELLER

RIGID BEARINGS
IO ,~l , ,
__ _ E S T I M A T E D STIFFNESS
RUBBER STERN TUBE BRGS.
~ , ,
STIFFNESS OF STERN
.~ ¢ l,'l , ....... B E A R I N G S REDUCED TO
ABOUT 40~o O F E S T I M A T E D
illl , , VALUE
k

I II
ii

I
\
\
• ,,,, / ',
! .

/ , / / j)
al 2
I1' I f_,.

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Frequency, cps

Fig. 1 Influence ,of stern tube bearing stiffness on propeller motion

The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations 249

 14
INFLUENCE OF PROPELLER SHAFT
BEARING STIFFNESS ON THE
IZ LEVEL OF VIBRATION OF THE
0 BOW

RIGID BEARINGS

-- -- -- E S T I M A T E D STIFFNESS
RUBBER STERN TUBE BRGS.

STIFFNESS OF STERN
'~ 8 ...... B E A R I N G S R E D U C E D TO
0
ABOUT 40% OF ESTIMATED
VALUE

~.~

>
0
0 4 6 8 I0 12 14 16 18 ZO ZZ 24
Frequency, cps

Fig. 2 I n f l u e n c e o f stern tube b e a r i n g stiffness o n hull m o t i o n at b o w

14
INFLUENCE OF PROPELLER SHAFT

BEARING STIFFNESS ON THE

k
,! I%
%
LEVEL

STERN
OF VIBRATION

RIGID BEARINGS
OF THE

io " I
i I ~ ESTIMATED STIFFNESS
I ,
RUBBER STERN TUBE BRGS,

"~ Io STIFFNE.SS OF STERN

~ 8 BEARINGS REDUCED TO
ABOUT 40% OF ESTIMATED
II it
VALUE
:1 j:
£ S 6
~.~

/
U
//i; "

|
I

"
I e¢
i:
S

" !
i

0
0 Z 4 6 8 I0 12 14 16 18 20 2Z 24
Frequency, cps

Fig. 3 Influence o f stern tube b e a r i n g stiffness o n hull m o t i o n at stern

2.50 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations

bearing 1,200,000 lb-in, corresponding to bearing
support structural stiffnesses); (b) the actual
stern-tube bearing (232,000 lb-in, and 538,000 lb-
in. respectively), and (c) very soft bearings (stiff-
nesses 100,000 and 200,000 lb-in, respectively).
T h e difference in the propeller and ship motions is
striking.
The natural frequency of the propeller and shaft
in the three setups is 12.7 cps, 1!.5 cps, and 8.1
cps, respective!y. The amplitude in the stern at
13 cps with the rigid shafting system is six times as
great as that with the flexible system. At the
stern at 8.1 cps, the flexibly supported shaft
resonant amplitude is four times t]hat of the rigid
syste m at the same frequency. I t should be ex-
pected that a shafting system will amplify and
chang e the phase of an exciting force at the pro-
peller, but this characteristic ha,; not been in-
eluded in previous considerations of hull vibration.
I t has been common practice to design shafting
systems with the natural frequency of vibration
falling above the rotational speed of the shaft so
t h a t there is no whirling. Such an analysis is
recommended by BuShips Design Data Sheet
DDS 4301 [44]. A calculation for whirling is im-
portant on slender high-speed ships like de-
stroyers, which tend to have long outboard lengths
of shafting and on which it is desirable for pro-
pulsion efficiency to keep the number of outboard
supports to a minimum. The importance of the
whirling critical is noted because, even with well-
balanced propellers and shafting, vibration fre-
quencies observed on these ships frequently match
the rotational speed of the shafts.
The lateral natural frequencies of most shafting
systems tend to fall quite close to the full-power
blade beat frequency. The factors that deter-
mine this lateral natural frequency are generally
determined b y the time that the contract plans
and specifcations are available for bidding. T h e y
are determined by the diameter of the shaft, the
proPeller overhang, the spans between the last
three bearings, and the propeller design char-
acteristies. In the calculation of lateral vibration
of the shafting it is important to include the trans-
lational and rotational flexibility of bearings and
st rgts, the gyroscopic effect of the propeller, and
the effect of steady thrust.
The calculation of the lateral vibration of the
shaft should properly be treated as a shaft system
coupled to the ship hull. However, in the pre-
liminary design stage, the hull characteristics are
not well known and the coupled calculation is too
complicated. Since the shaft masses and stiff-
nesses are orders of magnitude lower than ~the hull
values, useful information can be obtained on the
assumption that the hull is very heavy and rigid--
The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
a fixed support over the length of the last three or
four: spans of shafting. (The influence of the
propeller excitation runs out at this distance.)
It is, however, important to include the stiffnesses
of the connection between the shaft bearings and
the hull. Although oil film stiffness at the normal
operating conditions and small motions is low
enough to be a factor, this is a nonlinearquantity,
and if the shaft vibration becomes a serious factor
the motion in the oil film quickly builds up to
levels where the fihn stiffness is very large. The
bearing oil film stiffness, therefore, can be con-
sidered infinite.
The rigidity of rubber bearings can be obtained
from the manufacturer and that of phenolic and
lignumvitae bearings by calculation. The rubber
bearings are quit e flexible but the plastic and wood
bearings are so rigid as to have practically in-
finite stiffness.
As s!ng!e-screw ships are designed with in-
creasing clearance between the skeg and the pro-
peller, t h e after stern-tube bearing receives less
and less support. This is particularly true in the
lateral direction where the connection to the hull is
through a rather slender skeg. The evMuation of
the effective stiffnesses for the connection of the
stern-tube bearings to the hull in a single-screw
ship requires a good imagination and engineering
judgment. Here a finite-element analysis is use-
ful. When making these Calculations, it becomes
apparent that skegs in general are not rigid and
that most of the deflection is in shear.
In making the calculations, the shafting is repre-
sented preferably as a beam with distributed mass
and elasticity since a precise analytical solution is
obtained for the model with a minimum of input
data. The propeller is rep'resented by a concen-
trated mass and a diametrical and a polar moment
of inertia. The water inertia for lateral motion is
not given by Lewis and Auslaender [42]. A value
can be estimated from Lewis and Auslaender's
value for the entrained water in longitudinal vibra-
tio n by proportioning, using the square of the ratio
of the transverse projection of a blade at 0.7R to
the axial projectio n . Thus the lateral entrained
water would become W, ox(P/O.77rD) 2 [W,~ is
longitudinal water inertia for a torsionally con,
strained propeller; P is the pitch at 0.7R; D is
the propeller diameter]. This entrained water is
small. For the water inertia in rotation about a
transverse axis , Lewis and Auslaender [42]
recommend H~D2/16, and for the polar moment
of inertia of the entrained water about the rota-
tional axis, the formula J~ = l¥,oP2/47r 2. This is
added to the pola r moment of inertia of the pro-
peller itself to give the m o l n e n t o f inertia for use
in the gyroscopic coupling between transverse and
251
 vertical motions. Beeause the propeller is located the ship in vertical and transverse bending modes.
at the end of a cantilevered shaft, it has a large For estimating the natural frequency in vertical
slope, and so the gyroscopic effects cannot be ne- bending the empirical formula proposed b y Burrill
glected. T h e shaft also has an entrained water [45] is generally quite adequate, namely
inertia equal to the weight of water displaced b y
the shaft. 200,000 X 4,/ I
T h e excitation for the shafting comes from the
propeller and consists of blade-order propeller
forces and m o m e n t s in the vertical and horizontal
directions. T h e values of these forces and mo- where
ments are determined b y the procedures discussed
B = molded beam, ft
in Appendix 2. If this information is not avail-
d = draft, ft
able, the natural frequencies and their char-
1 + B/2d = a water-inertia effect
acteristics m a y be inferred b y assuming a unit
1 + r = a shear effect
harmonic force, first in the vertical and second in
3.5D2(3a 3 + 9a 2 + 6a + 1.2)
the horizontal direction, acting at the propeller. r =
Because of the gyroscopic coupling at the pro- L"-(Sa + 1)
peller and the elastic coupling between vertical a = B/D
and horizontal motions in the strut and bossing D = molded depth, ft
shaft supports, the shafting respond s in a complex A = displacement, tons
way to unidirectional excitations and it is im- L = waterline length or 0.95 LOA, ft,
p o r t a n t to include the shaft excitations in their whicheyer is greater
proper phase. [ = m o m e n t of inertia of midship sec-
tion, in 2 ft 2
D a m p i n g of the shafting system is provided b y
the propeller, bearings, hysteresis of shafting ma- I t is considered desirable to have the operating
terial, and energy transferred into the ship. Pro- rotational speed of the propeller avoid this fre-
peller damping m a y be estimated from the tor- quency. Modern large, high-powered ships with
sional and axial damping coefficients given by propellers having five or moke blades generally ex-
Lewis and Auslaender [42]. This damping is perience greater amplitudes of vibration in the
usually very small. The damping in a lubricated transverse than in the vertical directions for rea-
bearing is so small t h a t it dan be neglected. T h e sons discussed later. Therefore, it is desirable to
hysteretic damping of the shaft material is taken anticipate the approximate value of the funda-
into account through a complex modulus of elas- mental natural frequency in transverse vibration.
ticity, E(1 -t- ~), where E is Young's modulus and Since transx/erse moments of inertia of the ship
is the a m o u n t of damping. A value of ~ = 0.05 sections are not generally known, the formula de-
is suggested until a more accurate estimate is ob- veloped b y Brown [46] is recommended for this
tained from experiments. estimate.
Further discussions of the ealculation of lateral
vibration of shafting are presented in Appendix 4. DB 3
N n = B~t ~/
General Considerations of Vibrations of the Hull
During the Period of Preliminary Design where
I t is well to give enough consideration to the
NH = fundamental frequency, cycles per min-
vibration of the hull in the preliminary design ute
period so t h a t difficulties can be anticipated. As BH = varies from 42,000 to 49,000
discussed earlier, it is i m p o r t a n t t h a t the design B = molded beam, ft
incorporate a propeller aperture a n d / o r propeller D = molded depth, ft
clearance of adequate size to minimize hull har- A = displacement, tons
monic pressures and excitation. I t is i m p o r t a n t V = water-inertia factor = 1.3 + 0.3 d/t3
t h a t the shafting, through shafting resonances, not d = draft, ft
magnify the forces generated on the propeller. L = length between perpendiculars, ft
Then it is reasonable to expect a ship whose basic
level of vibration will be acceptable. I t is also There appear to be no reliable empirical formu-
desirable to reflect some general eharacteristies of las for the fundamental natural frequency in
hull vibration in the preliminary design. torsional vibration. This can be understood when
The first general information comes from an the wide variation in hatch openings in modern
estimate of the fundamental natural frequencies of ships is considered.

252 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations

 UNIFORM ORE C ARRIER
EULER E. J. KULAS
BEAM VERTICAL VIBRATION [47]

U
Z IZ
M
D
0
13

OSSNIAGARA-vert.

I ] [ t
,% S S N I A G A P A - h o m z . "
[I2]
/
M 1

O
iI
I-1 G O P H E R M A R I N E R - v e r t .
G O P H E R M A R I N E R - horiz

630' TANGIER - vert. -

/
/
Z [] 6 3 0 ' TANGIER - horiz [39J
r-i

<
8
Z
M
N
<

Z
7

6
/
O

5
t)
Z
m
4
C~
M
3

2
O

<
Z

/
1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
NUMBER OF NODES

Fig. 4 Ratio of higher mode frequencies to the fundamental

At this point in the preliminary design it might
be well, particularly if the fundamental frequency
is below 50 cpm, to give brief consideration to the
probability of exciting vertical "vibration in the
fundamental mode by wave action. The methods
present by Goodman [37] and van Gunsteren [32]
are useful for this purpose.
Hopefully it m a y be possible to estimate the
natural frequencies of the higher modes of vibra-
tion from the fundamental frequency. Figure 4
demonstrates the difficulties in this procedure.
The ratios of frequencies for a uniform Euler free-
free beam (bending only) show quite rapidly in-
creasing frequencies with the number of nodes. A
ship is not such a beam, since for higher modes the
elastic pattern is governed by shear rather than
bending. For a shear-dominated beam the
natural frequencies are linear with the number of
nodes. This is demonstrated quite remarkably
by the ratios of frequencies for the E. J. Kttlas
[4:7 ], which are linear except for a slight curve be-
tween the two lowest frequencies, where bending
predominates. The Kztlas, being a Lake ore
carrier, is long and narrow and has a high trans-
verse bottom rigidity inherent in the design of the
heavy ore compartments. Thus it was possible
to develop distinct vibration patterns and natural
frequencies to the ninth mode. The graph shows
that no other type of ship possesses such a remark-
able sequence of modes. The reason is that most
ships begin to develop local resonances in the
bottom, the decks, and the superstructure after
the fourth natural beam mode. Tankers, be-
cause of longitudinal wing bulkheads, may run to
the fifth natural mode. When these local reso-
nances are excited, not only is the progression of
hull natural frequencies disrupted, b u t also the
modal pattern of the vibration along the ship be-
comes irregular. By calculations it appears that
most of the local resonances are in the ship bot-
tom, where the water provides a high inertia load-
ing. These local resonances tend to enforce
nodes in the ship vibration pattern at their loca-
tion and are effective absorbers of vibration
energy. Because of this local resonance, the pro-
peller-excited vibration forward of that resonance

The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations 253

 LOCATION OF NODES IN BEAM VIBRATION

[] THEORETICAL - UNIFORM BEAM

O USS NIAGARA - VERTICAL

A USS NIAGARA - TRANSVERSE

LAKE ORE CARRIER - E. J. K I J L A S

o O
v7

/ o/
A O ) o_n

\A O S
A
/
0 .10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
°]o O F S H I P LENGTH

Fig. 5 Location of nodes in bending

becomes small. T h e b o t t o m resonances occur at
lower frequencies on large ships than on small
ones. For this reason the vertical vibrations tend
to be absorbed at the higher frequencies on larger
ships and the coupled transverse-torsional vibra-
tions tend to predominate.
The local resonances in the b o t t o m seem to be
quite unobjectionable. Generally they are not
noticed b u t occasionally they will manifest as
accentuated vibration in the machinery compart-
ment. If the section of b o t t o m t h a t comes into
resonange is located at or near a node in the normal
elastic curve of the ship, it will not be excited and
the ship will vibrate in a normal pattern as though
the local resonance were nonexistent. If, on the
other hand, the local resonance is located at an
antinode on the normal elastie curve, it Will be
strongly excited and will strongly influence the
natural frequency of the ship and i t s modal
patterns.
By eomparing the expected blade b e a t fre-
quency with the fundamentM 2-node frequency of
the ship, it is possible from Fig. 4 to form some
conclusions a b o u t the probable n u m b e r of nodes
in the ship. When the probable n u m b e r of nodes
is known, it is possible to develop an idea of the
locations in the ship where the vibrations will be
strong or weak. Figure 5 is useful for this evalua-
tion. Clearly it is desirable to locate the engine
room and living quarters as near to a node as can
be arranged.
M u c h of the vibration troubles in the super-
structures of modern high-powered ships is due to
local resonances in the area. The structure is not
sufficiently rigid to have a resonance frequency
above the m a x i m u m blade beat frequency.
M a n y times the superstructure difficulties arise
from the arrangements. For convenience, longi-
tudinal corridors are stacked one above the other
so t h a t it is impossible to develop good stiffness
across the superstructure. If in one or two decks
it were possible to develop some shear stiffness in
way of these corridors, the living quarters would
be much more liveable. Considerations of this
type m u s t be made in the contract design stage
because of the difficulty in making changes to
contract plans. Figure 6 shows a typical cross
section of superstructure as now designed and
Fig. 7 a suggested modification of the cross section
to reduce superstructure vibrations.
Detailed Hull Vibration Analysis
For ships t h a t differ from previously built ships
and have high power, or for ships in which a high
standard of freedom from vibration is particularly
important, detailed analysis of the vibrations

254 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations

 J HOUSE T O P

JA BRIDGE DK

BOAT DK
2
CABIN DK

U P P E R DK

P O O P DK
/
MAIN DK

i
k . _ _ _ _ - ~ --__________.J
~,, NX M A C H I N E R Y
CASING
STANCHIONS /

Fig. 6 Typical section through superstructure

P r o v i d e top s t r u c t u r a l tie
s HOUSE T O P

B R I D G E DK

--'--'t BOAT DK

CABIN DECK

U P P E R DK

Move bulkhead
into corn ol . ~ P O O P DK
plane n~/l--
Move p a s s a g e w a y out. from other
Move a c c e s s
door awa y~.__. MAIN DK passageways
fron~ |
under pas 1
sageway V
MACHINERY
Support/I
house i I
sides I STANCHIONS

Fig. 7 Changes to superstructure arrangements to improve stiffness

should be undertaken. Such detailed analyses
form the background for the much less detailed
evaluations that have been presented in the
previous section of this paper. Complete hull
vibration analyses must be performed if improved
simplified methods of analysis are to be developed.
To make the detailed calculations, the ship is
represented by a mathematical model of sufficient
detail to faithfully represent the actual ship over
the frequency range of the propeller blade beat.
The mathematical model should be such that it
can be developed, solved, and interpreted within
practical limits of time and cost. Various models
are advocated by people working in the field.
Furthermore, there is a similarity between ship
hull vibration analysis and that applied to large

The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations 255

interspace rockets. Whatever model is adopted,
it must deal adequately with shear deflections,
with local accentuations of the vibration, and with
the load path through the shafting, and must have
a fine-enough definition to represent the m a n y
nodes characteristic of large ships. The vertical
bending (and shear) vibration can be evaluated
without regard to its coupling with longitudinal
vibration (this has not been established analyti-
cally but appears to be justified by measure-
ments). However, the transverse vibration is
strongly coupled with hull torsion and analyses
that do not include this coupling will give er-
roneous predictions. This conclusion is based
upon vibration measurements.
I t has been our experience that the most prac-
tical model is one t h a t is based upon a Timo-
shenko beam; that is, a beam that includes shear
deflections and cross-sectional mass moment of
inertia, i.e., rotatory inertia. This model is
further modified to consider some of the ship mass
to be elastically connected to the beam and the
reduction in the water inertia with nodal spacing.
I t is also adapted to reflect the coupling between
bending and torsion in the case of transverse vi-
bration. Engineering judgment is exercised in
fairing discontinuities in structure where a flow of
stress is involved but not where an element of
structure changes thickness. Because the stresses
t h a t are involved in hull vibration are small, so
there will not be slipping and because shear strains
act along the rubber sealing gaskets of large steel
hatch covers, the hatch covers are included in the
evaluation of torsional stiffness but are not in-
cluded in the bending rigidity, where the stress is
normal to the width of the gasket and transmitted
through the coaming above the main huI1 girder.
A flow chart of the computation process is shown
in Fig. 8 and diagrams of a ship model in Figs. 9
and 10.
The first step in the detailed evaluation of the
hull vibration is the definition of the model t h a t is
to be analyzed. Coordinates are defined as:
x = fore and aft, positive forward
y = athwartships, positive to port
z = vertical, positive upward
Moments are defined b y a right-hand rule about
these axes.
A series of plots is prepared which accurately
delineates the following ship properties as a func-
tion of length :
[vv = area m o m e n t of inertia about y-axis
(for vertical bending)
I ~ = area m o m e n t of inertia about z-axis
(for transverse bending)
256 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
(KA)z = effective shear area in the z-direction
(for shear in vertical vibration)
(KA)v = effective shear area in y-direction (for
shear in transverse vibration)
Iv~ = product of inertia with respect to y-
and z-axes (is generally zero be-
cause of ¢_symmetry)
I~eq = torsional stiffness constant about
x-axis divided by G, the shear
modulus
~A = vertical coordinate of center of gravity
of cross-sectional area
~e = vertical coordinate of shear center of
section
~a -- horizontal coordinate of CG of cross
section, nominally zero because of
symmetry
A = structural area of cross section
Components (structural and outfit weight, cargo,
supplies, ballast, etc.) of the following:
w = weight per unit length
[wv = sectional weight m o m e n t of inertia about
an axis through CG parallel to y-axis
Iwz = sectional weight moment of inertia about
z-axis
I~, = sectional polar weight moment of inertia
about x-axis
$~ = vertical coordinate of center of gravity of
cross-sectional weight
For the entrained water:
vertical sectional inertia for z-motion
transverse sectional inertia for y-motion
vertical coordinate of effective line of action of
transverse sectional inertia
The structural properties Iw, Izz, KAy, KAy,
Jxeq, ~A, ~c, and A are all determined from struc-
tural cross sections of the ship. The scantlings at
these cross sections are determined from the shell
expansion, plans of decks, longitudinal bulkheads,
longitudinal stringers, longitudinal framing, and
such other plans as are required to delineate the
longitudinal structure. Use is made of a computer
program which is a slight modification of the pro-
cedure and program developed by Leibowitz and
Harder [48]. The hull section is defined by a
number of nodes whose location is defined by the
y- and z-coordinates. These nodes mark locations
where structural elements ioin, and the elements
of the structure are defined by the nodes at their
extremities. The primary value of the program
is its computation of shear flow, effective shear
stiffnesses (KA)~ and (KA)v, the torsional stiffness
constant J.eq, and the shear center. For a large
 At Hull Plot as a
S e c t i o ~ (I, ..n) function of
Local elastic length:
properCie s:
area
[('.'."t2::.=,',. ] area
neutral ax~e
Iyy
neutral axis
IT/
Izz
Izz Iyz -- " vi'btiat ia~°n [ ;leeigxihti]at¢ D a ta: I ~ibratio=
• ]- Iyz
K shear
K shear y
z
K shear z
K shear y
K shear x
L (NODES} K shear x s h e a r center
property I C n, Vibratio~
s h e a r center
For longiba dlnal
For longitudinal V ir:togra~o.{----~ o
n+l
l-~-~,~rogr-- ~r=~=.,,~-"
~ structure¢,
structure:
wt/ft
I L~r_og.~_J { Kh o . a l . g . I '. . . . . . i I h A, ~. c.t
i \ wtlft Morne nt/~
~ m orne nt/~t Iwyy/ft "
\ 160yy/ft I~zz//t
~ .Iwzz/ft Iwxx/ft

=2
5~

O
Bottom structure
Superstructure "
Engine roam

boundary coordiv.ate s
of frame elemento
-- . . . . . . . . . . . .
C ~ p u t e r progr~ans ~

: ._~c_~_,
,_sl _£~31~_ j

M a s s Dat~
"3
for local r e s o n a n c = s ~
Nat~al
frequencies and
mode shapes for
ocal .........

Plot M a s s Data
II ,~u~---I
--.~Dene orlon I
'_P_,~_Sr_a~__

Frames I .... n as a f u n c ~ o n i
8 %. (NODES) ] ,M.~u u I I m~ent/tt I 1 wt/ft I
"o

\ (s0a.,l . . . . -, ~ /4~.o,.~.
I :-..,.,.,.~.;..~..~;.=~.. I / u ........
[
-,
['J'2~:
I ~
I
t
II ,.~y,t
I~zz/ft
/
/
:2b~ki',fd;i;'J;£' t " / ~"~"~ I I z~./f, /
t3

Plot M a s s Data
< ......lght. k {Ma..... I i
• Weight and moment/It wt/ft m mthe~ancal system s~nes~
Q PMoment i ~ I~yy/ft m~ent/ft analysis of
I Di|tribution I lwzz/ft lwyy/ft
o
Outli t Weights ~ 1 ~ _ P r °..g_r_a~n _ __ 1~/ft
Ic~/z/ft
I~zz/ft
I~xx/ft
l~y~/ft
[
vibration ~ -- - -

[ ~,i~ 3-ec~o-n---- ] for

W l<n<m
'property ~ lzzn
integ ration~ I n,n÷l --
M a s s Data: as a function *,progr~ j C n
Cargo wt//l of length: ....... K~bending y Define sprung 1
m om e a t / i t "~/ft I E shear n maeseB for
l~yy/tt moment/It K tot slo~ n÷l lateral-
l l~zz/£t l~yy/it CG r~ n+l torsional
lwxx] ft I~zz/ft Sh~r ~i ra' n
een[er z +1
Fuel o BLIia~% } l~yz/it l~c~/£t
l~yz/It

Fig. 8 F l o w chart for ship vibration calculations

bO
L~
"4
 381643513~t. II 12zl2,120119118 1 1 . 1 1 3 1 I Z I l II 1111~13121 I
/ \ I 1 6 ~ 6 ~ 6 ~ 6 6 6 S,STEM I
DOUBLE M A I N HULL
/ ~ II I I I II BOTTOM
/ ~ MACHINERY SPACE, EQ. M A S S E S
EQ. M A S S & S P R I N G I N G
/ "--- ~

I 30 1 91 z la~l z.6 I

1t 12 ] ] [ 9 [ 81 [ 7 16 [ 5 1312 1 SYSTEM 2, S T E R N T U B E & S T R U C T U R E

Fig. 9 Vertical vibration model for Lykes Sea Barge Clipper

TORS. SPRUNG MASSES

/-~ "~ EQ. TO T H R E E A N T I - S Y M .
?y? (~ ~ MoDEs o~ MAC. SPACE VI~R MTAOS SWE S SPR~NG
EQUIV.

VIBR. O F BARGES

391113v1361351133|lll126]llllallao[191181 71 61 5 1 4 1 3 1 a l l I l o l g l l l l s 1 4 1 3 1 z II

J
/
I 25 I 24 23 I/
S Y S T E M l,
MAIN HULL

llOl 91 17 I 6 ] .1 SYSTJ M 3, SHAFT & ) R O P E L L E I

1 3 1 . t l t l ,9 , 8 5 ~4~,2.1 SYSTI M 2

I 91 a 171 6 I 5 I I I 2
SYSTEM 4, SKEG

Fig. 10 Transverse-torsional vibration model for Lykes Sea Barge Clipper

ship, 100 to 150 nodes are necessary to define a addition to these, the weights, moments, and
cross section and twenty to forty cross sections are moments of inertia of the transverse framing, deck
necessary to accurately define the elastic proper- beams, and double-bottom floors are computed
ties of the hull. When the structural cross sec- and plotted; and the weights, moments, and
tions coincide with changes in hull plating stiff- moments of inertia of the main structural and
ness, it is possible to calculate two useful values of partition bulkheads are determined. The princi-
section properties with the same nodal coordinates. pal machinery weights and the principal items of
The information from the structural stiffness deck machinery such as anchor windlasses, cargo
calculations can be used to assist in the determina- winches, and stearing gear are located in their
tion of the weight distribution (using A), the proper location in the hull and their weights,
weight moments of inertia about the y- and z-axes moments, and moments of inertia defined as are
(using fvv and I~), and the center of gravity. In those of the superstructure. There remain items

258 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations

 0.4
0.2
<
~-0. Z
Z I "-.LfZI
oi
~a
-0.4
<
>
O
~ -0.
= 2__D R A F T
BEAM
-0.
-1.
0.2
~, S E C T I O N A L AREA
F i g . 11 Location of center of pressure of the water
transverse motion
of weight such as piping, electrical wiring, and
miscellaneous stores. Wiring and bilge and bal-
last piping are generally defined as triangular
distributions having their vertices at the machin-
ery space or p u m p room. Cargo, fuel, ballast, and
other variable weights are kept separate from the
light ship weights so t h a t different loading condi-
tions can be studied if desirable. T h e final re-
sult is a n m n b e r of curves for different components
of the light ship weights, moments, etc. and a
table of the concentrated weights, moments, etc.
These curves are defined on punched cards which
represent each curve of weight pe r unit length as a
function of length in trapezoidal segments. Other
cards represent the concentrated weights.
T h e entrained water for vertical and transverse
motion and the center of action of the transverse
entrained water m u s t next be determined. For
vertical motion the procedures developed b y F. J.
Lewis [5] are generally used. T h e more detailed
procedures of Landweber and Macagno [49, 50, 51 ]
give similar results for vertical motion and are re-
quired for the determination of the water inertia
The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
I jg I~
/
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
RATIO (AREA/BEAM + DRAFT)
inertia in
for transverse motion. None of these procedures
gives the center of action of the entrained water
in transverse m o t i o n - - a quantity t h a t is impor-
rant in the coupling between transverse and tor-
sional modes of Vibration. The pressures gener-
ated b y the entrained water have been studied and
from these an estimate of the line of action de-
termined. This is shown in Fig. 11. Surpris=
ingly, because of the torque from the upward
components of pressure, this line of action is fre-
quently above t h e waterline. The entrained
water is assumed to have no m o m e n t of inertia.
Property curves for structural sections, com-
ponent weights, and water inertia as a function of
length are defined on punched cards. F r o m these
functions the properties for the dynamic analysis
of the ship are determined.
In Appendix 5 the development of a representa-
tion of the ship in terms of difference equations is
presente d . This procedure requires t h a t the ship
shafting, elastically supported masses, etc., be
represented by a number of elements. These
elements need not be equally spaced. Usually at
259
least forty elements are required. Their location
is determined b y applying the following considera-
tions :
* Bearings in the shafting system should m a t c h
section locations in both the shafting and the hull.
• Sections should m a t c h the locations t h a t most
accurately line up with the sprung masses t h a t are
equivalent to locally resonant structures.
• Excitation points should be coincident with
section locations.
• I t is desirable to have large concentrated
weights, such as transverse bulkheads, fall on sec-
tion locations.
• T h e sections should be closely enough spaced
to define the pattern of vibrations.
• Sections should be more closely spaced where
large vibrations are expected than where the vibra-
tions are small, i.e., closer together in the stern
than in the bow.
At low frequencies the ship vibrates as a beam.
In each cross-section all parts vibrate together as a
rigid cross section. This m a y be a complex mo-
tion since it is composed of vertical displacements,
horizontal displacements, and rotations a b o u t the
longitudinal axis, but every point in the cross
section remains at a fixed distance from every
other point. As the frequency rises, this rigid
body displacement of the cross sections begins to
be lost. Transverse bulkheads, where they are
not drastically cut b y passageways or are ab-
breviated, will maintain the rigid cross-sectional
characteristic, b u t for large ships m o s t other cross
sections will lose their across-hull rigidity. T h e
upper gunwale strakes plus the shear strakes act-
ing with the sides of the ship and the bottom, even
if the center is displaced, and the decks, b o t t o m
and longitudinal wing bulkheads on a tanker, will
define a beam, while p a r t of the double bottom,
the decks, and the superstructure will move rela-
tive to this beam. The a m o u n t of motion relative
to the beam will depend upon the mass and rigidity
of the section and can be defined in terms of the
natural frequency of the cross section, assuming
t h a t the sides are fixed. In the main hull it will
be found t h a t the bulkheads are rigid cross mem-
bers whose natural frequencies are well above ex-
citation frequencies, b u t t h a t for 5-, 6-, and 7-blade
propellers most of the sections in the wider p a r t of
the ship t h a t lie between the bulkheads will have
natural frequencies below the m a x i m u m blade
beat frequency. An interesting discussion of this
is given b y Suetsuger [52]. In calculating the
frequency of the double bottom, the shell and
t a n k top define the faces, and sandwich shear
properties are defined b y the transverse floors and
longitudinals. Generally the b o t t o m m o m e n t s of
260 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
inertia a b o u t transverse and longitudinal axes are
not inueh different even when the shell and t a n k
top are longitudinally framed, so t h a t a reasonable
approximation to the natural frequency is ob-
tained b y assuming the b o t t o m to be isotropic
with a section modulus and shear stiffness per unit
width equal to the average of the transverse and
longitudinal values. The p r i m a r y loading is the
water inertia. This can be estimated by the
sectional entrained water as determined for the
ship cross section using the Lewis [5] or the Land-
weber [49, 50, 51] formulation and applying a re-
duction factor developed b y K e n n a r d [541 to ac-
count for nodes at the bulkheads.
One problem in the analysis is the degree of
fixity at the edges. I t is probable t h a t the sides
have little restraint and, if the vibration p a t t e r n
of the hull is such t h a t alternative c o m p a r t m e n t s
are generally out of phase, there is also not much
fixity at the bulkheads. However, the degree of
fixity is relative and the natural frequency of a
panel having fixed edges is 2.2 times t h a t of one
t h a t is simply supported. In addition to the
problem of fixity, the b o t t o m structure is used to
support upper decks through pillars and columns.
These connections will increase or lower the nat-
ural frequency of the local structure depending on
the stiffness and mass of the decks. I t is possible
to m a k e reasonable estimates for the natural fre-
quencies b y developing a structural model and
analyzing for natural frequencies and mode shapes.
T h e m o s t practical procedure for accomplishing
this is to use one of the available finite-element
computer programs [43]. A discussion of this is
given in Appendix 6.
A section of the hull t h a t has one symmetrical
mode falling within the blade beat frequency
range is represented b y a distributed mass fixed
to the hull beam and an attached, vertically
sprung mass. One having two symmetrical modes
with natural frequenc!es within the blade beat
range is represented b y a distributed mass fixed
to the hull plus a rigid beam of variable mass and
inertia sprung at two points on the hull. Higher
modes whose frequency m a y fall within the range
of blade beat frequencies are assumed to be poorly
coupled with hull motions and are therefore not
included. Modes whose vibration patterns are
antisymmetrical a b o u t the centerplane of the ship
and whose frequencies are within the blade beat
frequency range are represented b y torsionally
sprung masses.
T h e longitudinal location of the equivalent sys-
t e m and the values of the masses and spring con-
stants of the equivalent system are determined by
making:
 • the total inertia force of the equivalent sys-
t e m equal to t h a t of the complex system when vi-
brating at each natural mode.
• the natural frequencies of the equivalent sys-
tem equal to those of the complex system.
• the longitudinal center of action of the inertia
forces of the equivalent and the complex systems
at the same longitudinal location for each natural
frequency.
• the total vibration energy at each natural
frequency equal for both equivalent and complex
systems.
T h e analysis of the complex system is generally
m a d e without including damping, b u t the equiva-
lent system can be and generally is represented as
a d a m p e d spring-supported mass oi- masses. An
application of the finite-analysis study to a ship is
considered in Appendix 6.
T h e hull model includes the shaft and propeller
system as a parallel spring-connected system. I t
m a y also include other systems elastically con-
nected to the hull such as a long superstructure
and skegs (even if located between the hull and
the shaft system).
Available computer programs allow fixed values
of damping to be used where they are known. For
example, equipment is frequently m o u n t e d on
rubber shock mounts for which measured damping
constants are tabulated. Propeller damping is
discussed in Appendix '-I. Tile damping of control
surfaces such as rudders and submarine diving
planes can be developed by the methods of flutter
analysis used in airplane design [55 ].
This specific damping is far from adequate to
explain the amplitudes at resonances. Mc-
Goldrick [14] suggests t h e addition of a general
damping t h a t is proportional to velocity, i.e., the
common viscous friction of classical vibration
theory. This, however, tends to overdamp the
lower modes and to u n d e r d a m p the higher modes
of vibration as compared with vibration measure-
ments. F r o m the few available comparisons be-
tween good calculations and good measurements,
it appears t h a t damping of a hysteretic nature,
where a certain percentage of the vibration energy
is lost during each cycle, gives the best match.
There is some logic for the hysteresis hypothesis,
although it m u s t be a d m i t t e d t h a t hysteresis in
the strict sense of internal damping in the metal is
far too small to account for the level of observed
damping. T h e representation of damping as
hysteretic is very convenient when large com-
puters are available, since it is accomplished b y
adding an imaginary term to the modulus of
elasticity. This is accomplished by multiplying
the stiffnesses b y (1 -- ~j) and flexibilities b y
The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
(1 + , j ) / ( 1 - n~'). Until there are more experi-
mental data available which m a t c h with careful
m a t h e m a t i c a l analyses, it appears t h a t a value of
= 0.10, corresponding to a 10 percent energy loss
per cycle, will give a reasonable agreement.
T h e excitation :iorces used in the hull vibration
analysis are located on the propeller and on the
hull as discussed in Appendix 2.
T h e complete calculations are run for a sequence
of frequencies extending from zero frequency to
some 10 or 15 percent above the m a x i m u m blade
beat and the results plotted for a n u m b e r of points
of interest. These generally include the bow and
stern of the ship, the quarters, the bridge, the
machinery space, the propeller, and such other
spaces as might be sources of trouble. We have
found t h a t it is necessary to run quite closely
spaced frequeneie,;, not more than 0.2 cps apart, if
adequate plots are to be obtained.
Because of the gyroscopic coupling at the pro-
peller, it is best to find the frequency response of
the ship to unit forces and m o m e n t s located at the
propeller and on the hull so t h a t the calculation
for vertical vibration can be run independently of
t h a t for transverse bending-torsion. This has
the further a d v a n t a g e of indicating the sensitivity
of the ship to tile various forces and allowing
evaluations of the response as the several exciting
forces and m o m e n t s are changed in magnitude and
phase through modifications in propeller design or
improved predictions of exciting forces.
T h e programs developed by the Applied Mathe-
matics L a b o r a t o r y of the N a v a l Ship Research and
Development Center [20, 21 ] can be used for these
calculations. We have found t h a t less computer
capacity is required and a saving in computer
time is possible if tile analysis is done using a pro-
gram for the model based upon the Prohl proce-
dure. This essentially solves the matrix de-
veloped under the Cuthill-Henderson method
without storing it and the various submatriees in
its solution.
T h e o u t p u t from the computer is fed directly to
a plotter. Figure.. 12 shows a typical plot of the
vibration amplitude in vertical and transverse
vibration in the wheelhouse of a ship.
Criteria for acceptable levels of vibration
against which the predicted levels can be balanced
are presented in Appendix 7.
Vibration Measurements
If vibration problems are to be avoided b y good
design, it is not enly i m p o r t a n t t h a t the designs
be carefully analyTed but also t h a t thorough mea-
surements be taken of the ships t h a t have been
analyzed. A good job of vibration analysis and
prevention can be self-defeating if the ship is so
261
 LYKES SEA
AMPLITUDE OF HULL VIBRATION AT WHEEL HOUSE AND
O VERTICAL
A HORIZONTAL
+ HORIZONTAL
2.
h I. l,
<
0
~ 0,8
Z
o
O
~ 0.4
N
0-----~
2.00
Fig. 12
smooth and steady on the builder's trials t h a t no
detail vibration measurements are taken. A quiet
ship is just as useful as a rough one for evaluating
the success of the vibration prediction procedures.
J u s t as the vibration avoidance procedure in-
volves two aspects of ship hull vibration, i.e., the
vibration of the ship as a whole and the accentu-
ated vibration in local areas, the same aspects
should be considered when taking vibration re-
cords. N o t 0nly is it i m p o r t a n t to evaluate the
vibration in the stern, of the Ship, the measure of
the basic level of vibration as specified in the
S N A M E Code, b u t also the vibration in local areas
such as superstructure,, engine rooms, and double
bottoms, areas t h a t fall within the discretion and
judgment Of the engineer making measurements.
Because of the importance of lateral shaft reso-
nance on the vibration level, it would be desirable
to develop some experimental information a b o u t
the. shafting to back up and confirm the analyses.
When measuring vibrations, it is i m p o r t a n t
t h a t each record include a shaft position m a r k e r
t h a t can be used for checking the phase between
vibrations, and an accurate time reference. T h e
60 cycles from a ship's generator sets should not
be considered an adequate time reference. Be-
cause of the changing level of vibration, it is de-
262 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
BARGE CLIPPER
UPPER DECK
MOTION AT FRAME 38. 5
MOTION AT FR. 38,5 - U P P E R DECK
MOTION AT FR. 38. 5 - W H E E L HOUSE
4. O0 6. O~ 8. O0 i O. O0 12.00
FREQUENGY (CPS)
Typical computer plot of vibration level
sirable t h a t the record contain measurements at
one fixed location and t h a t measurements at other
locations be referred to this for relative amplitude
and phase. When measuring the basic level in
the ship, it is i m p o r t a n t to locate the vibration
pickups away from local resonances. This is best
accomplished b y vertical pickups at the gunwales
over the after perpendicular and a transverse
pickup at the center. Thus the vertical, trans-
verse, and torsional amplitudes of beam vibration
are measured b u t not the local vibrations of the
deck.
T h e iilstruments should be reliable and well
calibrated. Because of the pitch and roll of the
ship, it is necessary to cut off the very low fre-
quencies.. This cutoff can be a function of the
transducer or it can be obtained by electrical
filters. I t is desirable to be able to record simul-
taneously six or more signals, the shaft marker,
and the timer. Velocity pickups with a low fre-
quency cutoff appear to give a convenient range of
amplitudes for most ship vibrations. Aecelerom-
eters tend to accentuate high-frequency motions
too much and displacement meters, the low fre-
quency. Because the frequency range of interest
in ship vibrations is limited, it is possible to use
inked or heated stylus oscillographs. These have
the advantage of simplicity, portability, and the
immediate availability of good permanent records.
Acceptable levels of vibration are discussed in
Appendix 7.
Conclusions
This paper has endeavored to point out t h a t a
technology exists for designing ships t h a t will be
free from hull vibration. In the preliminary de-
sign stage the ship must be designed with good
propeller clearance, with shaft natural frequencies
in the vertical and transverse directions well
above the maximum blade beat frequency, with
proper attention to torsional and longitudinal
vibration in the shafting and power plant, and
with some consideration given to good structural
arrangements in critical areas. In the structural
design stage it is possible to predict the level of
propeller-excited vibration at any desired point in
the ship. This involves a detailed modeling of the
ship as a nonuniform beam encompassing m a n y
refinements--particularly in the field of predic-
tions of local resonances.
Presently this prediction process lacks the test-
ing, refinements, and simplifications that come
from application to m a n y examples and many
comparisons with measurements.
In the past, propeller-excited vibrations were
either accepted as a necessary characteristic of
high-powered ships or were corrected at a great
expense after the ship was built. This is un-
necessary in these times. Modern technology
and the availability of large computers, if properly
applied, not only can free the shipbuilder and the
ship operator from the expense of correcting ex-
cessive vibration, but also can lead to efficient
ships t h a t attain new standards of vibration-free
operation.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge the as-
sistance of the m a n y people and organizations who
have made this presentation possible: T o the
present and past members of the staff of Littleton
Research and Engineering Corp., with whom the
procedures have been discussed and developed and
who developed the computer programs that are
described---in particular, Mr. Atis A. Liepins, Mr.
Jay L. Lipeles, and Mr. Ronald G. Orner; to the
J. J. H e n r y Co. Inc. and Lykes Steamship Co., who
patiently supported the detailed hull vibration
studies of the Sea Barge Clipper and the frustrat-
ing, time-consuming, and expensive troubles t h a t
are associated with the first development of a
subject; to Avondale Shipyards and the Ingalls
Shipbuilding Division, Litton Systems Inc., under
whose sponsorship further developments and re-
The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
finements were made; to General Dynamics,
Quincy Division, who supported the studies of
Engine Room Resonance reported in Appendix 6.
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Trans. S N A M E , vol. 71, 1963.
68 F. M. Lewis, "Propeller Vibration Forces
in Single-Screw Ships," Trans. SNA2V[E, vol. 77,
1969.
69 R. Wereldsma and R. H. Mercier, "Mea-
surements of Propeller Induced Vibratory Stern
Pressure," Stevens Institute of Technology,
Davidson Laboral:ory Report 1321, September
1968.
70 H. Keil, "Messung der Drucksehwankun-
gen on der Aussenhaut fiber dem Propeller,"
Schiff und Hofen, heft 12, 17 Jahrgong, 1965.
71 E. Huse, "Hull Vibration and Measure-
ments of Propeller-Induced Pressure Fluctua-
tions," International Shipbuilding Progress, vol. 17,
no. 187, March 1970.
72 "Propeller Stress Measurements and Hull
Vibration Measurements on SS Michigan, Final
Report, Part II, Analysis of Test Data, Display of
Final Results, Discussion and Conclusions,"
Littleton Research and Engiheering Corp., August
1970.
73 E. Schadlc.fsky, "The Calculation and
Measurement of Elastic Natural Frequencies of
Ship Hulls," Shiffbautechnische Gesellschaft, vol. 33,
1932, DTMB translation 7, June 1934.
74 :]lechanical Vibrations of Shipboard Equip-
ment, MIL-STD-167 (Ships), Revision of 1970.
75 J . R . Kane and R. T. McGoldrick, "Longi-
tudinal Vibration of Marine Propulsion-Shafting
Systems," Trans. SNAJ]4E, vol. 57, 1949.
76 C. P. Rigby, "Longitudinal Vibration of
Marine Propeller Shafting," Trans. [ME, vol. 60,
1948.
77 A . A . J . Conchman, "Axial Shaft Vibration
in Large Turbine_-Powered Merchant Ships,"
Trans. IME, vol. 77, 1965.
78 R. M. Cashman, "Design of Marine Ma-
265
 e h i n e r y F o u n d a t i o n s , " Trans. S N A M E , vol. 70,
1962.
Appendix 1
79 S. T i m o s h e n k o a n d J. N. Goodier, Theory Propeller Aperture and Hull Clearances
of Elasticity, s e c o n d edition, M c G r a w Hill, N e w
The clearance between the propeller and the
York, 1951.
hull requires a difficult b a l a n c e a m o n g hull i n p u t
80 A. Z a l o u m i s a n d G. P. A n t o n i d e s , " R e c e n t
force, p r o p u l s i v e efficiency a n d a d e q u a t e s u p p o r t
D e v e l o p m e n t s in L o n g i t u d i n a l V i b r a t i o n s of
for t h e p r o p e l l e r a n d shafting. T h e r e are n o w
Surface Ship P r o p u l s i o n S y s t e m s , " N S R D C
a v a i l a b l e s e v e r a l guides for d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s h a p e
R e p o r t 3358, S e p t e m b e r 1971.
81 Principles of Naval Architecture, J o h n P.
C o m s t o c k , ed., S N A M E 1967, C h a p t e r 7. Table 1 Recommended Clearances and
82 B. J. L o g a n a n d L. E. G o o d m a n , " M a - Clearance Formulas for Single-Screw Ships (Fig. 13)
t e r i a l a n d I n t e r f a c i a l D a m p i n g , " Shock and Vibra- DIMENSIONS.
tion Handbook, H a r r i s a n d Crede, eds., M c G r a w SOURCE a b c e
Hill, N e w York, 1961, C h a p t e r 36. Saunders ~ O.12D larger of larger of ...
83 N. W i l l e m s a n d S. M. H o h e r , " C r i t i c a l 0.2D or 0.08D or
chord ~,~ chord
S p e e d s of R o t a t i n g S h a f t S u b j e c t e d to A x i a l length length
L o a d i n g a n d T a n g e n t i a l T o r s i o n , " Journal of at 0.7R at 0.7R
Engineering for Industry, Trans. A SME, vol. 89, Bunyan [84] 0.10D 0.15D larger of 0.03D
series B, no. 2, M a y 1967. 0.08D
or t
84 J. W . B u n y a n , " P r a c t i c a l A p p r o a c h to Lloyd's Rules b larger of larger of larger of t
S o m e V i b r a t i o n a n d M a c h i n e r y P r o b l e m s in 0.10D or 0.15D or at 0.7R or
S h i p s , " I N A , U 97, 1955. 3 blades 1.2K1D 1.8K~D O.12D 0.03D
4 blades 1.0KID 1.5K~D 0.12D 0.03D
85 F. E. R e e d a n d R. T. B r a d s h a w , " S h i p 5 blades 0.85KaD 1.275K~D 0.12D 0.03D
H u l l V i b r a t i o n s 2 - - T h e D i s t r i b u t i o n of E x c i t i n g 6 blades 0.75K~D 1.12SKID 0.12D 0.03D
Forces Generated by Propellers," Conesco Report Det norske >0.10D >0.15D 0.72tD 0.035D
Veritas c SK3D >_(i + ~) > t
F-101-2, J u n e 1960. X DKt t at t
86 O. G r i m m , " L a n g e r u n g d e r P r o p e l l e r shaft
W e l l e in E i n e m E l a s t i s c h e n S t e v e n r o h r ( E l a s t i c but
In meters ~0.15D
S u p p o r t of t h e P r o p e l l e r S h a f t in t h e S t e r n T u b e ) , " >0.08D
Shiffbautechnische Gesellschaft, vol. 54, 1960, D T -
M B t r a n s l a t i o n 322, M a r c h 1965. a Hydrodynamics in Ship Design [38], vol. 2, section
67.24. 16,000-shp ship transom stern--cutaway; tip
87 F. E. R e e d , " T h e C a l c u l a t i o n of N a t u r a l submergence 0.3D.
F r e q u e n c y of a S e c t i o n of t h e SS America," M I T , b Lloyd's Rules 1970 [57], Provisional Rules and
Guidance Notes, Guidance Notes on Propeller-Hull
M a s t e r ' s thesis, 1951. Clearances:
88 E. B u c h m a n , " C r i t e r i a for H u m a n R e a c -
K1 = (0.1 + 10,000]k L ~ +
(2SCbH 03)
/
tion to E n v i r o n m e n t a l V i b r a t i o n on N a v a l S h i p s , " L = length of ship, ft
D T M B R e p o r t 1635, J u n e 1962. Cb = molded block coefficient at load draft
89 D. E. G o l d m a n a n d H. E. Von G i e r k e , H = maximum designed shaft horsepower
c Det norske Veritas Rules [58] II, Section 14, G.
" E f f e c t s of S h o c k a n d V i b r a t i o n on M a n , " Shock Clearances Forward and Aft of the Propeller:
and Vibration Handbook, H a r r i s a n d Crede, eds., ¢ = angle of run of waterline 0.7R above 1_ of
M c G r a w Hill, N e w Y o r k , 1961, C h a p t e r 44. propeller shaft, radians
KT = propeller thrust coefficient = 3600T/pN~D 4,
90 C. A s h l e y , " E q u a l A n n o y a n c e C o n t o u r s for nondimensional
t h e Effect of S i n u s o i d a l V i b r a t i o n on M a n , " T = propeller thrust
p = mass density of the water
The Shock and Vibration Bulletin, B u l l e t i n 41, N = propeller rpm
P a r t 2, D e c e m b e r 1970. D = propeller diameter
91 "Guide for the Evahtation of Human Ex- S = 1.6 3] •N -- 0.04
posure to Whole Body Vibration," I S O D o c u m e n t VLBd ~/Z(ZN + 500)
I S O / T C 1 0 8 / W G 7 ( S e c r e t a r i a t 19), J u n e 1970. max value LBd = 50,000
92 E. C. P e s t e l a n d F. E. Leckie, AIatrix Ks = "(1 + 2.4 ( H i . 0 - H0a)) but not less than
x f
Methods in Elasto Mechanics, M c G r a w Hill, N e w P
= shp (of 75 kprn/sec)
York, 1963. V
= service speed of ship, knots
L
= length, meters
93 F . E . Reed, " D y n a m i c V i b r a t i o n A b s o r b e r s B
= beam, meters
a n d A u x i l i a r y M a s s D a m p e r s , " Shock and Vibra- d
= draft, meters
tion Handbook, H a r r i s a n d Crede, eds., M c G r a w Hoa,Hl.o = propeller pitch at 0.7R and tip respectively,
meters
Hill, N e w York, 1961, C h a p t e r 6. Z = number of propeller blades

266 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations

 D propelleroi neter 00, TR

\x_____
Fig. 13 Stern aperture

of the propeller aperture on single-screw ships. Clearances [57] recommends m i n i m u m clearances

These are summarized in Fig. 13 and Table 1 and between the propeller tip and the hull of
are discussed in the accompanying text.
1.2K2D b u t not less than 0.2D for 3 blades
F o r multiserew ships it is i m p o r t a n t to provide
1. OK2D but not less than 0.2D for 4 blades
adequate clearance between the propeller blade
0.85K2D but not less than 0.16D for 5 blades
tips and the hull. This adequate clearance is
0.75K2D but not less than 0.16D for 6 blades
generally defined in terms of keeping the propeller
out of the b o u n d a r y layer; although it is probable where
t h a t the b o u n d a r y layer would not m a k e large
contributions to the higher harmonics of wake t h a t
generate harmonic propeller forces. Saunders + 0 000)
[3S] recommends t h a t the propeller tip clearance
be at least 0.7 of the boundary-layer thickness at and L, Cb, and H are as defined in Table 1.
the longitudinal location on the hull of the pro- D e t norske Veritas [58] also makes recommen-
peller. For a flat plate in the turbulent regime, dations for m i n i m u m clearance, f, between the
the boundary-layer thickness ~ = 0.38 xRv -°.2 propeller blade tips and tile hull in meters of
(x is the distance from the bow and Rv is the Reyn- f = DS'k3, but not less than (0.55~/L -- 0.11)
olds number). In ship terms, for 59-deg salt
water the b o u n d a r y layer in feet is equal to 0.036- where
x°.SV -°-2, where x is the distance from the bow
in feet and V is the ship speed in knots. For a
ship whose propeller is 500 ft aft of the bow and is S ' = 1.8 VLBd "¢Z (ZN 'b 500) -- 0.04
travelling at 20 knots, the boundary-layer thick-
ness is 2.87 ft and Saunders's recommended mini- a n d P , N, V, L, E, d, Z, a n d k s a r e a s d e f i n e d i n
m u m tip clearance is two feet. Todd [39] dis- Table 1 and the maximtim value of LBd = 50,000.
cusses propeller tip clearance based upon boumt- Clearances between the propeller and the struts
ary-layer thickness and concludes t h a t elearancbs or bossings supporting the propeller are important.
based on b o u n d a r y layer are too small for high- Experiments relating to this problem have been
powered ships. Based upon propeller diameter, made b y F. M. Lewis [40]. Reasonable values
he suggests t h a t 0.15D is low, 0.2D is a reasonable are those for the propeller apertures for single-
value, and 0.25D can be adopted in some cases. screw ships. T h e struts or bossings should be
He reports from a survey of twenty ships t h a t the aligned with the flow streamlines in order to avoid
largest clearances are represented by the straight wake disturbances to the propeller. T h e angle
line C = 0.0S L~p -- 5.0, where C is the tip clear- between the strut arms should avoid b y as wide a
ance in inches and the LBP is in feet. This formula margin as possible the propeller blade angles and,
does not involve the power on the propeller and, if possible, it is desirable to pick an angle t h a t will
since the field pressures from the propeller are be acceptable for propellers with more or less
related to the thrust (or torque), it would appear blades than the orLe under immediate considera-
t h a t logical clearance formulas should include a tion. As will be discussed later, it is i m p o r t a n t
thrust or a power term. t h a t the propeller shaft be well supported and
Lloyd's Guidance Notes on Propeller-Hull t h a t the struts provide not only translation re-

The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations 267

straint b u t also as much restraint against rotation
a b o u t axes perpendicular to the shaft axis as can
be readily obtained.
Recommendations for strut and bossing clear-
ances are given b y Lloyd's Guidance Notes [57]
as follows:
for 3 blades 1.2K2D but not less than 0.15D
for 4 blades 1.0K2D b u t not less than 0.15D
for 5 blades 0.SSK2D but not less than 0.15D
for 6 blades 0.75K2D but not less than 0.15D
where
K2 and D are as defined earlier.
Appendix 2
Prediction of Propeller and Hull Forces
Within recent years methods have been de-
veloped for predicting the propeller forces and
m o m e n t s generated b y a propeller moving through
the variable wake behind a ship. T h e first of
these calculations were based upon a quasi-steady-
state behavior of the propeller using Burrill's
semi-empirical calculation [24] for forces and
m o m e n t s for a wake t h a t varies radially but is
uniform circumferentially. The calculations were
m a d e for the wake conditions at sequential angular
positions and therefore do not include the un-
steady flow characteristics.
lX{ore recent developments apply lifting-line
theory [59] and lifting-surface theory [60] and in-
elude the dynamic effects of the varying f l o w ' -
the Theodorsen effects. All calculation methods
are based upon wake analyses determined from
m e a s u r e m e n t s on models using pitot tubes [61].
Generally these wake analyses are determined for
the particular ship being studied, but Hadler and
Cheng in a detailed study of the wakes behind a
n u m b e r of ships [62] showed t h a t the charac-
teristics of the wake t h a t are i m p o r t a n t to the pro-
peller and shaft vibration show r e m a r k a b l y small
variations among a wide variety of ships.
T h e v i b r a t o r y forces generated in the propellers
arise from the higher harmonics of the wake varia-
tions. T h e axial harmonic forces and the har-
monic torsional m o m e n t s a b o u t the axis are gener-
ated by the blade n u m b e r order of the wake, and
the vertical and horizontal v i b r a t o r y forces and
m o m e n t s are generated b y harmonics t h a t are one
l~ss and one greater than the blade number.
These higher-order harmonics are geiierated by
subtle perturbations in the wake pattern and can-
not be determined with precision. Since the axial
harmonic forces and m o m e n t s are determined b y a
single value of wake, but the vertical and hori-
268 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
zontal harmonic forces and m o m e n t s b y the sums
and differences of small wakes, the prediction of
axial forces arid m o m e n t s is much more reliable
than those in other directions.
In addition to the forces generated in the pro-
peller, it is Mso necessary to know the magnitudes
of the forces and m o m e n t s generated on the hull
b y the pressure field around the propeller: The
pressure field is generated in two ways: the
loading on the propeller, and the disturbance in
the water from the passage of the solid propeller
blade. Here again computer programs have
been developed for computing these forces. For
these calculations all the harmonics of the wake
are required.
One of the still-undetermined excitations is t h a t
on narrow sections such as bossings, skegs, and
rudders. This problem is being studied and pro-
cedures for predictions in the design stage should
soon be available.
In addition to the computation of the propeller
and hull forces, procedures and equipment have
been developed for measuring these on models.
In particular, the N a v a l Ship Research and
D e v e l o p m e n t Center and the Netherlands Ship
Model Basin have developed propeiler dyname-
ters [63, 64] for measuring harmonic propeller
forces.
The first m e a s u r e m e n t s of propeller-excited vi-
bration were made b y F. M. Lewis on his President
Hoover model [23, 65] and he has continued to
develop effective techniques for determining the
excitation of propellers and hull.
His procedure is to run the ship model with the
propellers operating and then to run the model at
the same speed under the influence of an exciter
t h a t gives the same a m o u n t of blade order hull
motion as the propeller. The known exciter
force then should be equal to the total propeller
excitation. Logically this should give a simple
proceddre for determining propeller excitation,
b u t the results so obtained at different speeds are
not always logically consistent. This is generally
ascribed to the influence of the numerous reso-
nances in the hull and it has been found that, by
using v e r y rigid hulls or b y isolating the stern p a r t
of the ship b y flexible connections from the main
hull, much more consistent results are obtained
[61, 66, 67, 68]. However, the measurements of
propeller excitation are difficult, lengthy, and ex-
pensive and there are strong advantages to a re-
liable computation process.
T h e determination of hull forces has also been
approached through measuring the hull pressures
[69, 70]. In this case the periodic fluctuations in
pressure caused by the propellers are even more
strongly over-shadowed b y the random pressure
fluctuations due to turbulence than are the hull
forces. The procedure is to apply correlation
techniques to a long time record of the pressures
a n d from this to pick out the blade beat pressure
fluctuation which will obviously stand out above
the pressure level of the turbulence. Huse [71]
has pointed out another difficulty in the pressure
measuring technique; namely, t h a t the hull
pressures due to the motion of the ship m a y exceed
those of the propeller so t h a t pressure measure-
ments will only be accurate when they are cor-
rected for the local acceleration of the ship at the
point of measurement.
I t would be desirable to give some indication of
the accuracy of these several methods of calcu-
lating and measuring propeller and hull forces a n d
moments. Unfortunately there have not been
opportunities to obtain adequate correlation for
the v i b r a t o r y forces among calculations, model
measurements, and full-scale measurements.
In the spring of 1970 propeller blade stress
measurements were made on the SS ~lI@higa.n.
Calculations of the propeller blade stress were
curves, if referred to a common rpm, change as
the speed is changed. P a r t of this m a y be due to
propeller shafting and hull resonances and other
parts m a y be due to chahge in the wake pattern.
Taking these into consideration and also t h a t the
wake was determined from tests on a model a n d
m a y therefore have some scale effects as compared
to a ship, it appears; t h a t the predictions by calcu-
lation are in reasonable agreement with measure-
ments and can be used with reasonable conserva-
tive confidence for predicting the harmonic forces
a n d moments generated b y a propeller. Whether
similar confidence (:an be placed in hull force pre-
dictions remains to be demonstrated.
Appendix 3
Longitudinal Vibralion of Shafting
T h e differential equation for axial vibration of a
uniform bar is [34]:
b2~t E bht bh~
_ __ C 2 _ _

m a d e by the Davidson L a b o r a t o r y of Stevens b.v 2 p bt ~ bt ~

Institute of Technology, using their program based
on lifting-surface theory, and b y the author's T h e solution for this at an excitation circular
company, using a much simpler program based frequency, ~ is:
upon lifting-line theory. Both programs compute
the stresses generated b y the several harmonics in u = ( 2 l l c o s ~ ' + N s i n ~ ) c o s ( c 0 t + 9)
the propeller wake a n d a d d these stresses to the
steady stresses t h a t would exist if the wake had no and
circumferential variations.
T h e fluctuation of these stresses involves the F AE bU _ A E , ~ (Ncos wx _
same calculations as the prediction of propeller bX C \ C
exciting forces and m o m e n t s and so a comparison cos (~t + ~)
between calculated and measured range of stress is
indicative of the reliability of the prediction The form of the several transfer matrices will be :
process. This is given in T a b l e 2. Mass matrix :

Fn+Un4-1=l-10J2 ~lFUn[
Table 2 Comparison of Measured and Predicted
Range of Propeller Blade Stress on SS Michigan The simple stiffness matrix:
~ON FACE--~ ~ON BACK~
Per- Per-
Stress cent of Stress cent of
Range, Mea- Range, Mea- F~+~ 1 F~
psi sured psi sured
Measured 9,900 10,900 The distributed mass and stiffness matrix :
By Davidson Lab. 9,280 94 12,790 117
calculations U,~+~ col c . col[ U~
By Littleton 10,872 110 13,874 127 /c°s -c AEco s m c
Research /
calculations

These comparisons involve not only the har- Similar relations will apply to torsional vibra-
monic m o m e n t s but also how these m o m e n t s tion.
stress the shaped propeller blade. I t is also no- Where information on the axial harmonic forces
ticeable t h a t the shapes of the measured stress generated b y the propeller is not available, either

The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations 269

b y c a l c u l a t i o n s based on the propeller design or b y propeller is large, it ~s ngcessary to consider its
m e a s u r e m e n t s with models, the following f o r m u l a gyroscopic m o m e n t s . Also the shaft carries the
can be used: propeller t h r u s t , which can ha~ze an i m p o r t a n t in-
fluence on the n a t u r a l frequency, a n d the pro-
Fz,N = 0.565pnO'D4Y(CON 0.75R)
peller torque, whose influence can be neglected.
where T h e differential e q u a t i o n for a u n i f o r m b e a m with
a s t e a d y axial load, P , a n d v i b r a t i n g a t a circular
Fx,N = a m p l i t u d e of N t h h a r m o n i c axial
frequency, w, is
force g e n e r a t e d b y a n N - b l a d e d
propeller ~)- ()4W a27.U
p = d e n s i t y of water, pcf ~x 4 + -P bx
2- -- m~o2w = O
n = r o t a t i o n a l speed, rps
D = propeller diameter, ft where
] = advance ratio = V~/nD w = l a t e r a l deflection
O~N°'75R = h a r m o n i c a m p l i t u d e of N t h h a r m o n i c E = m o d u l u s of elasticity
of axial wake a t 0.75 radius of pro- I = d i a m e t r i c a l m o m e n t of i n e r t i a
peller m = mass per u n i t l e n g t h
If a wake a n a l y s i s for the p a r t i c u l a r ship is n o t T h e solution for this e q u a t i o n is
avaiIable, the a p p r o x i m a t e values of h a r m o n i c
wake given in T a b l e 3 m a y be used. w = A cos ~x + B sin ~x + C eosh ~x + D sinh -~x
where
Table 3 Approximate Values of Harmonic Wake
for Preliminary Estimate of.Alternating
Propeller Loads [62]
APPROX. M A X . AMPL.
~SINGLE SCRI~XV S H I P S ~ OF HARMONIC W A K E
Range of IN % OF V q' = ~ + EI 2EI ~
Ship Shape Block Coef. Fourth Fifth Sixth
Fine 0.5 --* 0.6 5 4 4 T h e t r a n s f e r m a t r i x for a mass plus m o m e n t of
Less fine 0.6 ~ O. 7 8 4 5 i n e r t i a is
Blocky 0.7 --* 0.8 9 4 6
~ T w I N SCRE~,V S H I P S ~ 1 0
With struts ... 2 2 2 o
With bossings ... 3 2 2 0 1 0
With skeg ... 3 2.5 2 --moJ 2 0 1
DD type ... 3 2.5 2 n+l 0 - - I o~ 2 0

Appendix4 T h e t r a n s f e r m a t r i x for massless elasticity is

Calculation of Lateral Vibration of Shafting l~ l2

w 1 l 3El 2El
N o r m a l l y the B e r n o u l l i - E u l e r differential equa- l2 l
tion [34, p. 324] is used for d e t e r m i n i n g the
n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y of a u n i f o r m slender shaft since
shear a n d r o t a r y i n e r t i a are n o t i m p o r t a n t . How-
ever, because the p o l a r m o m e n t of i n e r t i a of the
n+l 0 0 0

where the shaft carries no axial load, a n d

[3 12
W 1 /--
~ sin ~" E I ~ 3 (~ -- sin ~-) E ~ 2 (1 -- cos ~') W
l2 1
0 0 cos~ E I ~ 2 (1 -- c o s ~ ) E/~ sin 0 ~.~_ p l 2
E[
V 0 0 1 0 V
sin ~ 1
M 0 --_Pl-- ---sin f cos~" M
n

270 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations

where the shaft is carrying an axial load [92].
T h e transfer matrix for distributed mass and
elasticity is a complicated relation involving circu-
lar and hyperbolic functions.
T h e elastic transfer functions are further com-
plicated when the modulus of elasticity is made
complex to represent hysteretic damping.
T h e foregoing discussion applies to vibrations in
one plane. In practice the vibration in the verti-
cal plane is coupled with vibration in the hori-
zontal plane through gyroscopic action of the pro-
peller and the elastic properties of struts and boss-
ings. (However, a eenterline skeg is symmetrical
and so the principal axes of elasticity will lie in the
vertical and transverse directions.) Because of
this coupling, it is necessary to carry the shafting
calculations in two coupled planes so t h a t the
matrices become eighth-order instead of fourth-
order.
These shafting response calculations can be per-
formed on a computer in a few seconds.
I t has been mentioned earlier t h a t there are no
recommended procedures for predicting the damp-
ing for a propeller in lateral motion or rotational
motion a b o u t an axis normal to the shaft axis.
The damping in lateral vibration can be inferred
from Lewis and Auslaender's damping for tor-
sional vibration as follows :
In torsional vibration the damping torque is
bo~ = bo~co (bo is the torsional vibrational damp-
ing constant, 9 the amplitude of torsional vibra-
tion, and co the circular frequency). If the effec-
tive radius of this torque is 0.7R, the total circum-
~ ( X n - Xn_ 1 ~ ' ~ - ~ X n +
~%-Xn_1 -I-
t.__ n
I I
I
I i
l
Xn+Xn_11
Z Z
Xn- I
Station n-1 Station n
half station
n-l,n
Station n (x coordinate x n) is located at the n, idpoint of the
length
Fig. 14 Station designations
The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
ferential force is bo~co/O.7R, and the harmonic
circumferential velocity is; ~co X 0.TR. Thus the
damping constant in force and linear terms is
bo/(O.7R)L However, only the propeller blade
perpendicular to the lateral velocity generates
force. When the force is divided by t w o to ac-
count for this, the lateral damping constant be-
comes bo/4R 2. This will be found to be a very
small quantity.
By a similar process the damping constant for
rotation about an axis perpendicular to the shaft
axis can be obtained from the damping constant
for axial motion. This damping, boy, is found to
be ~ (b~R~).
Appendix5
Modelingthe Ship
The method for modeling the hull presented
herein is based upon the Timoshenko b e a m equa-
tion [34, p. 331]. This equation includes the in-
fluence of shear deltection and rotary (also called
rotatory) inertia. I t is modified to include water
inertia terms t h a t are corrected for the nodal spac-
ing of the vibration and to include sprung masses.
Since the vertical centers of gravity of the ship
section weights do not coincide with the neutral
axis of the sections, there is a coupling between
transverse vibration and torsional vibration. (A
similar coupling between vertical bending and
axial vibration is a~sumed to be negligible.) T h e
1 -Xn)-- ~
"-F" Z~Xn+
~n+ i1 ---
__-----__q~
I
t
Xn÷l+xn
Xn Xn+ I
Station n+ 1
half s t a t i o n
n. n+l
271
differential equations for the coupled bending-
torsion of a beam are given by McGoldrick [14].
The transition from the differential equations to
a working computer program is made by express-
ing the differential equations as difference equa-
tions. E. Cuthill has done this for the case of
simple bending [19, 20] and Henderson for the
case of coupled bending and torsion [21 ]. Apply-
ing these procedures, the hull of the ship is de-
fined in terms of a number of sections designated
as shown in Fig. 14 and having properties de-
termined from the properties of the ship by the
integrations of Table 4. The properties can be
given in any convenient dimensional units and are
then internally transformed into units compatible
with the program by proper constants.
A concentrated mass, m~, connected to the hull
by a spring with stiffness, k~, and damping, c~, and
vibrating with a circular frequency of w can be
represented by an equivalent mass [93] rigidly
connected to the hull :
m~ = [(k~ + jc~w)/k~ + jc~o - m~w2]m~
The procedures for determining the magnitude of
the sprung mass, its spring, and its damping are
discussed in Appendix 6.
The shafting, skegs, superstructure, rudder, or
even longitudinal bulkhead systems, etc., can be
included as subsystems elastically connected to
the main hull girder. The computer program re-
duces the values of entrained-water inertia in ac-
cordance with Kennard's correction for modal
length [54].
Table 4 Quantities Used to Define the Hull
QUANTITY
m,~
ASSOCIATEDWITH
Station
1 Mass of ship
2 Mass of entrained water mr,
3 Mass moment of inertia
4 Mass polar moment of inertia (Iux )n
5 External damping (applied
at reference axis) ( Cvn)
6 Bendingflexibility (~x/EIo),
7 Shear flexibility
8 Torsional flexibility
9 Height of center of gravity Zn
10 Height of shear center
11 External force (and forces in
springs between systems) Fn
12 External torque (and torques
in springs between systems) Tn
External forces and torques and also interacting spring forces and torques between systems are referred to the reference
axis fronl which Z and Zn-l'~ are measured.
Quantities 2, 3, 5, 6, and 7 are determined for both vertical and horizontal axes.
272 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
Appendix 6
Use of Finite-Element Analysis for
Evaluating Local Resonance
The calculation of the dynamic properties and
natural frequencies of a section of a ship bounded
by rigid bulkheads and the sides of a ship is not
easily accomplished. One of the first efforts in
this field was by Reed [87 ], who made calculations
to illustrate the feasibility of predicting a severe
local resonance that appeared in the 1940 builder's
trial of the ship SS A m e r i c a . The availability of
large digital computers and the availability of
finite-element analysis techniques and programs
makes this type of prediction much more feasible.
To illustrate the nature of the finite-element
analysis and its incorporation in the analysis of the
full hull vibration and prediction of local reso-
nance, the calculation presented is of the natural
frequencies and mode shapes of a compartment of
the Lykes Sea Barge Clipper being built by the
Quincy Division of General Dynamics Corpora-
tion.
A finite-element program called S T A R D Y N E
[56] was used. The finite element library of the
program includes: (i) a generalized bar carrying
three components of load and moment and under-
going bending, axial, and shear deformation;
(ii) a triangular homogeneous and sandwich plate
carrying both in-plane and out-of-plane loads.
Mass of the structure is concentrated at nodes to
which the finite elements are connected. See
Fig. 15.
x.
Half-Station
fx~
--ax,~- ~x~/2
u(x)dx
f n-1
uw(x)dx
Iuz(x)dx
Ii~x (x )dx
Cv(x)dx
dx/EIz(x)
Ax/ (KuA G )n_,.n dx / Ku(x )A (x )G
( Ax/JEG)n_i,. d x / J E(x)G
Z(x)#(x)dx
~.-~,n u(x)dx ~(x)dx
Xn -- Xn-z
F(x)dx
T(x)dx
 a/] / 1 1 l 17
UPPER
DECK
U V ff X

CABIN
DECK

MAIN
-* .i .n _.
d DECK
P Q S

LO ~rER
"/I i l il "~ o
e -- DECK
M N

!
MACH.
Y ' FLAT
G H

o./
~ - -
___

BASE
TANK

LINE
TOP

Fig. 15 Typical cross section initial n o d e locations

T o reduce computation time, advantage was
taken of the s y m m e t r y of the ship and separate
calculations were m a d e for the symmetric and the
antisymmetrie vibrations. For symmetrical vi-
brations shown in Figs. 16-19 the transverse
translation, ~y, and the rotations a b o u t the longi-
tudinal and vertical axes, 0, and Oz, arc: zero on the
eenterplane of the ship. For the antisymmetrical
vibrations shown in Figs. 20-24 the vertical and
longitudinal translations, 6z and ~x, and the rota-
tion a b o u t a transverse axis, 0v, are zero on the
centerplane of the ship. Members lying on the
boundary transverse bulkheads (Frames 70 and
82) are completely restrained; b u t the decks at
the frames are only restrained longitudinally,
~ = 0, and from rotation a b o u t the transverse
axis, 0v = 0. All nodes lying in the main shear
members of the h u l l - - t h e side of the ship and the
27-ft l 1-in. longitudinal b u l k h e a d - - a r e assumed
to be restrained from vertical and transverse
translation.
The nodes were chosen in a systematic pattern
as shown in Fig. 15 and Table 5. Although two
frame spaces (16.25 ft) were considered the de-
sirable spacing for the sections, there were several
locations where there were concentrated weights
t h a t made a closer spacing desirable.
The nodal weights are determined by the weight
of the structure surrounding the node, the ma-
chinery and foundation weight adjacent to the
node, the full weights of the barges (1000 tons)
distributed over the nodes on which they are sup-

The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations 273

 /
I /
i i ~=
' ' ~ UPPER DK
T

./ 0 "
..r" i i %%
MAIN DK

-r-" ,'-" "-- " " LOWER DK

I

i i i ~ ",--iii MACH. FLAT

~ TANK TOP et ='" I ~ - -

8Z
FK,,,,,,,,,
80 78 76 ?4 7Z 70
FRAME NO.

VIBRATION PATTERN O N CL VIBRATION PATTERN AT FR, 74

Fig. 16 N a t u r a l m o d e o f s y m m e t r i c a l v i b r a t i o n in w a y o f m a c h i n e r y s p a c e at 3 . 3 7 3 c p s

,t-,
-- t , , "*. , , i ' . U P P E R DK d

/ "~ i i ~ , MAIN DECK ,--r" i * ~ -

L O eVER D K

r---_ ,__ -- _ , __,

M A C Id. FLAT

8Z
7 I I I I I I
80

VIBRATION
78 76
FRAME

PATTERN
74
NO.
I I I I

O N CL
72 70
TANK TOP

VIBRATION PATTERN AT FR. 79

IA
Fig. 17 Natural m o d e of symmetrical vibration in w a y of m a c h i n e r y space at 4 . 8 9 1 cps

l I i I i I I,..._ U P I - ' E R DK i , i i .

X.~. // -~ //

I i i i i i / i MAIN DECK

i i ¢.~ ~ "T'. . . . . .LOWER DK ~-i. . . . , ~ - ~"- - ' 7 - , ~

, , , ~! , MACH. FLAT ~ ~7" . . . . . 7 ~

I I I I I I I I I 1 T TANK TOP
8Z 80 78 76 74 72 70
F R A M E NO.

VIBRATION PATTERN O N C~ VIBRATION PAT'TERN A0-_' F R . 75

Fig. 18 Natural m o d e of symmetrical vibration in w a y of machinery space at 5.7 cps

274 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations

 - -7-. , ~ ." / t "- J
,
UPPER DK
/~ / "" r
, : \

i . , ,~ , , ~ ~ , T-q MAINDECK ,", , ,O i "i,'I,

i LOWER DK ' ~ ~- "'-T~a,- ~ "

I

MACH. FLAT

TANK TOP
J i i i i i i t i'-~l ~ A j
82. 80 78 7b 74 " 7Z 70
FRAME NO.

VIBRATION PATTERN O N CL VIBRATION PATTERN AT FR. 7Z

Fig. 19 Natural m o d e of symmetrical vibration in way of machinery space at 6.31 cps

/) \
---r-- ~ ,'--- UPPER DK i , ' i i '

\ U
\ /

MAIN DR I I i |
P

LOWER DK I .,

I i i i MACH. PLAT i ¢ i
F
TANK TOP i i i

I I I I I I I I I I B J
82 80 78 76 74 72 70
FRAME NO.

VIBRATION PATTERN AT NODAL

vIBRATION P2kTTERNAT PR. 75
POI~S (B. F , K, P ) U

Fig. 20 Natural m o d e of antisymmetrical vibration in way of machinery space at 3.973 cps

/ \
I i • . , , , UPPER DK i , ¢ i
\ \ / o

--2-' .' M A I N DK . A...- . . . . . . i

L p

LOWER DK I ,, I I

, MACH. FLAT I I I I
P
TANK TOP i i

i I I I I I I I B J
8Z 80 78 76 74 7Z 70
FRAME NO.
VIBRATION PATTERN AT NODAL
POl~fS (B, F; K) P: O V I B R A T I O N P A T T E R N AT PR. 79

Fig. 21 Natural m o d e of antisymmetrical vibration in w a y of m a c h i n e r y space at 4 . 5 4 cps

The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations 275

 Lm. L__ I i I - I I UPPER DK

f ' N
/ \
i t - "i',- MAIN DK i i
,"-
\
\ /

I I I LOWER DK I , i i

I i i I l M A C H.. P L A T i i
F
TANK TOP I

I I I I I [ I I I I B j
8Z 80 78 76 74 7Z 70
FRAME NO.

VIBRATION PATTERN AT NODAL

POINTS (B, F, K ) P , U
VIBRATION PATTERN AT FR. 77

Fig. 22 Natural m o d e o f a n t i s y m m e t r i c a l vibration in w a y o f m a c h i n e r y space at 4 . 8 0 cps

, U P I : ' E R DR
U

• . i i i , M A I N DK I I I i
r /I p

, , , . i LOWER DK .; i I ~ I

MACH. PLAT
I i i i i ! i , i
F
TANK TOP i
I l l I l I I i I I B
8Z 80 78 76 74 7Z 70
FRAME NO.

VIBRATION PATTERN AT NODAL

VIBRATION PATTERN AT FR. 80
POINTS (B, F, K ) P , U

Fig. 23 Natural m o d e of antisymmetrical vibration in way of machinery space at 5.15 cps

~ ~ , , -, , , i UPPER DK

t...,, i i i i J i i MAIN DK

- -'-"~ i i i - i I LOWER DK

MAGH. FLAT
TANK TOP
I-I I I I 1 I I I I I ~"
~'-~"~
~' -- 7 ,e'1,~ / ''~ ' B_~'
' ' ~- ' -'''~"
82, 80 78 76 74 72 70
FRAME NO.

VIBRATION PATTERN AT NODAL VIBRATION PATTERN AT FR. 74

POINTS B, F, K, P, U
Fig. 24 Natural m o d e o f a n t i s y m m e t r i c a l v i b r a t i o n in w a y o f m a c h i n e r y space at 6 . 5 5 8 cps

276 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations

 Table 5 Designation of Nodes
VERTICAL DESIO- TRANSVERSE
LOCATION NATION LOCATION FR. 82 FR. 80 FR. 79 FR. 77FR. 75 FR. 74 FR. 72 FR. 71 FR. 70
Bottom A ~_ 1 24 47 70 94 118 142 166 190
B 19 I -4ia f t long. 2 25 48 71 95 119 143 167 191
C 37'-11" long. 3 26 49 72 96 120 144 168 192
D 4 27 50 73 97 12[ 145 169 193
Machinery E ¢_ 74 98 122 146 170 194
Flat F 19'-4~" 6 29 52 76 100 12,i 148 172 196
G 37'-Ii" 7 30 53 77 101 125 149 173 197
H Side 8 31 54 78 102 12(3 150 174 198
Lower I 9 32 55 79 103 127 151 175 199
Deck J Inner barge supp. 10 33 56 80 104 128 152 176 200
K 19'-4}" 5 28 51 75 99 123 147 171 195
L Outer barge supp. 11 34 57 81 105 129 153 177 201
M 37'-11" 12 35 58 82 106 130 154 178 202
N Side 13 36 59 83 107 131 155 179 203
Main Deck O ¢_ 14 37 60 84 108 132 156 180 204
P Inner support 15 38 61 85 109 133 157 181 205
Q Outer support 16 39 62 86 110 134 158 182 206
R 37'-11" 17 40 63 87 111 135 159 183 207
S Side 18 41 64 88 112 136 160 184 208
Upper T ~_ 19 42 65 89 113 137 161 185 209
Deck U Inner support 20 43 66 90 114 138 162 186 210
V Outer support 21 44 67 91 115 139 163 187 21I
W 37'-II" 22 45 68 92 116 140 164 188 212
X Side 23 46 69 93 1!7 141 165 189 213

Table 6 Natural Frequencies of the Machinery Space m e n t when barges axe e m p t y was e s t i m a t e d as-
and Related Structure s u m i n g i d en t i cal m o d e shapes for b o t h conditions.
-SYMMETRICAL MODES T h e s e f r eq u en ci es for t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t n a t u r a l
Node ~Frequency--~ m o d e s are also r e p o r t e d in T a b l e 6.
num- 1000-ton 373-ton
ber barge barge Comments I t is possible to i n c o r p o r a t e all of these n a t u r a l
m o d e s i n t o t h e v i b r a t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e ship.
1 3. 373 3. 970 Fundamental
2 4. 891 7.02 Longitudinal node at H o w e v e r , m a n y of t h e m are so c o m p l e x in t h e i r
center m o d a l f o r m t h a t t h e i r e x c i t a t i o n w o u l d be v e r y
3 5.7 Lower decks against
upper decks low a n d t h e i r d a m p i n g high. T h e r e f o r e , 0 n l y t h e
4 6.31 Two longitudinal nodes first t w o s y m m e t r i c a l m o d e s an d t h e first, third,
5 8.28 ) Complex modes on a n d fifth a n t i s y m m e t r i c a l m o d e s were considered.
6 8.47 f the barge decks
7 9.16 Negligible bottom Becau se t h e a n t i s y m m e t f i c a l m o d e s are excite d
8 9.58 motion in torsion, t h e m o d a l l e n g t h of t h e t o r s i o n a l v i b r a -
~ANTISYMMETRICAL MODES- tion of t h e ship is large, a n d t h e first t w o a n d t h e
1 3. 973 5.76 Upper deck only t h i r d a n d f o u r t h m o d e s each i n v o l v e s o n l y one
2 4.54 Upper deck on/y, deck, it was r e a s o n a b l e to n e g l e c t t h e mOdes t h a t
longitudinal node
3 4. 805 7.25 Main Deck only h a v e nodes a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e length.
4 5.15 Main Deck only As discussed in t h e b o d y of t h e paper, t h e dy-
longitudinal node
5 6. 588 11.10 All decks and bottom n a m i c s of t h e local r eso n an ce are r e p r e s e n t e d b y
simple s y s t e m s t i av i n g (a) t h e s a m e n a t u r a l fre-
quencies, (b) t h e s a m e d y n a m i c force a t t h e re-
straints, (~) t h e same k i n et i c energy, a n d (d) t h e
p o r t e d , a n d t h e w a t e r inertia. T h e d o u b l e - b o t - same cen t er s of a c t i o n as t h e c o m p l e x system.
t o m t a n k s were e m p t y . F r o m these c o n d i t i o n s it is possible to define t h e
W i t h i n t h e blade range, 0 to 12 cps, e i g h t n a t - c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of an e q u i v a l e n t s y s t e m t h a t has
ural frequencie.s of s y m m e t r i c a l v i b r a t i o n a n d five t h e same d y n a m i c effect u p o n t h e ship o v e r t h e
n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s of a n t i s y m m e t r i c a l v i b r a t i o n s b l ad e b e a t f r e q u e n c y range as t h e c o m p l i c a t e d
were found. T h e s e are listed in T a b l e 6 a n d real s y s t e m ; viz., mas;s, stiffness, l o n g i t u d i n a l loca-
s k e t c h e s of t h e m o d e shapes are g iv e n i n F i g s . 16 tion, a m p l i t u d e of m o t i o n as c o m p a r e d to t h e
t h r o u g h 24. F o r c o m p a r i s o n w i t h p r e v i o u s calcu- m o t i o n of a r e f e r e n c e d n o d e in t h e r e a t sy st em .
l a t i o n s in w h i c h t h e barges were a s s u m e d to b'e T h i s e q u i v a l e n t s y s t e m can be of one or m o r e de-
e m p t y , t h e n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s of th e c o m p a r t - grees of freedom.

The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations 277

 SOLID LINES: PREDICTED LEVEL, MAC'HINERY SPACE
LOCAL RESONA'NCES INCLUDED
DASHED LINES: M A C H I N E R Y S P A C E T R E I T E D AS R I G I D
I
21 J
M

D 1
/

"-I
5~

~0
./ U
CPS
\]
6 10 iZ
D~

<
< M J
AT TOP OF STERN CANTILEVER 4 8 0 lZ
0
Z AT END OF STERA[ CANTILEVERS

% t~
g
g
o
o'

2
ff
0 ©
0.15
0
~0
H CPS I0 iZ 0. i 0
<
8 O. 05
AT UPPER DECK UNDER SUPERSTRUCTURE >
> 0
0 CPS 4 8 i0 lZ
O d
AT WHEEL HOUSE
>
C~
>7
0..
Q
~5 M
Q M4
U3 CI
0 ~2 /~X "x . ~ M

0.3
~0 0.2
.CPS 4 8 i0 IZ

AT BOW

SOLID LINES: PREDICTED LEVELS, MACHINERY SPACE 2 -4 6 10 1Z

RESONANCES INCLUDED AT BOW
DASHED LINES: M A C H I N E R Y SPACE CONSIDERED RIGID

Fig. 25 Influence of machinery space local resonances on level of hori- Fig. 26 Influence of machinery space local resonances on level of 'vertical
zontal hull vibration h u l l vibration
 The values of mass associated with the ship
beam at a given station are reduced by the
a m o u n t of sprung mass associated with that sta-
tion. The finite-element analysis of the real sys-
tem normally does not include damping. How-
ever, it is convenient to add damping in the equiv-
alent system b y making the spring stiffness com-
plex.
The ship vibration program is now run with the
equivalent sprung masses and the amplitudes
throughout the ship determined. These ampli-
tudes include those of the sprung masses. From
these amplitudes, the amplitude of motion of the
reference point in the real system can be determined
and, from the modal patterns of vibration of the
real system, detailed information about the motions
in the complex real system under propeller excita-
tion will be known.
Calculations were run for the ship with and
without the flexibility of the machinery space in-
eluded. I t was found t h a t the inclusion of ma-
chinery space resonances had very little effect upon
the amplitudes of motion in the portion of the ship
aft of the machinery space but very strong effects
forward of the space. In Fig. 25 are shown the
predicted amplitudes of transverse vibration when
the machinery space is assumed to be rigidly con-
nected to the hull and when it is modeled by the
equivalent system. Figure 26 shows the cor-
0.8C
0.6£
0.5C
0.4C
0.3C
0. Z£
m
S i
O The International Standards Organi-
~ 0.[0
0.08
i I
~) 0.06
<
u~ 0.05
~0.04
0.03
8 IIOU tS / FOR SAFE EXPOSURE
! ! I
1 FOR REDUCED
0.0Z
i I
I acceptable level in all other accessible
0,01
5 6 8 10
FREQUENCY, C P S (Hz)
Fig. 2 7 ISO proposed recommendations: level of vertical vibra- expressed as single amplitudes of vibra-
tion for fatigue-decreased performance
The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
responding comparison for vertical vibration.
The greatest influence of machinery compartment
flexibility is at frequencies near those of the local
resonance. Hull natural frequencies below the
local resonant frequency are,. reduced and those
above the local resonant frequency are raised.
Although the machinery space local resonances re-
duce the predicted amplitude of the transverse
motion by important amounts, the effect upon the
predicted level of vertical vibration is even more
striking.
Appendix 7
Acceptable Levels of Vibration
(General References: [88-91])
The definition of an acceptable level of vibra-
tion is difficult. Generally machinery and struc-
tures can safely withstand considerably higher
vibration levels than humans. For this reason
most limits for acceptable vibration on shipboard
will be set by human factors. However, these
also are difficult to define because of variations
between humans and the subjectivity of what is
acceptable and what is intolerable. Humans have
developed a tolerance to frequencies of about 1.7
cps, which corresponds to walking frequencies, but
in the sensitive range from '~ cps to S cps numerous
internal body resonances are set up
which lead to low tolerance. Humans
-- can withstand much higher accelera-
-- tions for short periods of time than for
__ long intervals. H u m a n tolerance for
horizontal vibrations is apparently
__ lower than for vertical vibrations.
/ However, this observation is not very
definitive and it is reasonable to as-
_ sume the same acceptable levels in
/ the vertical and transverse direc-
tions.
//-I-5- -- zation (ISO) has proposed a Recom-
-- mended Acceptable,. Level for the Effects
-- of Vertical Vibration on Man, shown
q_
-- in Fig. 27. It is suggested that the
I LI~I/T
MULTIPLY ACCELERATIbN
__
maximum acceptable vibration level in
watch areas and living space on ships be
VALUE'S" lBy 2
COMFORT
no greater than the 8-hr exposure level
DIVIDE ACCELERATION
VALUES B Y 3. 1 5
on this curve and t h a t the maximum
parts of the ship be'. no greater than the
ISO acceptable level for i hr exposure.
In Fig. 28 these acceleration limits are
tion.
279
 1000 of the influence of the natural frequency of the
shafting in transverse vibration on the amplitude
5OO of motion of the hull.
2. An estimate of the amplitude of vibration
300
through the hull generated b y the propellers over
200
the frequency range to the highest blade beat fre-
quency. T h e model for this calculation should
oo I00
\\\ be sufficiently detailed to adequately estimate all
hull modes up to the highest blade beat frequency.
;xposu 'e ~.mit
50 \ ~ s~fe This estimate shall be performed for the trial con-
3O
ditions and for a reasonable loading of cargo and
Z
Limit !or
stores t h a t will give the design displacement.
0 zo FaLl ae
The analysis shall be made for both the vertical
Reduc, d~ ~rfo] nqa %ct
vibrations and for the coupled torsional-trans-
lo
L~7.0

°5.° \
\\ verse vibrations and shall include estimates of
propeller and hull excitation forces and detailed

~ 3.0
\ \
\\
ship response to these forces. Local resonances of
all structures whose natural frequency is less than
2.0 \ \ N 20 percent above the m a x i m u m blade beat fre-
< R ~du :ed \ \\ quency shall be included in the analyses. Loca-
C m,J ~ r t \ tions of possible vibration difficulty shall be flagged
~ 0.7
\ \ and steps taken to relieve the problems.
\
3. Particular attention shall be paid to the
m0.5
\ vibrations in the engine room and in the living
0.3 \ quarters. Either b y comparison with previous
0.2 \ ships of similar design or by m a t h e m a t i c a l model-
ing, the contractor shall present studies indicating
0.1 the procedures undertaken to avoid excessive
1 Z 3 5 7 10 Z0 30 50 70 100
FREQUENCY, CPs vibration of the main and auxiliary machinery,
Values are for For Exposures of
including boilers, condensers and main steam pip-
8 hours of I hour or less,
ing, and of the quarters and navigating areas of the
Continuous E x p o s u r e levels m a y be four (4)
ship.
times as large
During the acceptance trials of the ship, the
contractor shall record the hull vibrations in ac-
Fig. 28 ISO proposed recommended limits for vibra- cordance with the S N A M E Technical and Re-
tion exposure search Bulletin No. 2-10, "Code for Shipboard
Vibration Measurements (Revised 1969)." In
addition to the measurements specified in the
Code, measurements of local resonance in ma-
Appendix 8 chinery areas and in living quarters shall be made
and a survey run of the principal hull modes of
Suggested SpecificQtion for Ships of vibration. The torsional and longitudinal vibra-
25,000-shp or More tion of the main propulsion shafting should be
measured.
Vibration
A comprehensive report of these vibration
I t is the intent of this specification to secure a measurements, including plots of amplitudes of
ship which has a m i n i m u m of hull vibration. T o vibration at critical areas as a function of fre-
assure t h a t proper attention has been paid to the quency and plots of mode shapes, shall be sub-
avoidance of vibrations, the shipbuilder shall sub- mitted to the owner.
m i t to the owner, or his design agent, detailed T h e vibration levels in watch areas and living
technical studies of the hull vibration covering spaces shall not exceed the 8-hr acceptable vibra-
at least the following : tion level for fatigue-reduced performance recom-
1. T h e presentation of a logical procedure for mended b y the International Standards Organiza-
determining the number of propeller blades and tion, and the vibration levels in all other acces-
the revolutions of the propulsion system. In- sible parts of the ship shall not exceed the ISO
cluded shall be a prediction of the amplitude of acceptable level for fatigue-reduced performance
longitudinal vibration of the shafting, and a study for 1 hr exposure.

280 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations

 Discussion
S. Hylarides s and R. Wereldsma, 4 Visitors: The structure, shafting, etc.) its; actual dynamic
paper gives us a splendid review of the actual behavior, considering it to be fixed at its bounda-
state of the means of analyzing ship hull vibrations ries, using a fine network of elements? Then
in the design stage. I t mentions clearly the deduce from the results a system with a coarse
possibilities in this very complex problem. But network of elements by which the degrees of
it scarcely shows the imperfections that still freedom of interest are correctly represented, and
exist. An enormous number of problems have finally join all these coarse networks at their
not yet been solved; for example : boundaries to each other, forming together the
complete hull. This is only a matter of pro-
• The effect of added mass is commonly known,
gramming, not a matter of teehnique !
but at the ship ends a very rough approximation
• The effect of water on the propeller damping
is used. In fact no real progress has been made
is much larger than indicated. Referring to the
in this field since Lewis and Taylor in the late
work of Lewis and Auslaender is too simple. I t
twenties, in spite of the excellent work of De
has to be stressed that more fundamental research
Macagno and Landweber. Probably the finite-
in this field is needed.
element technique as proposed by Zienkiewicz and
Newton~ can solve this problem.
A. Zaloumis, 9 Visitor: In the not-to-distant past
• The proposed determination of dynamic shaft
this subject was generally ignored by many of
and hull excitation, generated by the operating
those responsible for the design and construction
propeller, is based on a very simplified theory for
of ships. When a vibration problem did occur,
which no direct correlation with measurements
palliatives were hysterically sought, sometimes
exists. Recently it has been shown by Huse, 6
successfully, sometimes not. Troublesome vibra-
Van Marten] and SOntvedt s that cavitation of the
tion is not an insidious disease t h a t mysteriously
propeller and the hull can result in a large magnifi-
occurs from time to time but is something that
cation of the actual pressure forces. How far the
can be arrested while the ship is still on paper, as
shaft excitation will be influenced is still unknown.
Mr. Reed and many others in the past have
* The power of the finite-element technique for
attempted to communicate.
the determination of the hull elasticities is set
The problem of predicting the vibration
aside with the remark that then a grid of elements
characteristics of a ship or some other structure
has to be used which is too coarse! However, for
involves the development of a suitable mathe-
the determination of the natural frequencies of
matical model to which an exciting force is
local structures the finite-element technique is
applied. The prediction of the exciting force is
recommended. I t is shown in the paper t h a t by
perhaps the more difficult and more important
means of the finite-element technique it is possible
task of the two.
to estimate the effect of local structures so that
Regarding modeling of the hull, Mr. Reed
they can be replaced in the ultimate calculation
suggests the Timoshenko beam equation and that
by equivalent systems with a much smaller
calculations be performed for all hull modes up
number of degrees of freedom. Automatically
to the highest blade beat frequency. He also
there arises the question: W h y not use the
suggests the inclusion of sprung masses but did
finite-element technique to determine for each
not offer a clear-cut procedure for doing so. The
significant part of the ship (bulkhead, sidewall,
consideration of sprung masses requires a detailed
double b o t t o m in a hold, thrust block on the
knowledge of the structure under question in-
engine room bottom, support of turbines, super-
eluding the elusive boundary conditions. In
fact, an example problem eovering the salient
a Netherlands Ship Model Basin, Wageningen, The
Netherlands. features of Mr. Reed's recommended method for
4 Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Nether- prediction of ship vibration would have been
lands. extremely helpful, especially if it also contained
50. C. Zienkiewlcz and R. E. Newton, "Coupled Vibra-
tions of a Structure Submerged in a Compressible Fluid," a comparison of predicted results with experi-
ISD/ISSC, Symposium on Finite Element Techniques at mental data.
Stuttgart, June 1969.
E. Huse, "Propeller-Hull Vortex Cavitation," Nor- We at N S R D C have found on numerous occa-
wegian Ship Model Tank, May 1971. sions that the experimental data obtained on
7j. D. Van Manen, "The Effect of Cavitation on the actual ships do not agree with predicted modal
Interaction Between Propeller and Ship's Hull,"
I.U.T.A.M., Leningrad, June 1971.
s T. SCntvedt, "Propeller-Induced Excitation Forces," 9 Naval Ship Research and I)evelopment Center,
Det Norske Veritas, publication no. 74, January 1971. Bethesda, Maryland.

The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations 281

 characteristics at high blade frequencies. An
early example of this was reported b y McGoldriek
[13] on the ~ariner Class ships in which closely
controlled vibration generator tests were con-
ducted to define the vibrational characteristics of
these hulls. These results showed an unreason-
ably large discrepancy between predicted and
measured natural frequencies for the upper modes.
I t is safe to say t h a t b y using the Timoshenko
b e a m analogN, no m a t t e r how finely the model is
represented, the highest mode t h a t can be con-
fidently predicted is perhaps the 4th or 5th mode
in either the vertical or athwartship direction.
In most cases, full-power blade frequency is well
above these modes, especially where 5- and 6-
bladed propellers are used. As a result, we are
a t t e m p t i n g to represent the ship's hull in a
manner t h a t will resemble the actual behavior
more closely. As an interim approach, the
method t h a t MeGoldrick [13] recommended for
forced stern vibration is considered b o t h practical
and expedient. A more sophisticated approach,
perhaps using a combination of finite-element
representation together with a Timoshenko beam,
will also be explored.
Mr. Reed's position on the relationship of
propeller force, lateral shaft vibrations, and
resulting hull response is somewhat confusing.
T h e author claims ' t h a t above the flexural reso-
nance in the shafting, the propeller force acting
on the hull through the propeller bearing will be
out of phase with the propeller force and therefore
both forces will reinforce each other. However,
in Fig. 3, the v i b r a t o r y displacement of the hull
stern actually diminishes above the frequency of
lateral shaft resonance, rather than increases.
I t would clarify m a t t e r s if the author would
identify the particular kinds of propeller frequency
exciting forces, how they would be applied to the
m a t h e m a t i c a l model, their phase and magnitude,
and then relate the effect of shafting dynamics to
them.
The author's concern over the effect of lateral
shaft resonance on hull vibration is also ques-
tioned, perhaps again due to the aforementioned
confusion. I t is agreed t h a t at a lateral shaft reso-
nance the corresponding force entering the hull
through the propeller bearing will be magnified
according to the dynamics of the shaft system,
b u t this will only occur in a narrow frequency
range and will not account for the response of the
hull due to the pressure field--which m a y in
fact be the dominant exciting force. T h e added
complexity of accounting for the lateral shaft
dynamics is not warranted until sufficient ex-
perimental evidence strongly suggests other-
wise.
282 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
A general c o m m e n t on the subject of unsteady
propeller forces (not necessarily addressed to the
author) is considered appropriate at this time.
These forces include those of unsteady thrust,
torque, bearing forces, and surface pressure
forces. In spite of all the claims made b y various
investigators regarding their ability to predict
these forces, the writer has y e t to see any reason-
able proof of credibility, such as substantiation
with experiments on ships (either model or full
scale). This is not to criticize any or all of these
prediction methods b u t to say t h a t the use of any
one of t h e m should be based on demonstrated
verification of results.
Another cause of ship vibration should also be
considered in the design stage, i.e., t h a t due to
shaft frequency excitation. Of particulareoncern
is the matching of the service r p m to any of the
easily excitable lower hull modes. T h e excitation
in this case comes from the mass unbalance in
the propeller-shaft system and errors due to
pitch in the propeller which will produce forces
at shaft rpm.
T h e above comments are not intended to dis-
courage the a t t e m p t to predict the vibration of a
ship's hull b u t rather to present some of the
limitations t h a t presently exist.
E. F. Noonan, Member: As pointed out b y the
author, the greatly increased size and powers of
ships require t h a t greater attention be given to
the subject of shipboard vibration while the ship
is still in the design stage. T h e development of
such techniques is therefore the basic objective
of the HS-7 Panel, "Vibrations," of S N A M E .
However, although the paper implies t h a t the
solution to our problem is at hand, I would like to
suggest t h a t more properly it should be inter-
preted t h a t t o d a y we have the tools and a better
understanding of some of the problems. T h e
solution to the total problem will be available
only when we have a design procedure which can
be used successfully b y the design office in pre-
dicting the response of the hull and main pro-
pulsion system.
As was pointed out in a similar article in the
J a n u a r y 1971 issue of Marine Technology, such a
procedure is under development at N S R D C .
Unfortunately, the level of effort supported b y
the N a v y in this field is small, and in the commer-
cial field is virtually nonexistent. With the aim
of ultimately achieving these i m p o r t a n t objec-
tives, the HS-7 Panel recently has submitted a
"Comprehensive Ship Vibration Research Pro-
g r a m " to the Hull Structures Committee. Hope-
fully, such a program will obtain the necessary
support from the Society and the shipbuilding
industry, which has much to gain from such
studies.
Hull Frequencies. Except for relatively short,
broad-beamed ships such as an icebreaker, most
ships have a fundamental vertical natural fre-
quency close to 1 to 1.2 Hz. N o r m a l design
procedures result in fre.quencies of the higher
modes which could be predicted readily from the
fundamental. If enough data were available,
eventually we would be in a position to predict
the necessary hull frequencies by use of curves or
homographs.
Hull Response. In most cases we are operating
at a propeller-blade frequency of S Hz or higher.
This would correspond to upwards of the sixth
theoreticM bending mode, a regio n in which the
vibration is concentrated at the stern. On the
assumption t h a t local resonances are avoided,
as would be our objective, the response of the hull
girder could be predicted on a relatively simple
mass-impedance concept, assuming, of course,
some und.erstanding of the propeller forces was
available. Such predictions would rely heavily
on empirical d a t a and would include the dyna!nic
m a ~ i f i e r s observed in the u p p e r speed range
b u t which, as yet, are not reflected adequately in
propeller force studies.
Propeller Forces. Model studies recently con-
ducted on three stern configurations for proposed
L N G ships provided the relative wake character-
istics, while the calculated forces, using several
alternate methods of computation, permitted the
identification of the o p t i m u m stern configuration.
An accumulation of sufficient data of this type,
together with the necessary information on hull
form and propeller characteristics, should permit
the eventual development of simple procedures
for estimating the normal hull input forces.
Propeller skew, like the helix angle in a reduction
gear, results in a more gradual dynamic pressure
loading and corresponding reduction in the gener-
ated forces.
.~lachinery Vibration. LongKudinal vibration
frequently will control the selection of the n u m b e r
of propeller blades and, un!.ess there is some
flexibility in the selection of the rpm, can force
unsatisfactory vibration of the hull at normal
operating speeds: In all cases, however, it is
m a n d a t o r y t h a t excessive alternating thrust, as
defined in M1L-STD-167B, be avoided. T h e
presence of lateral shaft resonances 'in the pro-
pulsion system can amplify the hull response.
In all cases, however, both for machinery and hull
vibration, the accuracy of the analyses depend on
the engineering j u d g m e n t of the analyst, as
pointed out by the author. For this reason, the
conduct of such studies followed b y wel!-instru-
The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
mented sea trials are necessary to an orderly
development of more simplified approaches.
Vibratimz Specificatio~s. T h e key to the design
of a ship having satisfactory vibration character-
istics is in the specifications. However, rather
than specifying the method of analysis, it is sug-
gested t h a t acceptable vibration criteria be
established with the results to be evaluated b y
established procedures. In a recent study con-
ducted for N S R D C , proposed criteria for hull
vibration, based on habitability requirements,
were developed. This study was based on the
ISO data presented b u t was modified to suit
shipboard experience. Upper limits of 0.45
in./sec and 0.30 in./see were recommended for
vertical and horizontal vibration respectively.
T h e vertical limit would be slightly higher than
t h a t recommended b y Mr. Reed above 7 Hz,
b u t would be substantially" lower below 7 Hz
and xyould be in agreement with information
published b y the vibration committee of the
ISSC. For the test procedures it ~s recommended
t h a t the S N A M E Code C-1, "Code for Ship-
board Vibration Measurements," be used in place
of Bulletin 2-10. This later publication includes
the evaluation of longitudinal vibration. A code
for local vibration measurements presently is
being developed by the HS-7 Panel.
D. J. de Koff, Member'. As a naval architect, I a m
concerned t h a t a client reading the title of this
paper will expect a ship free of vibration. Con-
sidering toda}c's high powers and speeds, one is
fortunate if the vibratory response of ship and
propulsion system can be limited to an acceptable
level.
In connection with one of our projects, I had
the o p p o r t u n i t y to consult with several experts in
this field, both here and abroad. T h e agreement
between their analyses was, to put it mildly,
discouraging and their estimates of the response
to the same excitation differed considerably.
To some degree, this was due to widely varying
estimates of the influence of damping. Since
damping is one of the parameters which determine
the level of forced vibration, it is a subject de-
serving of much more attention than it has
received so far. The author shows an interesting
approach to the determination of quasi-hysteretie
damping.
On the subject of longitudinal shaft vibration,
a note of caution is in order for the use of Refer-
ence [76]. T h e values for thrust bearing stiff-
nesses are applicable to U. S. design; these values
are considerably higher for British thrust bearings
which are widely used in ships built in Europe.
T h e author feels t h a t the shaft model m a y be
283
 terminated at the bull gear hub due to the low
axial stiffness of the connection between bull
gear hub and the rim. I t m a y be of interest to
note that, for a large reduction gear, we have
found t h a t the longitudinal natural frequency of
the bull gear .rim and associated components was
quite close to t h a t of the shaft and t h a t large rim
amplitudes could be generated when passing
through this critical frequency. Since this in-
creases the equivalent mass of the rim con-
siderably, the question arises whether this mass
should be neglected.
In his discussion of th.e hull response, the
author is of the opinion t h a t the hatch covers
should be considered as p a r t of the structure
when calculating torsional stiffness. I share
this opinion, except t h a t it is the friction of the
steel-on-steel contact rather than the rubber
gasket which transfers the v i b r a t o r y motion.
In spite of the skepticism expressed at the out-
set of this discussion, I feel t h a t this paper is a
v e r y valuable contribution and the author m u s t
be congratulated on this work.
Erich Buchmann,TM Visitor: T h e author presents a
very timely subject and discusses the main
factors t h a t encompass the excitation forces and
hull response s. I t is impossible to m a k e a short
evaluation of the various aspects as to their useful-
ness for a designer. T h e latter desires to have
simple guidelines for solving his daily practical
problems.
I t is commonly assumed t h a t the propeller
forces increase with the square of the shaft rpm.
So does an eccentric-mass vibration generator.
While the relationship between vibration gener-
ator force and hull response is wellunderstood, it
is found t h a t such a simple relationship does not
exist between calculated propeller forces and the
respective hull response. Amplitudes at blade
rate in the various directions increase considerably
faster than should be expected if the rpm-square
relationship is correct. This characteristic has
been found on a wide range of ship types. In
predicting hull vibrations at blade rate, some
authors, therefore, correct the discrepancy b y
using large empirical magnification factors for
the higher frequency range.
Vibration generator tests as well as more recent
hull impedance measurements have shown t h a t
the hull reacts, with small deviations, as a mass
impedance for the frequencies above the third or
fourth fundamental hull frequency. A broader
evaluation and possible expansion of this finding
lo Bethesda, Maryland.
284 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
could lend itself to simple and useful vibration
level predictions.
Modern impulse-loading devices and more
sophisticated data analysis procedures have shown
t h a t hull damping is a function of the frequency,
as shown in a paper presented at the Shock and
Vibration Symposium in 1969. Calculations with
the new damping values yield better agreement
with measured data than the use of a constant
d a m p i n g value over the whole frequency range.
T h e hull response at higher frequencies becomes
more and more localized. Local structures re-
m o t e from the excitation point, however, m a y
well react with large amplitudes if their natural
frequency coincides with t h a t of the excitation
force. T h e effect of these "sprung masse`s" on
the hull vibration can well be evaluated with the
existing knowledge (MeGoldrick, Kennard, Liebo-
witz, K u m a i ) and, in m o s t cases, reduced b y
simple modifications.
T h e suggested calculation procedures do now
provide new approaches. T h e limitation of the
l u m p e d - p a r a m e t e r nonuniform b e a m theory to
the low frequencies only up to the fifth mode
should always be k e p t in mind.
• T h e usefulness of this paper could be increased
considerably b y applying the existing knowledge
to a broadening of the " D o ' s and D o n ' t s for
Vibration Reduction and Control in N a v a l
Ships" t h a t has been published b y the N a v a l Ship
Systems Command. Such guidelines could help
the designer in making the right engineering
decisions during preliminary design phases.
T h e author rightfully underlines the difficulties
t h a t exist in comparing measurements with cal-
culations. But all calculations and vibration
reducing methods eventually should be checked
b y well-planned full-scale trials. I believe t h a t
recent developments in measuring techniques
using modern measuring equipment, vibration
generators, impedance measurements, impulse-
loading devices, electronic d a t a analysis methods,
etc., should be used on a research vessel in a com-
blned effort with all parties involved, to clarify
a' few salient points in the field of ship vibration
characteristics. After more than 15 years it is
a b o u t time to conduct a new Gopher Mariner
t y p e trial.
G. C. Volcy, Member: Mr. Reed has to be con-
gratulated for his very interesting paper treating
in so pertinent and rational a manner a problem of
real life which appears more and more important.
During m y research work I have come to the
conclusion that, in studying vibration phenomena,
even those concerning the free vibrations of the
hull girder, it is helpful to imagine the phenomena
 Radio i n s t a l l a t i o n

Emitter Amplifier Receiver

et=
e 1 4 arnPft ssn(2e t
e=F+F1sin colt + Ase= f (Aampft,COe)
CO%raPt Zr b/~
~ Rt'd1--cR~ARr/;e=1,231
o~c - -

F3 sm bO3t +., .

('~)se 1
e3= CO%~gt blUR2!CR2 e2=
. . . . . . . . . . AarnPf2s'nL3bt A se sm bOb t
z2 ~ doo~AR2!
Exciter c~b" f(cJe'c~s~) Elastic system

Resonator

Source of excitation R e son (7to r H u l l steel- w o r k

The efforts engendered, either by the Elosttc system in resonance with the s o u r c e Responding either as forced wbrohons
propulsor b r by the propulstve apparatus,eft .... of exclta6on(resonant response)hence dynamic or even as free wbraftons to the excttatton-
or~phhcatton of the exotahon forces fat ces amphhed by the resonator:

Fig. 29 Schematic of a vibration resonator and transmission of the forces

of forced vibration of the hull structure as simi- the excitation source and the response of the vibrating
lar to the functioning of radio installations. In elastic system. By cancelling the dynamic ampli-
a radio system we have a transmitter (emitter) fication, the level of excitation energy is lowered
exciting a given frequency, and a receiver. In and the problem of annoying vibrations dis-
order for the receiver to operate, we must tune appears.
it to the frequency of the emitter; this means Figure 30 presents one ca,;e of an active reso-
achieving resonance between the emitter and nator. The figure represents the influence of
the receiver frequencies. Due to t h a t tuning, static alignment conditions on the dynamic
and because of the low impedance of the tuner behavior of the line shafting and the response of
(let's call it a resonator) at the resonant fre- the hull steelwork.
quency, the receiver is able to dynamically am- On Fig. 31 are presented tile records of shafting
plify the amplitudes of the emitter oscillations. vibrations, and response in forced vibrations of
Such a system is presented in Fig. 29. In my the hull girder, for both shafting alignment con-
opinion, the hull structure forced vibrations ditions shown in Fig. 30. As it can be seen from
present an analogous case. In our research work both Figs. 30 and 31, the static conditions in-
we have come to the conclusion that the annoying fluence in a very considerable manner the dynamic
and even dangerous forced vibrations of hull response of the considered elastic systems. Then,
structure are caused by the presence of a reso- it must be concluded that besides the integral
nator of some excitations existing on sh!ps. The treatment of the general e q u a t i o n of forced
troublesome vibrations are caused b y the resonant vibrations
response of an elastic system, constituted b y the
M2 + r~ + Kx = F0sin (~t + 9)
steelwork or even some parts of the propulsive
installation, which is excited by vibration from and simultaneous analysis of the importance of
the propeller or from the propulsive apparatus. the six components of this equation, as well as
The role of a vibration researcher is to identify this of the interaction of the response and excitation
resonator and to proceed with the detuning between forces, the actual static condition of the concerned

The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations 285

 2~ rheomca[ scheme of
the line-shafting
-~ 3,# ~.5o

Coeff;cient of dynamic
o~l,f,~ot, on. F =~"1630 °~/m~.
Natural frequency calcu{ated,
10 f= 1

5 bladed propeller.

n = 104~p~
fine-shofhng

E,,c = 5 x 104 = 520 o,o1~

Of [he order N=5
c'JB-x~ = 0.318.a---..e~~ ~-1.45calculated.
I'°nalural frequency calculated,

0,9? ~ ~ "~ 7,74 recorded.

.
(.M
natural frequency recorded.

Z=O
('*J e~t . _
1 R e s o n a n t conditions
~°natural

2
~// T'Calculated~-i
1- IF

0
2 3 4 "" ~
~natural

~ F = 5 3 5 oW~.
natural frequency recorded.

Actua{ position of

line.shafting.

7,95 - - - - 4, EO 4.30

Fig. 30 Effect of interaction between the tailshaft and its forward bearing on the dynamic behavior
o f the line shafting

286 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations

 ~_ EY-~-~SJsm°graph

. ~
w

The ship with the same draught aft.

Ad (turn)

n = 97r.pm._
--5
0,40-
I revolution
VT Double amphficahon
i i
0,30.
VV Strnroteamphficatlon

0.20.
N=5
vv I
0,10

/ n re~Yrnn
Measurement of the propeller- shaft
I :~. vibrations•
60 ?0 80 go I00

mplificafion ~t~eret revolufion J

VV Vertical vibrations
n=g6~p.m.~
V1~ Transverse vibrations VF Double amphhc~Eon I
Ad (ram) I

0,40-

o,~o.

N=5
0,20

ojo

n r e Y/mn.
o
70 80 90

.~ Before rational shaft alignment

.~j After rational shaft eligr~ment
Fig. 31 Forced hull vibrations generated by the propeller-shaft vibrations of a 58,OOO-dwt tanker (5-bladed
propeller)

The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations 287

 -L

ttt
RRR

! .!,t

Fig. 32 Influence of hull structure deformations of a tanker due to loading conditions on the distributions of
reactions in way of the propeller-shaft supports

e l a s t i c s y s t e m s m u s t also b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r - ditions, i.e., t h e i r d e f o r m a t i o n s , is m o r e a n d m o r e

ation. M o r e d e t a i l s on this s u b j e c t a r e p r e s e n t e d
in p a p e r s p u b l i s h e d in 196711 a n d 1969.1~
T h e c o r r e c t a s s e s s m e n t of t h e s e s t a t i c con-
11 G. C. Volcy, "Forced Vibrations of the Hull and Ra-
tional Alignment of the Tail Shaft," Nouveaut~s Tech-
niques Maritimes, 1967.
12 G. Bourceau and G. C. Volcy, "Forced Vibration
Resonators and Free Vibrations of the Hull," Nouveautds
Techniques Maritimes, 1969.
i m p o r t a n t for t o d a y ' s b i g a n d p o w e r f u l ships d u e
to t h e a c t u a l i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y b e t w e e n t h e flex-
i b i l i t y of t h e s t e e l w o r k of d o u b l e - b o t t o m a n d
hull g i r d e r a n d t h e stiffness of t h e line s h a f t i n g
of p r o p u l s i v e p l a n t s . B u t t h e r e s u l t s of o u r
r e s e a r c h h a v e s h o w n t h a t for t h e b i g t a n k e r s t h e
d e f o r m a t i o n s in h o g g i n g of t h e a f t p a r t of t h e hull
girder together with the double-bottom structure
of a fully l o a d e d s h i p d e f y t h e classic t h e o r y of

288 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations

 ~-~® ~
...-~ @
---~®
.--~®

~ ___ ~ " "~

J J ~..~
J

il:

\
\
\t ~,,/\

~.~ ~ ~,~

~zS\

Z
ili

Fig. 3 3 Deformation calculation of the after part of the hull--equivalent elastic model

The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations 289

 deformation where the loaded ship girder is
sagging. Such a phenomenon is presented in
Fig. 32.
I t is clear t h a t such deformations of the base
of the propulsive plant and its shafting are
changing the static alignment conditions, and
the phenomena presented in Figs. 30 and 31 m a y
occur, hence the possibility of unexpected dynamic
behavior of the propulsive plant and appearance
of the discussed propeller-excited vibrations. B u t
our experience, gained b y simultaneous cal-
culations and measurements, has shown t h a t the
correlation between t h e m can be satisfactory
only if the whole elastic system of the hull girder,
double-bottom structure, and internal steehvork
of the engine room is considered, even taking into
account the steelwork of superstructures. Such
calculations on very speedy computers have been
developed b y Bureau Veritas. Figure 33 shows
such an elastic system of the aft p a r t of the hull
girder and the engine room of a 250,000 dwt ship.
B u t once in the possession of suctl a description
as well as the stiffness and mass matrices, we can
also analyze the response of the system to all
excitations, including those coming from the
propeller. In our present studies these excitations
are obtained either from model tests and measure-
ments or from appropriate calculations. Con-
sequently, the study of resonators of forced
vibrations and their detuning is executed and the
response of the assembly of the considered
steelwork is determined.
F. M. Lewis, Member: Mr. Reed has presented an
interesting and useful s u m m a r y of the status of
the vibration problem in ships. T h e two ap-
proaches to this problem are (a) the calculation
of the hull modes and frequencies, including the
higher modes and local modes, with a view to
avoiding resonance b y choice of the n u m b e r of
propeller blades or local correction of stiffness;
and (b) the reduction of propeller exciting forces
to a minimum.
A v a s t a m o u n t of labor has been expended on
the problem of predicting the higher hull modes,
and such calculations have been assisted b y the
development of high-speed computers, b u t the
accuracy which can be guaranteed for such
calculations is dubious; and an accuracy of the
order of 95 percent or better in the calculated
frequencies is desired if the results are to be useful.
A recent publication, 144S of the Netherlands Ship
Research Center, "Critical Considerations of
Present Hull Vibration Analysis" b y S. Hylarides,
is not encouraging reading. For a n u m b e r of
vessels, errors in the calculated frequencies of
the higher modes of up to 44% were noted. T h e
290 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
coupled torsional, transverse deck structure mode
is particularly difficult to calculate. I have
observed two examples of such a mode.
Mr. Reed infers t h a t the exciting forces of the
propeller can be determined b y computer. This
has been accomplished only for the bearing forces
associated with the wake. While a computer
program has been proposed for the surface forces,
it is a complex and expensive procedure and to
date has not been successfully applied to a single
ship. T h e only information on the magnitude of
this force is t h a t given b y Lewis in Reference [68 ].
As per the experiments in References [6;5, 68],
the most i m p o r t a n t factor in reducing propeller
excitation forces in both twin-screw and single-
screw ships of conventional design is the clearance
forward of the propeller. For the single-screw
ship clearances of 30 percent of the propeller
diameter are practical, and for larger clearances
the gain is small; although much larger clearances
have been used for some European vessels,
80 percent in the Koudekerk cited in the p a p e r of
Hylarides noted above. T h e vertical force is
hardly affected b y longitudinal clearance.
If the excitation forces can be reduced t o a low
enough level, then vibration will be acceptably
low no m a t t e r w h a t the hull modes m a y be. I
believe t h a t a proper criterion for vibration
force is vibration force/displacement rather t h a n
force/thrust. T h e experiments cited in Refer-
ence [68] show t h a t the best attainable figure
for this for 44 and 6-bladed propellers on a single-
screw ship of conventional design is of the order
of 0.00012. How close such a ratio would come
to ensuring freedom from vibration is quite
unknown.
J. McCaI/um, Member: D e v e l o p m e n t of predic-
tion methods for ship vibration response is passing
through an exciting stage as comprehensive
design systems are being created b y the assembly
of the various programs which have been written
for large computers in the past few years. Use
of these systems will not be cheap, b u t greater
investment in design will surely be a t t r a c t i v e when
it can eliminate the expensive measures which
sometimes have to be adopted in a t t e m p t s to
cure vibration troubles.
T h e system described b y the author is very
interesting, and includes the highly desirable
features of treating the shafting and hull re-
sponses together, and taking into account the
effects of local vibration. However, the struc-
tural modelling leaves something to be desired.
Although the author places emphasis on inclusion
of shear deflection, he then assumes t h a t trans-
verse bulkheads remain rigid in their plane.
Except for small ships, the span of transverse
bulkheads is of the same order as the distances
between hull modes in the frequency range of in-
terest. In-plane deflection of bulkheads would be
expected, therefore, and vibration measurements
have shown this to be so. An obvious improve-
m e n t would be to represent the hull b y a b e a m
grillage. However, it is desirable to have a
representation of the structure adequate for
simulating local resonances, so t h a t the labor of
separate calculations is eliminated. With the
development of reduction and substructuring
techniques, together with data-generation pro-
grams, finite-element methods are now quite
feasible for this task.
T h e author has commented on the importance
of considering the vibration characteristics of the
line shafting, particularly the lateral vibration
resonances which m a y be excited at propeller
blade-order. I should like to stress the impor-
tance of shafting vibration calculations at the
design stage in order to ensure t h a t these lateral
vibration resonances occur above the running
range. A p a r t from the influence on the hull and
aft end structure vibrations, the presence of
lateral vibration has considerable effect on the
life of the stern tube and p l u m m e r bearings.
At the same time I would welcome experimental
evidence as to the exact nature of such lateral
resonances under actual or simulated operating
conditions. Lloyd's Register's Technical Investi-
gation D e p a r t m e n t has carried out over recent
years several investigations on cases of suspected
lateral vibration resonance on single-screw ships.
Despite theoretical predictions of lateral reso-
nance within operating speeds, no such resonance
has been confirmed, In some cases, significant
forced lateral vibrations were detected which
could possibly have been the lower flank of a
resonance with the peak above the operating
speed.
If significant lateral vibrations are encountered,
the center of pressure and effective point of
support in the after stern tube bearing, and to a
lesser extent in the other bearings, will oscillate
longitudinally a b o u t a mean position at the
frequency of the vibration. T h e amplitude of
this oscillation will depend on the amplitude of
the lateral vibration. T h e resulting problem is
then nonlinear and will have its own character-
istic frequency response different from t h a t of
the resonant condition with fixed point of sup-
port.
I would like the author's comments on the
significance of this nonlinear behavior and any
references to experimental measurements on
actual ships, particularly single-screw vessels,
The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
where lateral shaft resonances have been con-
firmed.
Geoffrey G. Cox, Member: I would like to t h a n k
the author for a most interesting paper which is a
useful contribution to the literature on ship
vibration.
M y comments are concerned with w h a t the
present-day propeller designer is able to do to
minimize propeller excitation of vibration, within
the constraints imposed by the ship design and
economics. T h e designer plays a key role in the
problem and faces h e a v y demands on his skill,
especially in view of the fact t h a t propellers are
being continually required to absorb larger
amounts of power while operating in unfavorable
flow conditions. This is clue to the demands for
ever increasing ship speed with costs of the prime
mover and transmission system k e p t to an
acceptable level. Attention should also be drawn
to a significant difference between commercial
and naval ship requirements regarding vibration.
This is t h a t it is much more i m p o r t a n t to minimize
vibration over a wide range of speeds for a naval
ship, whereas commercial ships usually spend
most of their operating life at one speed. T o -
gether with other operational requirements, this
often dictates the necessity for naval ships to have
twin-screw propulsion.
T h e propeller designer cannot usually exercise
much choice regarding mamber of propellers,
rpm, diameter, and the flow field in which the
propeller has to operate. H e can exercise his
choice and skill regarding n m n b e r of blades,
blade load distribution, and blade rake and
skew. All of these parameters have an impor-
tant, some a very important, influence on the
vibration excitation characteristics of a propeller.
T h e selection of the n u m b e r of blades is made,
when possible, on the basis of avoiding the blade-
rate excitation of a main hull resonance at normal
operating speeds. Also a Fourier analysis o f ' t h e
propeller disk wake shouM be performed to avoid
coincidence of blade number, or blade n u m b e r
4- 1, with strong wake harmonics.
Fluctuating pressure forces on the hull can be
reduced b y moving the blade load away from the
outer blade sections towards the middle of the
blade. Little or no propulsive efficiency penalty
is paid by doing this.
Blade rake is often used for propellers which
work in an aperture to increase clearance between
the blades and the hull and appendages forward
of the propeller. Blade skew is very i m p o r t a n t
since it permits the blade to enter a high wake
region in a more gradual manner and also in-
creases clearances between the blades and hull and
291
 appendages. Neither of these procedures demand
a propulsive efficiency penalty. T h e use of
blade skew can be extremely i m p o r t a n t when it is
impossible to select a n u m b e r of blades on the
basis of the criteria specified.
In order for the designer to ensure t h a t a
propeller will have a m i n i m u m ability to excite
vibration, he m u s t have model hull measurements
of the wake at the propeller disk. H e m u s t also
possess the necessary sophisticated design pro-
cedure which can fully recognize the blade as a
lifting line and lifting surface to correctly specify
load distribution and account for the effects of
skew. T h e N a v a l Ship Research and Develop-
m e n t Center propeller design method is able to
achieve these goals and the capability is fairly
recent. This is particularly so regarding the
proven ability to account correctly for the effects
of large amounts of skew. Extensive investi-
gations have been carried out at the Center into
the use of large amounts of skew for reduction of
vibration. These investigations were per-
formed under the support of the U. S. N a v y and
joint M A R A D / p r i v a t e shipowner sponsorship.
Norman O. Hammer, Member: T h e central theme
of the paper is t h a t methods now exist which are
capable of predicting hull vibration levels. This
is indeed good news for shipbuilders, designe.rs,
and shipowners who have had first-hand en-
counters with ship vibration problems.
A typical problem involves three distinct
phases, the first being the determination of
whether there actually is a problem. This phase
revolves around standards of acceptability, or
lack of recognized standards, to be more specific.
T h e second phase focuses on steps to be taken to
remedy the problem, with the third and final
phase involving determination of who should p a y
the bill.
T h e capability discussed in the paper con-
ceivably could e l i m i n a t e potential problems or
assist in resolving the second phase of an actual
problem. While the possibility of having reliable
prediction capabilities m a y be near, the author
cautions t h a t his prediction process lacks test-
ing and comparison against full-scale perform-
ance. Therefore, we find ourselves at the brink
of a great potential breakthrough.
I t is noted t h a t Figs. 12 and 26, which display
predicted wheelhouse levels of vibration for the
Lykes Sea Barge Clipper, appear to indicate
different results for the same location. Perhaps
the author would clarify the assumptions behind
these plots. Figure 26 also indicates magnitudes
of amplitudes to be less t h a n 0.05 mils. Such low
levels could never be measured and are solely
292 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
of academic interest as compared with practical
considerations.
Judging from the nature of the detailed infor-
mation needed to perform the required compu-
tations, the results of the author's analyses appear
to become available at a time when it is possible
to m a k e b u t minor changes to the ship. Perhaps
the author would indicate some magnitude of
cost together with the time frame associated with
his analyses.
This discusser finds himself in substantial
disagreement over t r e a t m e n t of vertical and
horizontal vibration acceptability criteria. Ap-
pendix 7 contains statements wliich indicate t h a t
it is reasonable to assume the same acceptable
!evels for both vertical and horizontal directions.
This is a dangerous and incorrect assumption.
While individual researchers disagree on specific
levels for each motion, they agree t h a t horizontal
vibration is the more sensitive motion of the two.
In conclusion, the author should be commended
for his efforts to develop methods of predicting
hull vibration levels. While at this point in time
the full-scale verification is missing, it is hoped
this task can be addressed in the not too distant
future.
Jorgen Strom-Tejsen, Member: T h e major excita-
tion of ship hull vibration, as pointed out b y
the author, comes from the propeller both through
forces and moments generated on the propeller,
and forces and moments generated on the hull
by the pressure field around the propeller. T o
reduce vibration it is desirable t h a t the designer
has methods available so he can take full advan-
tage of the flexibility afforded by the design con-
ditions and reduce the excitation forces as m u c h
as possible.
I t is agreed t h a t our ability to predict the
forces and moments on the propeller is v e r y good.
T h e model test techniques for measuring the
three-dimensional wake p a t t e r n has been im-
proved continuously. At the N a v a l Ship Re-
search and D e v e l o p m e n t Center, the technique
described in References [61] and [62] has reached
the point where a very large n u m b e r of test
points can be measured within a short period of
testing time b y use of a u t o m a t e d data aquisition
and analysis technique. Furthermore, the o u t p u t
from the wake survey can be used directly as input
to the computer programs of Reference [60]. Due
to the increased n u m b e r of test points and their
accuracy, predictions of all the v i b r a t o r y forces
and moments can be determined with a reasonable
confidence. T h e computer programs used for
predicting the forces and moments allow us to
take the propeller outline properly into account
 and thus take full advantage of the benefit which
might result from application of large skew of the
propeller blades, for instance.
The author indicated that a similar capability
should be available in the area of pressure forces
on the hull. Unfortunately, no references are
given t h a t might indicate what methods and
computer programs he has in mind. Does the
author refer to a method which would allow the
designer to take details of the hull form and
blade outline into account? Both propeller skew
and details of the hull sections in the propeller
aperture such as section angle are factors of
importance which, taken properly into account,
might result in a reduction or eventually a
cancellation of some of the vibratory hull forces.
If a method does exist which would allow us to
take full advantage of propeller outline and hull
form, does the author then believe that it is
necessary to use clearance between the propeller
and the hull of the order of magnitude recom-
mended b y the Classification Societies? Those
recommendations are all based on more conven-
tional propeller and hull form designs without
considering the benefits which might result from
calculation methods that are better than what has
been generally available up to the present.
Although our capability to predict the vibratory
forces developed from single- and twin-screw
arrangements might be well in hand, this is not
necessarily the case when considering unusual
propulsion systems. Arrangements such as con-
trarotating, overlapping, and dueted propellers
might prove beneficial from a vibration point of
view, at least as an alternative to the conventional
single-screw arrangement. I t would be of interest
to learn the author's opinion concerning the
capability at the present to predict the vibratory
excitation due to some of these alternative pro-
pulsion systems.
S. Tsakonas, ~a Visitor: The author treats two im-
p o r t a n t facets of the propeller-induced hull
vibration problem, one being the exciting forces
and moments generated by the operating propeller
and the other the hull responses to these excita-
tions. Since any uncertainties introduced in the
mathematical model for the excitation agen t or
that for the mass-elastic characteristics of the hull
will reflect on the quality of the predictions, it is
important to use the best of the available mathe-
matical developments without the need to resort
to semi-empirical formuIas and other information
of questionable reputation. M y remarks will be
la Davidson Laboratory, Stevens Institute of Tech-
nology, Hoboken, New Jersey.
The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
directed to the part of the study dealing with the
exciting forces and moments.
Generalization from results of a limited number
of observations and calculations, at this stage,
must be avoided.
The fullness of a hull plays an important role in
determining the values of hydrodynamic forces
and moments independently of propeller blades.
This fact is attributed more to the radial phasing
(or distribution) of the wake harmonics than to
their corresponding magnitudes. 14
Variations in longitudinal location of the
propeller, and so in location at which the wake is
measured, tend to affect the odd orders of wake
harmonic [62]. This in turn has considerable
effect on the lateral components of the vibratory
force.
I t is an established fact that the lifting line
theory does not accurately represent the magni-
tudes, and sometimes even the trends, of the
vibratory forces and moments, 15 nor does it
accurately represent the generated pressure field. ~6
The action of the propeller generates vibratory
forces on itself as well as on the hull. The former
have been studied in detail; see, for example, the
Davidson L a b o r a t o r y papers reporting the mathe-
matical developments and corresponding computer
programs and the results of calculations. How-
ever, to my knowledge, the problem of the forces
on the hull has not been tackled basically except
for flat boundaries which might include a broad,
flat stern in the way of the propeller.
Lewis, in his experimental work, has shown the
importance of these surface forces. Breslin has
indicated the feasibility of a study combining
the Douglas Program with a Davidson L a b o r a t o r y
propeller program to deternfine the vibratory
forces on a hull. Tsakonas, et al., have studied
the propeller-rudder interaction problem and
have indicated the importance of the interaction
effects on both propeller and rudder lifting
surfaces.
With this Davidson L a b o r a t o r y program in
mind, it was realized t h a t information on the hull
surface forces could not be obtained unless the
entire interaction problem, propeller-rudder-hull,
14S. Tsakonas, J. Breslin, and M. Miller, "Correlation
and Application of an Unsteady Flow Theory for Pro-
peller Forces," TRANS.SNAME, vol. 75, 1967, p. 174.
is R. Boswell, "Measurement, Correlation with Theory,
and Parametric Investigation of Unsteady Propeller
Forces and Moments," Master's Thesis, Graduate School
of Department of "kerospaee Engineering, Pennsylvania
State University.
16W. R. Jacobs, J. Mercier, and S. Tsakonas, "Theory
and Measurements of the Propeller Induced Vibratory
Field," Davidson Laboratory Report 1485, Stevens In-
stitute of Technology, 1970,
293
was analyzed. Davidson L a b o r a t o r y therefore
has been engaged in preparations for this final
endeavor b y trying to link the Douglas Program
with its propeller-rudder interaction program and
to establish an iterative procedure to take the con-
tinuous interference in a fashion similar to the
procedure reported b y Tsakonas et M.I~
I certainly agree with the author t h a t " t h e hull
vibration problem need no longer be an empirical
art." Even the tools t h a t are at present available
carl be used to obtain information a b o u t the level
of vibration, if only on a c o m p a r a t i v e basis.
Author's Closure
T h e author appreciates the breadth added to
the paper b y the discussors.
Messrs. Hylarides and Wereldsma raise ques-
tions of the water inertia. M y feeling is t h a t
there are generally greater errors in the accurate
representation of the structure, whether a Complex
beam or an assemblage of finite elements, than
in the water inertia. Where the three-dimen-
sional aspects of the water inertia cannot be
treated easily, i.e., at the ends, the water inertia
is a small p a r t of the ship weight.
T h e best tests for the correlation between
propelier blade force prediction and the actual
values are the J]fichigan tests reported in the
paper. Cavitation might cause sharp local high-
pressure peaks, b u t the harmonic forces exciting
hull motion are related to average propeller
pressures and their periodic fluctuations due to
wake.
If one is tied to a finite-element procedure,
refinements can be made to permit detailed
finite-element modules to be incorporated in a
coarse and more practical finite-element repre-
sentation of the ship. Our experience supports
the finite-element analysis for complex and
detailed structures, b u t we believe t h a t the
Timoshenko b e a m is more practical for tying
these modules together. Lewis and Auslaender
give a logical procedure for estimating propeller
damping. If this is too low, we would appreciate
an explanation and a recommendation for an
improved value.
lXlr. Zaloumis asks a b o u t the way the complex
sprung structure is included in the program.
I had wanted to show this b u t space did not
permit. I wish I could support predictions with
measurements, b u t unfortunately ships seem to
be either analyzed or measured thoroughly. T h e
17S. Tsakonas, W. R. Jacobs, and M. Ali, "Propeller-
Rudder Interaction," Davidson Laboratory Report
1284, Stevens Institute of Technology, Journal of Ship
Research, vol. 14, no. 3, September 1970.
294 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
L A S H ship was predicted to be very quiet
throughout and is rumored to be so in practice.
T h e model proposed in this paper can represent a
ship much more accurately than those available
at the time of the Mariner studies. In particular,
it includes local' resonances. We would also
represent the weight distribution and the stiff-
nesses more precisely. T h e model suggested in
this paper can analyze the coupled transverse
bending-torsion vibration. Such a procedure was
not developed at the time of the Mariner studies.
Mr. Zaloumis asks for an explanation of the effects
of shaft resonances on hull vibration. In the
first place, Fig. .3 represents the vibration
due to propeller forces onJy. The.hull forces are
omitted. Calculations of harmonic propeller and
hull forces show t h a t they are of the same order of
magnitude and of opposite phase. John Breslin
supports this experience on theoretical grounds
for idealized cases. Considering the shafting
rigid, they tend to cancel. However, when the
shafting is flexible and is operating above reso-
nance, the forces t r a n s m i t t e d through the bearings
to the hull are 180 deg out of phase with w h a t
they were below resonance. Therefore, when the
propeller shaft is operating at frequencies above
resonance, the resultant forces on the hull add
rather than cancel.
In m a n y respects I agree with Mr. Noonan.
However, we do have some disagreements. He
looks to the d a y when hull vibration problems
can be solved by simple rule-of-thumb procedures.
I d o n ' t expect t h a t this will ever come to pass.
Experience will probably allow some simplifi-
cations in the quite complicated procedures
given in this paper, b u t ships are complicated
structures and variations in seemingly minor
elements of the structure can have a strong in-
fluence on the vibration. Experience in the
analysis of vibrations in structures indicates t h a t
vibrations can be predicted only if the analytical
model and the procedure for analysis is adequate
for representing the complexities of the structure.
I also disagree on the best w a y to assure t h a t a
ship does not vibrate excessively. A performance
specification plays upon the gamesmanship of
the shipbuilder to the detriment of the owner.
M a y b e the ship w o n ' t vibrate after it is built.
If it does, m a y b e some additional steel will
squeeze the level down to a barely tolerable
value. If not, the shipbuilder tried and the
owner needs the ship and so accepts it with a bad
vibration. If the specifications not only re-
quired a performance, b u t also required a logical
procedure for attaining t h a t performance, the
probability of a quiet ship would be much im-
proved.
 Mr. De Koff suggests quite rightly t h a t a more
proper title would use "minimize" rather than
"avoid." D a m p i n g is a crucial element in
vibration calculations and can be obtained only
by comparing good calculations with good
measurements. This combination seems to be
hard to develop. His c o m m e n t on the axial
vibration illustrates the problems t h a t arise
from simplifications. In the preliminary design,
the predictions of vibration have to rely upon
simple models if they are to be useful. However,
in the later stages of design, this early study
should be followed b y the analysis of a model
representing all aspects of the real system.
Dr. B u c h m a n n points out the designer's need
for guidelines. Some of this was presented in the
preliminary design section of the paper. Another
helpful guide is t h a t developed b y Bureau Veritas.
I believe t h a t the harmonic propeller forces in-
crease with the square of the r p m as theory says
they should. T h e ~Jichigan tests supported this
relationship. Where there are a p p a r e n t changes
in forces at higher rpm, I believe t h a t causes can
be found to be shafting and hull structural
resonances. T h e b e a u t y of hysteresis damping
is t h a t it increases with frequency and thereby
agrees with the experience of Dr. Buchmann. I
believe t h a t when the effect of sprung masses is
included, the present frequency and mode n u m b e r
limitation of the Timoshenko b e a m can be raised
significantly. In an ore carrier where the struc-
ture is very rigid transversely, Mr. MeGoldriek's
experiments showed an orderly progression of up
to thirteen frequencies (Fig. 4). This is indicative
of the reliability of the Timoshenko beam for this
wide range.
I appreciate Mr. Volcy's comments. Mr.
Volcy, with the Bureau Veritas, is practicing
m a n y of the suggestions made in this paper.
We were at a loss to understand how anyone
could have miscalculated the natural frequency
of vibration of a tailshaft b y 1630 cpm calculated
against 536 cpm measured, Fig. 30. However,
Fig. 31 gives the answer. T h e measuring point
is near the forward stern tube bearing and shows
a large amplitude of vibration with no indication
of i m p a c t with the bearing. Clearly the bearing
has been impacted or worn away and the shafting
in service vibrates without this restraint, b u t the
calculations assumed t h a t the bearing was effec-
tive.
I appreciate h{r. Voley's experience t h a t
shafting resonances influence hull vibration levels
and his experience in analyzing the deflections
and vibration of sections of the s h i p - - p a r t i c u l a r l y
the machinery s p a c e - - b y finite-element tech-
niques.
The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
Professor Lewis' comments on the accuracy of
calculations are interesting. However, rather
than conclude t h a t no calculations are accurate, I
would prefer to be more selective and say t h a t
some calculation procedures are not reliable. Ac-
tually, the natural frequencies of the ship become
of less importance at high modes. Neither cal-
culations or measurements can distinguish them.
I t is i m p o r t a n t to know the general level of
vibration in the hull and to know whether
seriously large local resonances can be excited at
antinodes. The computer program for calcu-
lating hull surface forces is neither complex nor
expensive. I t is surely not the final word b u t
can give useful information.
Mr. M e C a l l u m ' s observations a b o u t bulkheads
are i m p o r t a n t and interesting. T h e y w a r r a n t
more consideration than we've been able to give
them. Lateral re,sonances in shafting are difficult
to measure because the motion is primarily in
the propeller and the stern tube. T h e y could
be inferred best by measurements at the after
end of the stern tube in the after peak tank. We
have been taking measurements in this region.
Mr. Volcy indicates some experience with shafting
resonance troubles. There are probably other
experiences t h a t have not been properly diag-
nosed. I would expect t h a t for most shaft
vibration the stern bearing would tilt with the
s h a f t - - a t least w:hen an oiled bearing is u s e d - -
since the clearance is small. Because of the
gyroscopic effect ef the propeller, lateral vibration
of the shafting would be manifested as whirling
in an elliptical motion and so there would not
necessarily be any change in support point.
For modern high-powered single-screw ships,
the stern bearing overhangs a slim skeg so t h a t
shaft resonances in the lateral direction will
become important.
Messrs. Cox's and Strom-Tejsen's comments
on the influence of propeller design on the exciting
force and vibration emphasize the possibilities of
reducing excitation forces b y propeller design.
The procedures used for calculating the hull
forces are presented in Reference [85] and take
account of the prc.peller and hull shape. As these
analyses come into use, it would be well to change
from clearance criteria to force and m o m e n t
criteria for design.
Mr. N o r m a n H a m m e r raises several interesting
questions. One i m p o r t a n t aspect of all hull
vibration work is the m a t t e r of cost and time.
The a m o u n t of work required for a detailed
calculation of hull vibration is large, b u t the
i m p o r t a n t p a r t involved in the preliminary de-
sign stage is small. F o r example: T h e calcula-
tion of propeller harmonic forces, hull harmonic
295
forces, and propeller blade stresses can be ac-
complished for about $750, and the answers can
be supplied within a week after a suitable pro-
peller drawing, hull offsets, and wake analysis
are supplied. The hull calculations do not in-
elude forces on the skeg and rudder.
As for longitudinal vibration analyses, either
the influence of thrust bearing and foundation
stiffness on the natural frequency or for a given
stiffness and excitation, a plot of longitudinal
vibration forces and amplitudes as a function
of frequency can be accomplished in the same time
frame for $400. The lateral vibration analysis
with stiffness matrices for the bearing supplied
can also be accomplished in about the same time
for approximately $600.
For the detailed hull vibration analysis, from
2000 to 4000 man-hours of high-level scientific
effort will be required depending upon the com-
plexity of the ship. Of this time the effort on
the different aspects of the problem are roughly
as follows :
Elastic curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27%
Weight and moment of inertia c u r v e s . . . 15
W a t e r inertia determination . . . . . . . . . . .
Hull and propeller forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Local resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Compute and plot hull response . . . . . . . .
Compute longitudinal vibration of
shafting and engine room response...
Prepare a final report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
296 The Design of Ships to Avoid Propeller-Excited Vibrations
Mr. H a m m e r ' s contention t h a t vertical and
horizontal vibrations should be subject to dif-
ferent acceptability criteria is good. I did not
treat the two cases independently because it
seemed t h a t a simple specification might be
more generally accepted than a complex one.
Both criteria depend upon human response and
can be subject to individual differences of con-
siderable magnitude depending on the general
muscle tone and physiology of the subjects.
I have a high regard for the methods developed
by the personnel at Davidson L a b o r a t o r y for
predicting harmonic propeller forces, and the
work that Dr. Tsakonas and Dr. Breslin are doing
in determining hull pressures. Our lifting line
representation of the propeller blade is surely
inferior to the lifting surface theory of Dr. Tsa-
konas. However, we have had opportunities
to compare our predictions for a few propellers
and the results agree reasonably well. For
practical hull vibration predictions where the
wake is continually changing due to pitching,
rolling, and sea action and there are problems of
local hull responses, it is our feeling that the
2 simple representation of the propeller as a lifting
1 line and our approximations in estimating hull
35 forces are adequate for the present state of the
8 art in hull vibration. In special cases and as
the art improves, the more refined proeesses
8 for computing excitation will come into their
5 own.