FUNDAMENTALS OF

AERODYNAMICS
(AENG 321-7B)
Part 5
Basic Aerodynamics Principles and Application

The Continuity Equation

A Streamline is a curve along which the tangent at any
point on the curve always coincides (flow at the same
path) with the flow velocity vector at that point.
The Continuity Equation (cont.…)
A Streamtube is a group of adjacent streamlines from the
definition of a streamtube which is obvious that the flow
velocity normal to the exterior surface of a streamtube
must be zero.

A Streamtube is also like an imaginary pipe in which It has

variable cross-section. There is no place in the stream tube
where fluid is created or destroyed, the velocity is greater
where the cross-section is smaller than where it is large.
The Continuity Equation (cont.…)

Stream Tube (pipe)

The Continuity Equation (cont.…)

Stream Lines

Stream Tube (pipe)

The Continuity Equation (cont.…)
Principles of Mass Conservation (Law of
Continuity
The mass flow of a fluid that passing to one section of the
tube in one second is equal to the mass flow of the fluid
that passing to the other section of the tube in one second.
Stream tube
Principles of Mass Conservation (Law of
Continuity

ṁ = 𝛒𝐀𝐯 . . . . . . 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟏
Where:
slug kg
ṁ = Flow rate of fluid in or
sec sec
slug kg
ρ = Density in Fluid in 3 or 3
ft m
A = Cross-sectional area of the tube in ft2 or m2
ft m
v = velocity of the fluid in or
sec sec
For Incompressible Fluid (M<0.30), ρ = constant

𝛒𝟏𝐀𝟏𝐯𝟏 = 𝛒𝟐𝐀𝟐𝐯𝟐
𝐀𝟏𝐯𝟏 = 𝐀𝟐𝐯𝟐 . . . . . . . . . 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟐
𝐀𝐯 = C . . . . . . . . . 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟑

For compressible Fluid (M≥0.30), ρ < constant

𝛒𝟏𝐀𝟏𝐯𝟏 = 𝛒𝟐𝐀𝟐𝐯𝟐 . . . . . . . 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟒

𝛒𝐀𝐯 = 𝐂 . . . . . . . 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟓
Principles of Mass Conservation (Law of
Continuity (cont. . . . .)
Differentiating both sides of equation 3
𝐀𝐯 = C
d(𝐀𝐯) = d(c)
1
[(Adv + vdA) = 0]
Av
1
[(Adv + vdA) = 0]
Av
dv dA
+ =0
v A
𝐝𝐯 𝐝𝐀
=- . . . . . . . . Equation 6
𝐯 𝑨
Principles of Mass Conservation (Law of
Continuity (cont. . . . .)
Differentiating both sides of equation 5
ρ𝐀𝐯 = C
d(ρ𝐀𝐯) = d(c)
ρAdv + vd(ρA) = 0
ρAdv + v(ρdA + Adρ) = 0
1
[ρAdv + ρvdA + Avdρ = 0]
ρAv
𝐝𝐯 𝐝𝐀 𝐝ρ
+ + = 0 . . . . . Equation 7
𝐯 𝑨 ρ
Example #1
A pipe tapering in size, diminishing by 0.1 square meter per meter
run. What is the change in velocity per meter run where the pipe is
0.37 square meter in cross-section.? If the velocity there is 27 meter
per second, is the velocity increasing or decreasing?

Given:

V = 27 m/s dA m2
= −0.1
ds m
A = 0.37 m2

ds
Example #1 (cont. . . . . )

Req’d:
dv
= change of velocity per meter run
ds
𝐦
Sol’n: 𝒅𝒗 𝟐𝟕.𝟎 𝐬 𝐦𝟐
dv dA
= - ( 𝟐)(−𝟎. 𝟏 )
𝒅𝒔 𝟎.𝟑𝟕 𝐦 𝐦
=-
v A 𝐦
𝒅𝒗 𝐬 𝐦𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
v dv dA v
=7.30 or
𝒅𝒔 𝐦 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫∗𝐬𝐞𝐜
[ =- ]
ds v A ds
∴ conclude that the velocity
dv vdA increases as the cross-sectional
=-
ds Ads
area of the tube decreases.
𝒅𝒗 𝐯 𝐝𝐀
= - *
𝒅𝒔 𝐀 𝐝𝐬
Example #2
A circular pipe 30 meters long gradually tapers from 0.90m in
diameter at the end to 0.60m in diameter at the other. Fluid flowing
from bigger toward the smaller. What is the rate of increase of
velocity at the entrance if the velocity there is 25 meter per second?

Given: A

VA = 25 m/s

dA = 0.90m dB = 0.60m

30m
Example #2 (cont. . . . . )

Req’d:
dv
= change of velocity per meter run (increase/decrease of velocity.)
ds

Sol’n: For dA;

dv dA dA = AB - AA
=-
v A
For ds;
v dv dA v ds = sB - sA
[ =- ]
ds v A ds
𝒅𝒗 𝐯 AB − AA
dv vdA =- *( )
=- 𝒅𝒔 𝐀 sB − sA
ds Ads
𝝅𝒅𝐁𝟐 𝝅𝒅𝐀𝟐
𝒅𝒗 𝐯𝐀 −
𝒅𝒗 𝐯 𝐝𝐀 = - 𝝅𝒅𝐀𝟐 * (𝟒 𝟒
)
= - * 𝒅𝒔 sB − sA
𝒅𝒔 𝐀 𝐝𝐬 𝟒
Example #2 (cont. . . . . )

𝟐 𝟐
𝝅𝒅𝐁 𝝅𝒅𝐀 𝐦
𝒅𝒗 𝐯𝐀 − 𝒅𝒗 𝟐𝟓.𝟎 𝐬
= - 𝝅𝒅𝐀𝟐 * (30m − 0m )
𝟒 𝟒
= - {(𝟎.𝟗𝟎𝐦)𝟐 * [ (𝟎.𝟔𝟎𝒎)𝟐 −(𝟎.𝟗𝟎𝒎)𝟐
]}
𝒅𝒔
𝟒 𝒅𝒔 30m

𝒅𝒗 𝟒𝐯𝐀 𝝅 𝒅𝐁𝟐 −𝒅𝐀𝟐

=- *[ ( )] 𝐦
𝒅𝒔 𝝅𝒅𝐀𝟐 𝟒 30m 𝒅𝒗 𝐬 𝐦𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
= 0.463 or
𝒅𝒔 𝐦 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫∗𝐬𝐞𝐜
𝒅𝒗 𝐯𝐀 𝟐
𝒅𝐁 − 𝒅𝐀𝟐
= - 𝟐 * ( 30m ) ∴ conclude that the velocity
𝒅𝒔 𝒅𝐀
increases as the cross-sectional
area of the tube decreases.
Example #3
Air having the standard sea level density has a velocity of 100 fps at
a section of a wind tunnel. At another section having an area half as
great at that at the first section, the flow velocity is 400mph. What is
the density at the second section. (the flow is compressible).

Given: 1

V1 = 100 fps V1 = 400 mph

A1 1
A2 = A1
2
ρ1= ρ0
Example #3 (cont. . . . . )

Req’d:
ρ2 = density at the second section

Sol’n: 𝛒𝟏𝐀𝟏𝐯𝟏
𝝆𝟐 = 1
Since the fluid flow is 𝐀𝟏 𝐯𝟐
2
compressible we used:
ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2 𝟐𝛒𝟏𝐯𝟏
𝝆𝟐 =
𝐯𝟐
𝛒𝟏𝐀𝟏𝐯𝟏
𝝆𝟐=
𝐀𝟐𝐯𝟐 𝐬𝐥𝐮𝐠 𝒇𝒕
𝟐(𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟑𝟕𝟕 𝐟𝐭𝟑 )(𝟏𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝒔𝒆𝒄 )
𝝆𝟐 = 𝐦𝐢 𝟓𝟐𝟖𝟎 𝐟𝐭 𝟏 𝐡𝐫
But; (𝟒𝟎𝟎 )( )( )
𝐡𝐫 𝟏 𝐦𝐢 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝐬𝐞𝐜
1
𝐀𝟐 = 𝐀𝟏
2
𝐬𝐥𝐮𝐠
𝝆𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟏 𝟑
𝐟𝐭
The Incompressible Bernoulli Equation
Bernoulli’s Principle
State that as the air velocity increases, the pressure
decreases, as the air velocity decreases, the pressure
increases.

States that the total energy of a particle in motion is

constant at all parts on its path in a steady flow
 The Incompressible Bernoulli Equation (cont. . . .)

1 2

VELOCITY PRESSURE P + dP

ds
1 2
The Incompressible Bernoulli Equation (cont. . . .)

Let:
ds = The length of the elements
ρAds = m = the mass of the fluid
dv
a= = the acceleration
dt

Applying Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion to the segment of the

streamtube;
F = ma
dv
Fx = PA – (P + dP)A = ρAds *
dt
dv
A [ P – (P + dP)] = ρAds *
dt
dv
P – P + dP = ρds *
dt
The Incompressible Bernoulli Equation (cont. . . .)
d𝑠 v2 1
-dP = ρ * dv + P=c
dt 2 ρ
but; 𝐯𝟐 𝐏
d𝑠 + =c
=v 𝟐 ρ
dt
-dP = ρvdv
𝟐 𝟐
-
dP
= vdv
𝐯𝟏 𝐏𝟏 𝐯𝟐 𝐏𝟐
ρ + = +
vdv +
dP
=0
𝟐 ρ 𝟐 ρ
ρ
Integrating both sides
1
vdv + dP = 0
ρ
Since the fluid is incompressible
density is constant.
Example #1
Consider an airfoil in a flow at standard sea level condition with the
free stream velocity of 50 meters per second, at the given point on
the airfoil the pressure is 90,000 Pa. Calculate the velocity at this
point.

Given:

P = 90,000 Pa
Vα = 50mps V=?

SSCL
Example #1 (cont. . . . . )

Req’d:
V = velocity at a given point in the airfoil.
Sol’n:
𝐯α𝟐 𝐏α 𝐯𝟐 𝐏
𝟐
+ = +
ρα
𝟐 ρα 𝟐(𝐏α − P)
𝒗= + 𝒗α 𝟐
𝐯𝟐 − 𝐯α𝟐
ρα
𝐏α − P
=
𝟐 ρα
𝟐(𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟓𝑷𝒂 − 90,000 Pa) 𝒎
𝒗= + (𝟓𝟎 )𝟐
𝟐(𝐏α − P) 𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝐤𝐠/𝐦𝟑 𝒔

𝐯𝟐 =
ρα
+ 𝐯α𝟐
𝐯 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒. 𝟖𝟖 𝐦/𝐬
Example #2
A horizontal pipe 0.30m in diameter tapers gradually to 0.20m in
diameter. If the flow is 0.23m3 of water per second. What is the
difference at the pressure at the two sections?

Given: A

dA = 0.30m Q = ὐ = 0.23 m3/s dB = 0.20m

A
Example #2 (cont. . . . . )

Req’d:
PA − PB = difference of pressure in the two section
Sol’n:
𝐯A𝟐 𝐏A 𝐯B𝟐 𝐏B
+ = +
𝟐 ρ 𝟐 ρ
𝐏A−𝐏B 𝐯B𝟐 −𝐯A𝟐
ρ
=
𝟐

𝐏A − 𝐏B = ½ ρ (𝐯B𝟐 − 𝐯A𝟐)

But since the fluid is incompressible, Q

Q A = AAVA
Q B = ABVB
𝐐 𝐐
VA= V=
AA ; B AB
Example #2 (cont. . . . . )

Sol’n:
𝐐 𝐐
𝐏A − 𝐏B = ½ ρ [( )2 - ( ) 2]
AB AA
𝐐 2 AB 2
𝐏A − 𝐏B = ½ ρ ( ) [(1- ( ) ]
AB AA
2
πdB
𝐐h2o 2
𝐏A − 𝐏B = ½ ρh2o ( 2 ) [(1-
πdB ( 𝟒
πdA2
2 ) ]
𝟒 𝟒

𝐐h2o 2 dB2 2
𝐏A − 𝐏B = 8ρh2o ( 2) [(1- ( 2) ]
πdB dA

𝟎.𝟐𝟑 𝐦𝟑/𝐬 2 0.20m 4

𝐏A − 𝐏B = 8(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝐤𝐠 )( ) [(1- ( ) ]
π(0.20m)2 0.30m
𝟑

𝐏A − 𝐏B = 21,505.73 Pa
The Incompressible Bernoulli Equation
Venturi Tube
The Venturi Tube is a convergent – divergent tube with a
short cylindrical throat or constricted section.

This device determines the rate of flow of fluid through

the tube and measures the pressure between the throat
section and the entrance section.

Convergent – tending to move forward into one point unto

the other point.
Divergent – tends to move in different direction.
The Incompressible Bernoulli Equation (cont. . . .)

Venturi Tube (cont.….)

1
2

𝐕𝟏 Q 𝐕𝟐
𝐏𝟏 𝐏𝟐

Ϫh
The Incompressible Bernoulli Equation (cont. . . .)

Venturi Tube (cont.….)

The Incompressible Bernoulli Equation (cont. . . .)

Venturi Tube (cont.….)

Practical Application is made of Bernoulli’s Equation in the
Venturi tube.

𝐯1𝟐 𝐏1 𝐯𝟐𝟐 𝐏𝟐
+ = +
𝟐 ρ 𝟐 ρ
ρ
𝐏1 - 𝐏2 = 𝟐 (𝐯𝟐𝟐 - 𝐯𝟏𝟐)
By law of continuity, Q being the rate of flow for non-
compressible fluids.
But;
𝐐 = A𝟏V𝟏 ; 𝐐 = A𝟐V𝟐
 The Incompressible Bernoulli Equation (cont. . . .)

Venturi Tube (cont.….)

Since Q is the same in both sections in the venturi we get
the velocity in each section. 𝐐 𝟐
( ) = 2(𝐏1 − 𝐏2)
𝐐 𝐐 A𝟐 ρ [1 − ( A𝟐)𝟐]
V𝟏 = ; V𝟐 = A𝟏
A𝟏 A𝟐
Subst;
𝐐 𝐐 𝐐 2(𝐏1 − 𝐏2)
V𝟏 = ; V𝟐 = =
A𝟏 A𝟐 A𝟐 ρ [1 − (A𝟐)𝟐]
A𝟏
ρ 𝐐 𝟐 𝐐 𝟐
𝐏1 - 𝐏2 = [( ) -( ) ]
𝟐 A𝟐 A𝟏

ρ 𝐐 𝟐 A𝟐 𝟐
𝐏1 - 𝐏2 = ( ) [1 - ( ) ]
𝟐 A𝟐 A𝟏
 The Incompressible Bernoulli Equation (cont. . . .)

Venturi Tube (cont.….)

2(𝐏1 − 𝐏2)
𝐐 = A𝟐 for a given area.
ρ [1 − (A )𝟐] 𝟐
A 𝟏

𝟐
Where:
πd𝟐 2(𝐏1 − 𝐏2)
𝐐= d𝟐𝟐
Q = rate of flow in m3/ sec or
𝟒 π
ft.3/ sec.
ρ [1 −( 𝟒 𝟐 )𝟐]
πd𝟏
𝟒

πd𝟐𝟐 2(𝐏1 − 𝐏2)

𝐐= d for a given diameter.
𝟒
ρ [1 −( )𝟒] 𝟐
d 𝟏
Example #1
Consider a venturi tube with a throat to inlet area ratio of 0.75
mounted in a flow of standard sea level condition. If the pressure at
the inlet and throat is 330 Pa. Calculate the velocity of the flow at
the inlet.
Soln:
Given: 2(𝐏1 − 𝐏2) A𝟐 2(𝐏1 − 𝐏2)
𝐐 = A𝟐 V𝟏=
A𝟐
= 0.75 ρ [1 − (A )𝟐]
𝟐 A𝟏 ρ [1 − (A )𝟐]
𝟐
A A
A𝟏 𝟏
𝟏

𝐏1 − 𝐏2 = 330 Pa But; 𝐐 = A𝟏V𝟏 V𝟏= (𝟎. 𝟕𝟓)

2(𝟑𝟑𝟎 𝐏a)
1.225 [1 − (𝟎.𝟕𝟓)𝟐]
Subst.;
SSLC
2(𝐏1 − 𝐏2) 𝒎
Required: A𝟏V𝟏= A𝟐
ρ [1 − (A )𝟐] V𝟏= 𝟐𝟔. 𝟑𝟐
𝒔
𝟐

v1 A 𝟏
Example #2
A venturi tube narrow down from 4 inches in diameter to 2 inches in
diameter. What is the rate of flow of water if the pressure at the
throat is 2 lbs. per square inch less than the larger section.

Given: 1
2

d𝟏 = 4 in 𝐕𝟏 𝐕𝟐 d𝟐 = 2 in
𝐏𝟏 𝐏𝟐
Example #2 (cont.…)

Given:
𝟏 𝐟𝐭 𝟏𝐦
d𝟏 = 4 in x x = 0.10 m
𝟏𝟐 𝐢𝐧 𝟑.𝟐𝟖 𝐟𝐭
𝟏 𝐟𝐭 𝟏𝐦
d𝟐 = 2 in x x = 0.05 m
𝟏𝟐 𝐢𝐧 𝟑.𝟐𝟖 𝐟𝐭
P𝟐 = P𝟏 – 2 psi
𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟓 𝐏𝐚
P𝟏 – P𝟐 = 2 psi x = 13785.71 Pa
𝟏𝟒.𝟕 𝐩𝐬𝐢

Reqd: Soln:
Qh2O 𝐐h2O=
πd𝟐𝟐 2(𝐏1 − 𝐏2)
𝟒
ρ [1 −(d𝟐)𝟒]
d𝟏
π(𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝐦)𝟐 2(𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟖𝟓.𝟕𝟏Pa)
𝐐h2O =
𝟒 1000 kg/m3 [1 −(𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝐦
𝟎.𝟏𝟎𝐦
) 𝟒
]

Qh2O = 0.011 m3/sec