Physics E-1bx: Lecture 2 January 31, 2017

Conductors, Current, and Resistance

• An insulator has essentially no charge that is “free to move.” Although a potential
gradient will exert a force on charges in an insulator, the charges remain bound and do
not flow. A conductor contains charge that is free to move. If there is a potential
gradient in a conductor, these charges will feel a force and will flow in response.
A conductor at equilibrium will have the same potential everywhere. An empty cavity
inside a conductor at equilibrium will also have the same uniform potential. Thus, there
will be no potential gradient inside a conductor at equilibrium.
If a potential difference is applied across a conductor, charge will flow. The flow of
charge is called current. The current i that results can be given by any of the following
relationships:

ΔV
From resistance (Ohm’s Law): i=
R

ΔV A A
From resistivity r or conductivity s: i= or i = ΔV σ
ρ L L

• For ions in solution, the total conductivity is the sum of the conductivity due to each
species of ion in the solution. (The solution must overall be electrically neutral.) The
conductivity of a particular species of ion is modeled simply as:

cq 2
σ= : c is the concentration, q is the charge, and f is the drag coefficient of the ion
f

• A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by an air gap or by an insulator. For

this arrangement, if the charge on one conductor is +q and the charge on the other is –q,
the potential difference will be proportional to the charge, and determined by the
capacitance C:
q
ΔV =
C
ε A
Parallel plates (with air gap), area A, separation d: C = 0
d
An isolated sphere (with air gap): C = 4 πε 0 R

We use capacitors and resistors in circuits, in which various elements like batteries,
capacitors, and resistors are connected by wires. In many cases, a combination of circuit
elements can be replaced with an equivalent element that has the same effect:

Resistors in series: Resistors in parallel:

1 1 1
Requiv = R1 + R2 + = + +
Requiv R1 R2

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Physics E-1bx: Lecture 2 January 31, 2017

• Learning objectives: After this lecture, you will be able to…

1. Describe how to calculate the potential created by a continuous distribution of charge by
adding up the potentials from all of the tiny “bits of charge” in the distribution.
2. Calculate the potential created by some common continuous distributions of charge: a
ring of charge, a disk of charge, and a sphere of charge.
3. Describe the difference between a conductor and an insulator.
4. Explain why any conductor at equilibrium will have the same electric potential
everywhere on its surface and inside it.
5. Derive a simple model to show how the electric current carried by ions in a solution is
related to:
• the charge of the ion, q
• the drag coefficient of the ion, f (this is viscous drag like Stokes’s Law)
• the concentration of ions, c
• the potential gradient across the solution, DV/L
• the cross-sectional area of the solution, A
6. Describe the behavior of conductors in terms of conductivity or resistivity.
7. Derive Ohm’s Law that relates current, voltage, and resistance
8. Explain what a capacitor is, define capacitance C, and calculate the capacitance of
parallel-plate and spherical capacitors.
9. Explain what we mean by electrical circuit and construct simple circuits involving
resistors or capacitors in series or in parallel.
10. Explain the concept of an equivalent resistor.
11. Replace several resistors (either in series or in parallel) with a single equivalent resistor.

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Physics E-1bx: Lecture 2 January 31, 2017

Continuous charge distributions

• Often, we will want to model a continuous distribution of charge. How can we do this
using the superposition principle?

• Usually, we’ll express the tiny bit of charge in terms of a density of charge:
For a linear density (charge per unit length):

For an area density (charge per unit area):

For a volume density (charge per unit volume):

• What the potential on the axis of a thin ring of charge, with linear charge density l?

• What if you’re very far away from the ring (i.e. x >> R)?

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Physics E-1bx: Lecture 2 January 31, 2017

Continuous Charge Distributions: Disk of Charge

• Now let’s consider a uniformly-charged disk with area charge density s. What is the
potential at any point on the axis of the disk?

• What about the limit when you’re very close to the disk (i.e. x << R0)?

• Does this kind of potential look at all familiar?

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Physics E-1bx: Lecture 2 January 31, 2017

Am I getting it? Conductors and Insulators

• Most materials can be classified into two broad categories, based on their electrical
properties: conductors and insulators. Conductors contain electric charges that can
move or flow if you apply a potential gradient.
1. For each of the following materials, circle whether it is a conductor or insulator. For
those materials that are conductors, identify the mobile charge carriers in the material.
Glass conductor insulator

Copper conductor insulator

Pure water conductor insulator

Plastic conductor insulator

Salt water conductor insulator

Oil conductor insulator

Cytosol (inside cell) conductor insulator

Lipid cell membrane conductor insulator

Concrete conductor insulator

Bonus! Can you think of a material that becomes a better conductor at low temperatures?

Can you think of a material that becomes a better conductor at high temperatures?

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Physics E-1bx: Lecture 2 January 31, 2017

Activity 1: Potential on a Conductor at Equilibrium

• If a conductor is in electrostatic
equilibrium, then no charge is flowing
anywhere in or on the conductor. •
V = 0V •
1. The oval at right represents a conductor. V = 9V
Imagine that the electric potential is 0V
at one point in the conductor, and 9V at
another point, as shown.
a) Is there a potential gradient inside the
conductor? How do you know?

b) Is there a net force somewhere on a charge in the conductor? How do you know?

c) Since the conductor contains charges that are mobile (free to move), is it possible that
the conductor shown above with two different potentials is in electrostatic equilibrium?
How do you know?

2. The conductor shown at right has an

empty cavity (a hole) inside it. Five
dots are shown at various points in and
on the conductor. If the conductor is in
equilibrium, what must be true about the
potential at these five points?

• This phenomenon can be used for electrostatic shielding…

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Physics E-1bx: Lecture 2 January 31, 2017

Activity 2: Current: Ions in Solution

• Now let’s consider the non-equilibrium situation in a conductor. What if we apply a
potential difference across a conductor—for instance, by placing electrodes in an aqueous
solution that contains mobile ions? What will happen?

1. Let’s construct a quantitative model for current flow. You

apply a potential difference DV across a tank of solution with
length L and cross-sectional area A. In the solution there are
sodium ions (Na+), with charge q. These ions will feel an
electric force, and also a drag force given by Fdrag = fv, where
f is the drag coefficient and v is the speed.

Find an expression for the terminal velocity of Na+ ions in

this solution.

2. The current is the charge that flows per unit time—in this case, the total amount of
charge that reaches the electrode of area A per unit time. If the concentration of Na+ ions
is c (ions per m3), find an expression for the current carried by Na+ ions. (Hint: the
distance traveled by an ion during a time t is simply vt, where v is the terminal velocity.)

Bonus! The solution must also contain negative ions, such as chloride Cl–. Find an expression
for the total current carried by ions in the solution.

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Physics E-1bx: Lecture 2 January 31, 2017

Conductivity and Resistivity

• We have an expression for the current (in this case, the current carried by a certain kind
of ion). Let’s take a look at this expression:

• We can identify three independent parts in this expression:

- Something that depends on the potential difference applied to the solution
- Something that depends on the geometry (size and shape) of the material
- Something that depends on the material itself.

• Let’s extract the piece that depends on the material itself, and call it the conductivity of
the material. We’ll give it the symbol s. What will be the SI units?

• More commonly, though, you’ll hear people talk about the resistivity of the material.
How is resistivity related to conductivity?

• So, how can you express the current in terms of the conductivity or resistivity?

• Note that we’re only talking about conductors—even when discussing resistivity!

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Physics E-1bx: Lecture 2 January 31, 2017

Am I getting it? Resistance and Ohm’s Law

• We can summarize the previous activities with the following relationship. Given almost
any kind of object that can conduct electricity, if we apply a potential difference DV and
measure the current i, we will find a linear relationship:
Ohm’s Law: DV = iR
where R is a property of the object called the resistance.
1. You have a conducting material of length L and
cross-sectional area A. Find an expression for the
resistance R of this object in terms of:
a) The resistivity r of the material

b) The conductivity s of the material

2. The resistance of a certain object is R. You make an object of the same material that is
twice as large while keeping all proportions the same (i.e. you double its length, width,
and height). The resistance of the new object will be:
a) R/4
b) R/2
c) R
d) 2R
e) 4R
Bonus! Why does Ohm’s Law also apply to the flow of electrons in a metal? (Hint: the electrons
experience repeated, random collisions with the nuclei of the metal atoms.)

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Physics E-1bx: Lecture 2 January 31, 2017

Activity 3: Capacitors and Capacitance

1. You have two conductors separated by an insulator; the conductors are both in
electrostatic equilibrium. One conductor has a total charge +q; the other has a total
charge –q. What can you say about the potential at the various points indicated on the
figure below? (positive/negative? equal/unequal? Take V = 0 infinitely far away.)

•a •d
•c
–q
+q
•b •e

2. We often refer to “the potential” of a conductor without indicating a specific point on the
conductor. Explain why it makes sense to do so.

3. If you started off with two uncharged conductors, what could you do to make them
charged as shown in the figure above? (Hint: how can you make charge flow?)

4. If you keep the geometry and materials the same, the potential difference DV between the
conductors will be proportional to the amount of charge q. Why should the potential
always be proportional to the charge? (Hint: there’s a key equation from lecture 1b)

q
5. We define ΔV = where C is a proportionality constant called capacitance. What are
its SI units? C

Bonus! Will the excess charges in part (1) above be distributed uniformly on the conductors?
Explain.

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Physics E-1bx: Lecture 2 January 31, 2017

Activity 4: Parallel-Plate
Capacitors
• For any arrangement of conductors, we can find the
capacitance as follows: Put charges +q and –q on
the conductors, and then calculate the potential
difference DV between them. The simplest and
most common example for capacitors is the
parallel plate geometry. Let’s determine the
capacitance for two disks of radius R a distance d
apart (R >> d):
d
What is the potential along the x-axis due to only the disk with charge –q?
V

R x
x axis d

–q +q What is the potential along the x-axis due to only the disk with charge +q?
V

x
d

1. What is the total potential due to both disks? What is the potential difference DV? What
is the capacitance C for this arrangement?
V

x
d

• In general, for two plates of area A separated a distance d, the capacitance will be:

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Physics E-1bx: Lecture 2 January 31, 2017

Activity 5: Capacitance of a Spherical Conductor

• We can also treat a single isolated conductor as a capacitor, by examining the relationship
between q and DV for the single conductor. What assumption must we make?

• If a single conductor has a net charge q, where will the excess charge be located? Why?

1. Find the potential on a spherical conductor of radius R with a uniform charge q on its
surface. (Hint: The conductor has the same potential everywhere inside. Where would it
be especially easy to calculate V?)

2. What is the capacitance C for an isolated conducting sphere?

Bonus! Does it make sense to calculate the capacitance of an insulating sphere, like a plastic ball?

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Physics E-1bx: Lecture 2 January 31, 2017

Simple Circuits: Resistors in Series

• We can represent an electrical circuit using a circuit diagram. What is the simplest
circuit you could construct with a battery and a single resistor?

• Now suppose you have two resistors. You could connect them in series. Show the
diagram for the circuit. What must be true about the current through both resistors?

• What must be true about the total potential difference across the two resistors?

• If R1 = 5 W and R2 = 15 W, how could you replace those two resistors with a single
equivalent resistor?

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Physics E-1bx: Lecture 2 January 31, 2017

Activity 6: Resistors in Parallel

• The circuit at right shows two resistors in parallel:
1. What must be true about the potential difference
DV across these resistors? (Hint: consider the
difference between points a and b on the circuit.)

2. What must be true about the total current itotal that flows through both resistors?

3. Find an expression for the equivalent resistance of a single resistor Requiv that could
replace these two resistors.

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Physics E-1bx: Lecture 2 January 31, 2017

Am I getting it?
1. Four identical resistors of resistance R are arranged as shown in
the figure at right. What is the equivalent resistance of the entire
combination of resistors?

R R R
A)
4

R
B)
2

C) R
R R
D) 2R

E) 4R

Bonus! Can you replace all these resistors with a single resistor between terminals A and B?

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Physics E-1bx: Lecture 2 January 31, 2017

One-Minute Paper

Your name: _________________________________

Names of your group members: _________________________________

_________________________________

• Please tell us any questions that came up for you today during lecture. Write “nothing”
if no questions(s) came up for you between 6–9pm (or while viewing it online).

• What single topic left you most confused after today’s class?

• Any other comments or reflections on today’s class?

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