SUMMARY

This experiment of studying the properties of gas and liquid by using

Armfield Properties of Gases and Liquids apparatus is divided into
two parts, which are Part A and Part B. Part A is conducted to
determine the viscosity of air. The main technique of this experiment
is to determine the pressure drop by reading the mercury level of
manometer at both sides. It involves closing the vacuum pump valve
for every 10 seconds after letting the control tap to exhaust to
atmosphere. The viscosity of gas, or in this context, viscosity of air,
is determined by using the Poiseuille formula, stated in Theory
section. The viscosity of air is calculated to be 1.387x10 -5 Ns/m2,
which is 25.83 percentage of error. The viscosity of gas is then
proved to be dependent of pressure, and it increases upon the
increase of temperature. Part B is conducted to determine the
viscosity of liquid, in this context, glycerine. It is basically conducted
to record the time taken for a ball bearing, which is denser than the
liquid, to fall at a certain distance inside a viscometer. The viscosity
of liquid is determined using Stoke’s Law of drag force, and the
value of viscosity of glycerine is 5.914 Ns/m 2. The viscosity of liquid
however is temperature dependence, and it increases with a
decrease of temperature. The experiment is completed and
successfully conducted.

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 INTRODUCTION

When a real fluid flows, an adjacent layers move with different

velocities, where there are frictional forces that involves opposing
this motion. Thus, dissipation of some of the energy occurs. The
quantity that describes to what extent this happens in a certain fluid
is called viscosity derives from the Latin word “viscum” for mistletoe
(viscous glue, made from berries and was used to coat lime-twigs to
catch birds. Viscosity, or commonly symbolized as Ƞ is a fluid
property which indicates how resistant that fluid is to flow. Viscosity
properties can also be thought of as an internal resistance to flow
processes.

Industrial applications highly depend on the properties of the

materials used such as viscosity, density and diffusivity. Majority of
many plant operations involved gases and liquids.

Although it is often supposed that the thermodynamic

properties of gases and liquids are known with accuracy sufficient
for virtually all technological purposes, this is not in fact the case.
Although such properties can sometimes be estimated from
thermodynamic models, it is often essential to measure key
properties in order to validate or optimise the available models.
Furthermore, the development of new models is dependent to a large
extent upon the availability of appropriate experimental data.

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 AIMS / OBJECTIVES

The experiment is conducted in order to attain a few objectives

which is to determine the viscosity of gases with pressure difference,
to conclude the dependency of gases and liquids with temperature
and pressure, to compare the theoretical values of viscosity of gases
and liquids with experimental values obtained, to determine the
viscosity of liquids with both temperature and pressure difference, as
well as to be able to analyze the effect of temperature and buoyancy
on the properties.

THEORY

Viscosity is the resistance a material has to change in form.

Highly viscous liquids, like motor oil or molasses, take much longer
flow from their container than a relatively low viscosity liquid, like
benzene or diethyl ether.   To quantify viscosity, we will imagine our
bulk fluid as consisting of a number of very thin layers.   In order for
the fluid to flow, a force will be required to slide these layers
relative to one another.  The amount of force (f) required is assumed
to be directly proportional to the area ( A) of the layers in contact
with one another and the velocity difference ( υ) between the layers.
Furthermore, the force is inversely proportional to the distance ( d)
between the layers.  Viscosity (η) can then be introduced as a
constant of proportionally, yielding a force equation of the form

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   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 1 )

Dimensional analysis of equation (1) gives SI Units for

viscosity of kg m-1 s-1.  However, the unit that is typically employed
in practice is called the 'poise' ( P), where 1 P = 1 gram cm-1 s-1. 
Liquid viscosities are usually reported in ‘centipoise,’  cP, and gas
viscosity are reported in ‘micropoise,’  μP. 

The viscosity depends on temperature, density, and pressure.

Likewise, in so-called non-Newtonian fluids, the viscosity also
depends on other factors for instance; so-called thixotropic liquids
such as ketchup and concrete have a lower viscosity when they are
agitated. Attempts to calculate viscosities from the statistical
properties of the fluid are successful only for simple fluids (such as
noble gases at low pressure). For these simple fluids, one finds that
the viscosity increases with increasing temperature. For most
liquids, however, the temperature dependence is opposite, and the
viscosity decreases with temperature, as shown in the figure below.

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 Viscosity in fact is basically referred to laminar flow. The
molecules next to the surface where a fluid or gas is flowing over it
have zero speed. The speed increases with the distance from the
molecules to the surface. This difference in speed shows the friction
exerted on the gas and liquid, where each molecules being pushed
past each other. Thus, viscosity determines the amount of friction,
which in turn determines the amount of energy absorbed by the flow.

It has been well known that the viscosity of liquid water

exhibits different behaviour from other ordinary liquids. Many
empirical equations which were applied to liquid water failed to
predict the exact value of the viscosity. However, some reference
books show that the value of viscosity of liquid is 0.3000 Ns/m 2 or
0.03 P. Meanwhile, the value of viscosity of air is 1.87 x 10 -5 Ns/m2
or 1.87 x 10-6 P.

Only significant structure theory of viscosity had fitted the

viscosity of liquid water with success by assuming that the solid-like

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volume was summed up to the mole fraction of the ice mixture. On
the other hand, the viscosity of water vapour cannot be calculated
successfully by the previous theory and any other viscosity
equations which describe the liquid state. Therefore, no theory of
viscosity can be applicable for both liquid water and water vapour.

There are a few factors that influence the viscosity value of a

fluid. Certainly the strength of intermolecular attractions has an
influence; nitro benzene has a much higher viscosity than regular
benzene because the former is capable of dipole-dipole attractions
which are considerably stronger than the dispersion forces of
attraction present in bulk benzene. Other factors include the size
and shape of molecules of the respective fluid.

As mentioned earlier, viscosity varies with temperature,

generally decreasing as a temperature is increased. This occurs due
to the increased kinetic motion at higher temperatures promotes the
breaking of intermolecular bonds between adjacent layers. A
considerable amount of research has been carried out in an attempt
to understand the exact nature of temperature variation of viscosity.
One relatively simple model assumes that the viscosity obeys an
‘Arrhenius-like’ equation of the form;

...................(2)

where A and Ea are constants for a given fluid. A is called the pre-
exponential factor and Ea can be interpreted as the activation energy
for viscous flow.  Note that this expression is nearly identical to the
Arrhenius equation that describes the temperature variation of the
rate constant (k) of a chemical reaction, except equation (3) does

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not have a negative sign in the exponential which causes the
viscosity to get smaller with increasing temperature.

There is also another method of calculation which involves

viscosity of a liquid that flows in a cylindrical tube. The theory that
is also known as Poiseuille’s Law is an expression for the flow rate
Q (in m3/s) in terms of the viscosity Ƞ, the radius R (in m) of the
pipe, its length L (in m), and the pressure difference ∆ptube (in Pa)
over the length of the of the flow;

Q = πR4∆ptube
8ȠL .................(3)

When the fluid enters the pipe it has to be accelerated, and

energy conservation requires that this is associated with a pressure
drop. Thus, only a fraction of the total pressure difference ∆p
between intake and outlet of the pipe is available for ∆ptube. From
Bernoulli’s Law and the fact that the flow rate is the area of the
cross section times the average flow velocity v, or Q = πR2v, one
derives easily that

∆ptube = ∆p – ρQ2_
2π 2R4 ................(4)

where ρ (in kg/m3) is the density of the fluid. Inserting Equation (4)
into Equation (3) and solving for Ƞ, yields the equation we need to
analyze in this experiment;

.....................(5)

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 The relationship between time, t, and change in manometer
level can be calculated by using the following expression;

8 LV ° μ ( P A + P2 )( P A−P1 )
t= PA a4 π ln ( P A−P2 )( P A + P1 ) .....................(6)

where t = time of experiment (s)

µ = viscosity (Ns/m2)

L = length of tube (0.5 m)

V0 = volume of the vessel (0.0193 m 3)

a = radius of tube (0.000575 m)

P1= initial pressure (N/m2)

P2= final pressure (N/m2)

PA= Atmospheric pressure (N/m 2)

The pressure can be calculated by using the following expression;

P = ρgh ......................(7)

where ρ = density of manometer fluid (kg/m 3)

g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s 2)

h = height of mercury (m)

George Stoke’s Law of Viscosity established the science of

hydrodynamics. It involves settling of sphere and also derivations of

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various flow relationships ranging from wave mechanics to viscous
resistance. Stokes came out with a formula that can predict the rate
at which a sphere falls through a viscous gas or liquid.

As a matter of fact, the total forces on a particle moving in a

fluid consist of two parts, which are skin friction and also drag
formation. Skin friction occurs due to the shearing of a liquid
whereas drag formation is a result from the formation of a wake
behind the particle and corresponding dissipation of energy. Both
forces depend upon rate at which the particle is travelling. Skin
friction is predominant in viscous range while drag formation is
predominant in turbulent range.

When a spherical particle moves in a fluid, it will accelerate

until the net downward force is balanced by the upward drag force.

4 d 3
Nett downward force =
π
3 3() ( ps − p )g

π 3
d ( ps − p )
= 3 ..................(8)

Nett upward force = 3πȠdv

π 3
d ( ps − p )
= 3 ......................(9)

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Thus, the terminal settling velocity laminar flow region;

2
d g
( p − p)
Vt = 18 μ s ................(10)

where d = diameter of sphere (m)

g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s 2)

µ = viscosity of fluid (kg/s.m)

ρs = density of sphere (kg/m 3)

ρ = density of fluid (kg/m 3)

This velocity is terminal velocity the sphere will attain falling

through the liquid or gas. The equation above works if the motion is
slow enough to keep the flows in laminar domain. Once the speeds
increase past a limit, the drag grows at large rates. Sometimes it is
necessary to figure out if the dominant variable is the viscous flow or
inertial flow.

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 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Part A: Determination of viscosity of gas

1. This experiment is set up with the control tap closed on the

capillary tube.
2. The vessel is evacuated by opening the vacuum control valve to
its maximum limits, and the pressure difference on the
manometer in mm Hg is recorded.
3. The vacuum pump valve is closed and the control tap is
exhausted to atmosphere, this is closed at 10 seconds intervals
and the manometer reading is recorded.

Part B: Determination of the viscosity of liquid

1. Ball bearing is allowed to fall different known distance in a

verticals column of liquid, held at a constant temperature.
2. The heating fluid is slowly circulated through the test cell from
the thermostatic bath and its temperature is measured.
3. The circulation of fluid through the test cell is commenced from
the thermostatic bath at a predetermined low temperature until
the temperature registered at the top of cell remains constant.
4. The thermometer is then removed and a ball bearing is inserted
into the top of viscometer tube.
5. The stop is started when the ball passes the top mark on the
column and is stopped when the ball passes the bottom mark.
6. The distance between these marks is printed on the glass and
the relative terminal velocity could therefore be determined.

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 7. The density of the fluid and sphere must be determined and the
viscosity of the fluid at the predetermined temperature is
calculated from the laminar flow relationships.

APPARATUS

Part A: Determination of the viscosity of gas

1. The Armfield Properties of gases and liquid apparatus

2. Stopwatch

Part B: Determination of the viscosity of liquid

1. Viscometer

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 2. Vernier scale
3. Stand and clamp
4. Stopwatch
5. Sphere bearing
6. Glycerine (glycerol)

RESULT

Part A: Determination of viscosity of gas

Time Pressure, P1 Pressure, P2 Pressure difference, ln (h1/h2)

(s) (h1) (h2) ∆P (mmhg)
0 445 158 287 1.035
10 415 188 227 0.792
20 389 214 175 0.598
30 367 236 131 0.442
40 350 253 97 0.325
50 337 266 71 0.237
60 327 276 51 0.170
70 320 283 37 0.123
80 315 288 27 0.090
90 311 292 19 0.063

Part B: Determination of viscosity of liquid

High of
ball Time (s) Time (s) Time (s) Time (s) Velocity, v

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bearing 1st reading 2nd reading 3rd reading Average (m/s)
falling
(mm)
220 4.85 6.22 6.06 5.71 0.039
200 4.56 7.06 5.78 5.80 0.035
175 5.68 4.13 4.25 4.69 0.037
100 1.59 2.06 2.47 2.04 0.049
25 0.72 0.56 0.68 0.65 0.039
Density of glycerin,ρ = 1261 kg/m3
Density of ball,ρs = 1130631.213 kg/m3
Diameter of ball bearing = 0.6184 x 10 -3 m
Mass of ball bearing = 0.14 x 10 -3kg

SAMPLE CALCULATION

Part A: Determination of viscosity

Atmospheric pressure,P A
= ρgh
= 13580(kg/m3) x 9.81(m/s) x 0.76(m)
= 101247.048 (kg/s.m)
= 101247.048 (N/m2)

Pressure after 10 seconds,P 1

= 13580(kg/m3) x 9.81(m/s) x 0.227(m)
= 30240.89 (kg/s.m)
= (101247.048 - 30240.89) (N/m 2)
= 71006.158 (N/m2)
Pressure after 80 seonds,P 2
= 101247.048 – [13580(kg/m 3) x 9.81(m/s) x 0.027 (m)]
= 97650.118 (N/m2)

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Time,t
= (t2 – t1)
= 80s – 10s
= 70s

Thus, by applying equation (6), the viscosity of air can now be

calculated.

8 LV ° μ ( P A + P2 )( P A−P1 )
t = PA a4 π ln ( P A−P2 )( P A + P1 )
( 8× 0.5 ×0.0193 × μ )
70 =
( 4
(101247.048× ( 0.000575 ) × π )
ln
)
((( 101247.048+97650.118 ) (101247.048−71006.158)
101247.048−97650.118 ) (101247.048+71006.158))
µ = 1.387 x 10-5 Ns/m2

Ln (h1/h2)
1.2

1
0.8
0.6

0.4
0.2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Part B: Determination of viscosity of liquid

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Velocity of sphere
= average velocity

= (0.039+ 0.035+ 0.037+0.049+

5
0.039
)( m / s )
= 0.0398 m/s

Thus, Vt

d2 g
( p − p)
0.0398 = 18 μ s
−3 2
0 . 0 3 9 8 = ( 0.6184 ×10 ) ×9.81 ( 1130631.213−1261 )
( )
18 μ
µ = 5.914 Ns/m2

SAMPLE ERROR CALCULATION

Part A: Determination of viscosity of gas

The theoretical value for viscosity of water is 1.87x10 -5 Ns/m2.

Nevertheless, the value obtained from the experiment has a
significant difference with the theoretical value, which is
1.387x10-5 Ns/m2. Thus, we can calculate the percentage of error,
as shown above.

( 1.87 × 10−5 )−(1.387 ×10−5) ( × 100 % )

Percentage error = ( −5
1.87 ×10 )
= 25.83 %

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 DISCUSSION

The experiment is conducted based on a few objectives which

include determining the viscosity of gas and liquid and comparing
it with the theoretical value as well as studying the effect of
temperature and pressure to the viscosity of gas and liquid.

The value of viscosity of gas calculated based on the

experimental results is 1.387x10 -5 Ns/m2. Nevertheless, this value
comprises almost 30 percentage of error from the theoretical
value. Therefore, there must have been a lot of mistakes and
errors during the experiment that lead to such erroneous value.

Firstly, the reading for the pressures on the manometer is only

done once for each 10 seconds of interval. Therefore, we are not
able to get average value for each interval in order to get more
accurate values.

Secondly, the manometer is old and the scale on this

instrument is overshadowed with corrosion, making it difficult to
read the mercury level on the lower pressure side. Thus, the
reading recorded may not be the correct and actual values.

Thirdly, the valve is supposedly closed after every 10 seconds

before reading the pressures indicated on the manometer.
However, it may not be closed at absolutely after the required
interval.

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 Next, the mercury levels observed on the manometer in
between 60 to 90 seconds are varying up and down quite rapidly;
therefore it is difficult to observe the accurate reading.

The viscosity of gas is proportional to the temperature, thus as

the temperature is elevated, the viscosity increases as well. This
is influenced to the kinetic energy of the gas molecules. As
temperature increases, the molecules of gas which are already
further apart tend to move rapidly and thus, the kinetic energy
increases. The molecules are colliding with each other, and thus
the intermolecular forces are no longer negligible. Hence, it
concludes that the gas is becoming more viscous as the
temperature is getting higher. However, viscosity of gas is
depending on pressure and not temperature. As what is implied
on Poiseuille’s Law, the viscosity is based on the pressure drop.

According to most reference books, the viscosity of liquid is at

approximately 0.300 Ns/m 2. This is way different with the
experimental result obtained, which is almost 6 Ns/m 2. However,
as what has been mentioned in Theory section earlier, the
viscosity of liquid is not easy to be calculated and the exact value
is difficult to be predicted.

During the experiment, it is becoming more difficult to record

the time taken for the ball bearing to move pass the glycerol at
decreasing distance required. This is due to the fact that the
closer the distance, the faster the ball bearing to reach to the
bottom.

Next, the eyes of the observer may not be parallel to the scale
which indicates the distance required to record the time taken for

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the ball bearing to reach the bottom. Therefore, the results
recorded are affected as well.

When temperature is increased, the viscosity of liquid will

decreased. This is because, the particles of liquid are moving
away from each other. Thus, the viscosity is decreased, as the
ball bearing is moving faster. Viscosity of liquid is proven to be
dependent of temperature.

CONCLUSION

The objectives of this experiment is satisfied with the value of

viscosity of gas is 1.387x10 -5 Ns/m2 whereas the viscosity of
liquid is 5.914 Ns/m 2. Although the values are differing much with
the theoretical values, it is concluded that viscosity of gas is
depending upon temperature. When temperature increases, the
viscosity also increases. On the contrary, viscosity of liquid is
decreasing in increasing temperature. Thus, it is pressure
depending, which is based on the pressure drop.

RECOMMENDATION

In order to get more accurate value, the reading for mercury

level is necessarily taken to at least three times. Besides that,
the manometer should be changed or monitored properly as it is
the most important part of the apparatus. This goes the same with
the experiment conducted in Part B, where the time recording
should be done more than three times, at least 7 readings. Thus,

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 the average value will be more convincing and minor mistakes
might not affect much on the calculated value.

REFERENCE

* CHEMISTRY-THE CENTRAL SCEINCE (ninth edition)-BROWN.

LEMAY.BURSTEN

* A BREIF INTRODUCTION OF FLUID MECHANICS(seconds edition)-

DONALD F.YOUNG-BRUCE R.MUNSON-THEODORE H. OKIISHI

* Coulson & Richardson (1997), Chemical Engineering (Vol 1),

Pergammon Press

APPENDICES

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