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 Development of Discrete-Time
Dynamic Models
• A digital computer by its very nature deals internally with
discrete-time data or numerical values of functions at equally
spaced intervals determined by the sampling period.
• Thus, discrete-time models such as difference equations are
widely used in computer control applications.
• One way a continuous-time dynamic model can be converted to
discrete-time form is by employing a finite difference
approximation.
• Consider a nonlinear differential equation,

dy ( t )
= f ( y, u ) (7-26)
dt
where y is the output variable and u is the input variable. 14
• This equation can be numerically integrated (though with some
error) by introducing a finite difference approximation for the
derivative.
• For example, the first-order, backward difference
approximation to the derivative at t = k ∆t is

dy y ( k ) − y ( k − 1)
≅ (7-27)
dt ∆t
where ∆t is the integration interval specified by the user and
y(k) denotes the value of y(t) at t = k ∆t. Substituting Eq. 7-26
into (7-27) and evaluating f (y, u) at the previous values of y and
u (i.e., y(k – 1) and u(k – 1)) gives:

y ( k ) − y ( k − 1)
≅ f ( y ( k − 1) , u ( k − 1) ) (7-28)
∆t
k ) y ( k − 1) + ∆tf ( y ( k − 1) , u ( k − 1) )
y (= (7-29)
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 Second-Order Difference
Equation Models
• Parameters in a discrete-time model can be estimated directly
from input-output data based on linear regression.
• This approach is an example of system identification (Ljung,
1999).
• As a specific example, consider the second-order difference
equation in (7-36). It can be used to predict y(k) from data
available at time (k – 1) ∆t and (k – 2) ∆t .

y (=
k ) a1 y ( k − 1) + a2 y ( k − 2 ) + b1u ( k − 1) + b2u ( k − 2 ) (7-36)

• In developing a discrete-time model, model parameters a1, a2,

b1, and b2 are considered to be unknown.
• This model can be expressed in the standard form of Eq. 7-7,
p
=y ∑β j X j + ε (7-7)
j =1

by defining:

β1  a1 , β 2  a2 , β3  b1 , β 4  b2
X 1  y ( k − 1) , X 2  y ( k − 2) ,
X 3  u ( k − 1) , X 4  u ( k − 2)

• The parameters are estimated by minimizing a least squares

error criterion:
2
 N  p
=S ∑  Yi − ∑ β j X ij  (7-8)
 

=i 1 = j 1 
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Equivalently, S can be expressed as,

=S (Y - X β ) (Y − X β )
T
(7-9)

where the superscript T denotes the matrix transpose and:

 Y1   β1 
 
=Y =  β  
 
 
Yn  β p 

The least squares solution of (7-9) is:

( )
−1
βˆ = X X T
X TY (7-10)

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y (=
k ) a1 y ( k − 1) + a2 y ( k − 2 ) + b1u ( k − 1) + b2u ( k − 2 ) (7-36)
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( )
−1
βˆ = X T X X TY (7-10)
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Development of Empirical Dynamic
Models from Step Response Data
Black box models
Transform notation:
• step response easiest to use but may upset the plant manager
• other methods

impulse - dye injection, tracer

random - PRBS (pseudo random binary sequences)
sinusoidal - theoretical approach
frequency response - modest usage (incl. pulse testing)
on-line (under FB control)

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