14 3302013ShearStrength

14.
330 SOIL MECHANICS

Shear Strength of Soils
STRESSES IN A SOIL ELEMENT

´v
Analyze Effective Stresses (´)
 “Load carried by Soil”
 Where:
´H ´H ´ = Normal Effective Stress on
Failure Plane
 f = Shear Stress on Failure Plane
 ´v = Vertical Effective Stress

´H = Horizontal Effective Stress
´v  = Shear Stress
Stresses in a Soil Element
after Figure 8.1a. Das FGE (2005).
Revised 04/2013 Slide 1 of 55

14.330 SOIL MECHANICS
MOHR FAILURE ENVELOPE

MOHR (1900):
Failure – Theory of Rupture in Materials.
Cannot Exist A material fails due to because of
Shear Stress ()
a critical combination of normal

and shear stress, not from
maximum normal or shear stress.
f = f(´) Functional Relationship:
Failure Envelope
Stable  f  f ( )
Normal Effective Stress (´) Where:
Mohr Functional Relationship f = Shear Stress on Failure Plane

after Figure 8.1b. Das FGE (2005). ´ = Normal Stress on Failure Plane

MOHR-COULOMB FAILURE CRITERIA

Failure Envelope is approximated by
MC Failure a linear relationship
Shear Stress ()
Criteria  MC Failure Criteria

(Effective Stresses)
 f  c    tan  
Failure –
Cannot Exist
Failure Where:
f = Shear Stress on Failure Plane
Envelope ´ = Normal Effective Stress on Failure Plane
Stable c´ = Effective Cohesion
´ = Effective Friction Angle
MC Failure Criteria
Normal Effective Stress (´)
c´ (Total Stresses)
 f  c   tan 
MC Failure Criteria
after Figure 8.1b. Das FGE (2005).
NOTE: Where:
c´ ≈ 0 for sands, inorganic silts,& NC clays
 = Normal Total Stress on Failure Plane
c = Cohesion
Revised 04/2013  = Friction Angle Slide 3 of 55
FACTORS AFFECTING EFFECTIVE FRICTION ANGLE (´)

Cohesionless Soils (c´ ≈ 0)
MC Failure
Shear Stress ()
Criteria Table 11-3. Holtz and Kovacs (1981).
Factor Effect
Failure –
Cannot Exist
Void Ratio (e) e 
 f  c    tan   Angularity (A) A 

Stable
Grain Size Distribution Cu 

Normal Effective Stress (´)
c´ ≈ 0 for sands, inorganic silts,& NC clays w 
Water Content (w)
(slightly)
MC Failure Criteria
after Figure 8.1b. Das FGE (2005). No effect (with
Particle size
constant e)
SANDS: Peak effective friction angle (´p) a
Overconsolidation or
function of particle mineralogy, level of Little Effect
effective confining stresses, and the prestress
packing arrangement (Bolton, 1986).
TYPICAL DRAINED FRICTION ANGLES (´)

COARSE GRAINED SOILS
Table 8.1. Das FGE (2005).
Soil Dr ´ (°)
Loose 27 – 30
Sand
Medium 30 – 35
(Rounded)
Dense 35 - 38
Loose 30 – 35
Sand
Medium 35 – 40
(Angular)
Dense 40 - 45
Gravels 34 – 48
(w/ some sands)
Revised 04/2013
Silts 26 - 35 Slide 5 of 55
TYPICAL DRAINED FRICTION ANGLES (´)

COARSE GRAINED SOILS
Revised 04/2013 Figure 7. NAVFAC DM 7.01 (1986). Slide 6 of 55

INCLINATION OF FAILURE PLANE

´1 PRINCIPAL STRESSES
MC Failure
Shear Stress ()

Criteria
h
´3 ´3
d

g

 e b
Where: ´1
f O ´3 a ´1
Normal Stress (´)
´1 = Major Principal Stress c´
´3 = Minor Principal Stress
Inclination of Failure Plane with Major Principal Plane
Figure 8.2. Das FGE (2005).

PRINCIPAL STRESSES
Angle dab = 2 = 90° + ´ or
MC Failure 
Shear Stress ()
Criteria   45o 
2
h
From Figure 8.2
ad
 sin  
d fa
 1   3
fa  fO  Oa  c cot   
g 2


 1   3
e b ad 
´3 ´1 2
f a
c´ Normal Stress (´) Substituting
 1   3
sin    2
 1   3
c cot   
Revised 04/2013 2 Slide 8 of 55

PRINCIPAL STRESSESFrom Previous Slide
 1   3
Shear Stress ()
MC Failure
Criteria sin    2
h  1   3
c cot   
2
or
d  1  sin     cos   
 1   3    2c 
 1  sin     1  sin   
g Trigonometry Identities
 1  sin     
 tan 2  45o  
 e b 1  sin    2
f ´3 a ´1 and
c´ Normal Stress (´)
cos     
Normal Stress (´)  tan 45o  
1  sin    2
Therefore
MC Failure Criteria in Terms of     o  
 1   3 tan 2  45o    2c tan 45  
Failure Stresses  2  2
SHEAR STRENGTH LABORATORY

TESTING SUMMARY
Pore Pressure Soil Types
Test ASTM Coarse Fine
Drained Undrained
Grained Grained
Direct Shear D3080 Y N Y See Note 1
CD - WK3821
Triaxial CU – D4767 Y Y Y Y
UU – D2850
Unconfined
D2166 N Y N Y
Compression
NOTES:
1. Possible, but not recommended. Takes 2 -5 days to allow for drained conditions.
DIRECT SHEAR TESTING

´ = Confining Stress
= Normal Force/Area


Oldest, Simplest Shear Test
= Normal Force/Area Typically performed on
coarse grained soils
Drained conditions (i.e. no
pore pressure buildup)
Failure occurs on fixed plane


Shear stress distribution not
 uniform
Can be Stress or Strain

Controlled (typically strain)
Measure Shear Force,
Figure 8.3. Das FGE (2006). Horizontal Displacement,
Vertical Displacement
ASTM D3080

= Normal Force/Area Normal Stress
     Normal Stress
Normal Force

Cross - sectional Area

 Shear Stress
  Shear Stress
Shear Force

Figure 8.3. Das FGE (2006). Cross - sectional Area
NOTE: Cross-sectional Area (A)

Revised 04/2013 is from start of test Slide 13 of 55

Direct Shear Test Results – Dry Sands
Components of Shear Strength for
Cohesionless Soils (Rowe, 1962)
• Friction Resistance:
Resistance due to particle sliding and
possibly rolling. Ultimate =
Residual
• Dilation:
Expansion required to overcome
particle interlocking. Increase in volume.
• Interference:
Due to particle interlocking (like dilation),
but occurs even at a constant volume
condition (unlike dilation). Particles
cannot go in straight line, must go around
each other.
Revised 04/2013 Figure 8.5. Das FGE (2006). Slide 14 of 55


• Test typically
performed at a
minimum of three (3)
confining stresses.
• Density of sample
should be within ±
2% of field value.
• Plots of peak (p)
and residual (r) MC
criteria should be
Typical Direct Shear Results – Dry Sand (c = 0)
presented. Peak Results Only

EXAMPLE #1
GIVEN: A Poorly Graded Sand (SP) from a Local Sand Pit with the
following Direct Shear Test Results.
Confining Stress Shear Stress ()

Test () (psi)
(psi) Peak Residual
1 14.4 11.1 8.4
2 17.5 14.0 11.8
3 23.1 18.4 16.7
REQUIRED:
Determine the peak friction angle (peak) and residual
Friction angle residual) for this material.

EXAMPLE #1
20
Shear Stress () (psi)
15
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Revised 04/2013
Confining Stress () (psi) Slide 17 of 55

EXAMPLE #1 SOLUTION
20
Shear Stress () (psi)
15
10 Direct Shear Peak Values

Peak Best Fit Line
( = 38°, c = 0)
5 Direct Shear Residual Values
Residual Best Fit Line
( = 34°, c = 0)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Confining Stress () (psi)

EXAMPLE #2
GIVEN: A Clayey Sand (SC) from a Local Sand Pit with the following
Direct Shear Test Results.
Confining Stress Shear Stress ()

Test () (psf)
(psf) Peak Residual
1 604 657 549
2 926 875 734
3 1248 1092 920
REQUIRED:
Determine the peak friction angle (peak) and residual
Revised 04/2013
Friction angle residual) for this material. Slide 19 of 55

EXAMPLE #2
1200
Shear Stress () (psf)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Confining Stress () (psf) Slide 20 of 55
Revised 04/2013

EXAMPLE #2 SOLUTION
1200
Plot of Provided Data
Shear Stress () (psf)
1000
800
600
Direct Shear Peak Values
400
Best Fit Line (p = 34°, cp = 250 psf)
200 Direct Shear Residual Values

Best Fit Line (r = 30°, cr = 200 psf)
0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Revised 04/2013
Confining Stress () (psf) Slide 21 of 55

INTERFACIAL SHEAR
 f  ca    tan  
Where:
FOUNDATION f = Shear Stress on Failure Plane
 ´ = Normal Effective Stress on Failure Plane
 ca´ = Adhesion
´ = Effective Interfacial Friction Angle
SOIL
APPLICATION EXAMPLES:
Interfacial Shear between

Foundation and Soil
after Figure 8.7. Das FGE (2006).
Deep Retaining
Revised 04/2013 Foundations Walls Slide 22 of 55

INTERFACIAL SHEAR STANDARDS
ASTM D5321-12 Standard Test Method for Determining the Shear Strength of Soil-
Geosynthetic and Geosynthetic-Geosynthetic Interfaces by Direct Shear
BS EN 13738:2004 Geotextiles and geotextile-related products. Determination of pullout
resistance in soil (British Standard)
ISO 12957-1:2005 Geosynthetics - Determination of friction characteristics - Part 1: Direct
Shear Test
Direct Shear Interfacial Testing for Geomembranes

Revised 04/2013 (after Mofiz, 2000) Slide 23 of 55
INTERFACIAL FRICTION ANGLE

General Rule of
Thumb
Relating  and 
1/3 <  < 2/3

Other Interfacial Testing
Methods:
The Dual Interface Apparatus -
Paikowsky et al. (1995)
1996 ASTM Hogentogler Award
Revised 04/2013 Table 1. NAVFAC DM 7.02 (1986). Slide 24 of 55
TRIAXIAL SHEAR TESTING

Considered to be the most
reliable soil shear test
Provides more information on
stress-strain behavior than
direct shear testing
Allows soil to fail along
preferred failure plane
Provides more flexibility in
terms of loading conditions
Allows measurement of
vertical stress, confining
stress, vertical displacement,
pore pressure, and volume
change.
Revised 04/2013
Figure 7-7a. FHWA NHI-01-031. Slide 25 of 55
Test Samples:
Diameter: 35 to 75 mm
2 ≤ D/L Ratio ≤ 2.5
D = Diameter
L = Length
Figure 7-7d. FHWA NHI-01-031.

Connection determines Axial Load
cheap or good triaxial
TRIAXIAL SHEAR setup
Pressure
TESTING SETUP Source
Chamber Pressure: 3 Triaxial

(a.k.a. c) Chamber
Cylinder
(Plexiglass)
Applied Axial Stress: d Filled w/ water
(a.k.a. Deviator Stress, 1) or glycerine Porous
Stone
Stress applied two ways:
Soil Sample
1. Stress controlled: Membrane
Load applied in equal
increments until specimen
Porous
fails. Stone
Drainage
1. Strain controlled: Connection Base
Application of axial Inlet for
deformation at constant rate Valve
Valve Filling
until specimen fails. Pore Pressure
Measurement
Revised 04/2013
Figure 8.9. Das FGE (2006). Slide 27 of 55

1 = P/A
Applied Stress
Measurement Instrumentation
u Axial Load (Stress) 1 Load Cell
Dial Gauges,
Axial Deformation v
LVDT’s, DCDT’s
Soil 3 Confining Pressure 3
Pressure Transducers,
Water Levels
Pressure Transducers,
Pore Pressure u
Water Levels
u Volume Change w Graduated Cylinder
Figure 5. NAVFAC DM 7.01 (1986).

d 1 - 3

1 BASIC TRIAXIAL TESTS
Simple
Test Type ASTM Letter
u Abbr.
S
Consolidated Drained WK3821 CD
“Slow”
R
Soil 3 Consolidated Undrained D4767 CU
“Rapid”
Q
Unconsolidated Undrained D2850 UU
“Quick”
Full Test Abbreviations (Example):

u C I D C (L)
Figure 5. NAVFAC DM 7.01 (1986). Consolidation State Loading/Unloading
(Consolidated/Unconsolidated)
Compression/Extension
Consolidation Condition Drained/Undrained
(Isotropic, Anisotropic (e.g. Ko))
CONSOLIDATED DRAINED (CD) TEST

3 Check for Saturation
(Skempton’s Pore Pressure Parameter B)
uc
uc = 0 B
3 (Drained
prior to
test)
3 Where: 3
B = Skempton’s Pore Pressure Parameter
B ≈ 1 for Saturated Soils (see Table 8.2 below)
uc = Pore Pressure Increase due to Confining Stress
3 3 = Confining Stress
Table 8.2. Theoretical Values of B at S = 100% (Das FGE 2006).
After Isotropic
Consolidation
Prior to Drainage
uc ≈ 3 (i.e. B ≈ 1)
“Water takes the Load”


d S “Slow” Test
3 Allow drainage of sample during testing. Therefore, no
pore pressures within the soil sample buildup during shear
(i.e. ud = 0).
Since pore pressure developed during the test is
completely dissipated:
3 ud = 0 3  3 f   3 f
and
 3 f   d  f   1 f   1 f
Where:
3 3f = Minor Principal Stress at Failure
´3f = Minor Principal Effective Stress at Failure
d (d)f = Deviator Stress at Failure
During Axial 1f = Major Principal Stress at Failure
Compression ´1f = Major Principal Effective Stress at Failure
Revised 04/2013 Loading Slide 31 of 55

SANDS AND NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED CLAYS
Total Stress Envelope = Effective Stress Envelope
Shear Stress ()
f = ´tan ´ + c´
Test 1
Test 2 ´
Test 3
Should use a
Minimum of
Three Tests
c´ ≈ 0
´3f ´3f ´3f ´1f ´1f ´1f
Normal Stress
(d)f (´)
Total and Effective Stress Failure Envelope from CD Tests


OVERCONSOLIDATED CLAYS
f = ´tan´
Shear Stress ()
Test 1
´vm
Test 2 ´= ´NC
Test 3 OC NC
Test 4
f = ´tan´ + c´
1´ = OC´
´3f ´3f ´1f 3f´ ´1f 3f´ ´1f ´1f

c´ Normal Stress
(d)f (´)
Total and Effective Stress Failure Envelope from CD Tests

CD Test – Volume Change with Time during Consolidation (Vc)

Figure 8.11a. Das FGE (2006).

LOOSE SANDS AND NC CLAYS
Change in Deviator
Stress (d)
vs. Axial Strain (v)
Figure 8.11b. Das FGE (2006).
Volume Change (Vd)

Figure 8.11d. Das FGE
(2006).


DENSE SANDS AND OC CLAYS
Change in Deviator
Stress (d)
Figure 8.11c. Das FGE (2006).
Volume Change (Vd)

Figure 8.11e. Das FGE (2006).

CONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED (CU) TEST

d Skempton’s Pore Pressure Parameter Ā
3 u d
A
 d
Where:
Ā = Skempton’s Pore Pressure Parameter

3 ud ≠ 0 3 ud = Pore Pressure Increase due to Deviator Stress
d = Deviator Stress
Setup same as CD Test. Check for Saturation (B

3 parameter). Close drainage valve prior to test to
make undrained (i.e. allow pore pressure buildup
within sample). Pore pressure can be measured
d
during test to determine effective stresses.

d R “Rapid” Test
3 DO NOT allow drainage of sample during testing.
Therefore, pore pressures within the soil sample buildup
during shear (i.e. ud ≠ 0). Therefore:
 3 f   d  f   1 f
3 ud ≠ 0 3  3 f  ud  f   3 f
 1 f  ud  f   1 f
Where:  1   3   1   3
3 3f = Minor Principal Stress at Failure
´3f = Minor Principal Effective Stress at Failure
During Axial
(d)f = Deviator Stress at Failure
 d
Compression
Loading (ud)f = Pore Pressure Increase at Failure
1f = Major Principal Stress at Failure
Revised 04/2013 ´1f = Major Principal Effective Stress at Failure Slide 38 of 55

SANDS AND NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED CLAYS
Effective Stress Envelope
Shear Stress ()
f = tan´ + c´ Total Stress Envelope

f = tan + c
´

* Still Need a
Minimum of
Three Tests!
c & c´ ≈ 0
3f´ 3f 1f´ 1f
(ud)f
(d)f (ud)f
(d)f

Shear Stress ()
´vm
Test 1 ´= ´NC
Test 2 OC NC
Test 3
Test 4
1´ = OC´
´3f ´3f ´1f 3f´ ´1f 3f´ ´1f ´1f

c´ Normal Stress
(d)f (´)
Effective Stress Failure Envelope from CU Tests


Shear Stress ()
Total Stress Envelope Total Stress Envelope

f = tanOC + c f = tan
1 = OC
3f 1f
c Normal Stress ()
Total Stress Failure Envelope from CU Tests

CU Test – Volume Change with Time during Consolidation (Vc)

(Still allowing drainage during Consolidation)
Figure 8.17a. Das FGE (2006).


LOOSE SANDS AND NC CLAYS
Change in Deviator Stress

(d) vs. Axial Strain (v)
Figure 8.17b. Das FGE (2006).
Pore Pressure Change

(ud) vs. Axial Strain (v)
Figure 8.17d. Das FGE (2006).


DENSE SANDS AND OVERCONSOLIDATED CLAYS
Change in Deviator Stress

(d) vs. Axial Strain (v)
Figure 8.17e. Das FGE (2006).
Pore Pressure Change

(ud) vs. Axial Strain (v)
Figure 8.17g. Das FGE (2006).

UNCONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED (UU) TEST

Q “Quick” Test
d Drainage of sample not permitted during application of
confining stress 3 or during testing (i.e. application of
3 d). Therefore, pore pressures within the soil sample at
any stage of testing is:
u  u c  u d
Therefore:
3 u≠ 0 3 u  B 3  A  d  B 3  A ( 1   3 )
Where:
3 = Minor Principal Stress
3 1 = Major Principal Stress
d = Deviator Stress
ud = Pore Pressure Increase due to Deviator Stress
d  = Skempton’s Pore Pressure Parameter
Revised 04/2013
Ā = Skempton’s Pore Pressure Parameter Slide 45 of 55

Shear Stress ()
Test 1
Test 2
Total Stress Mohr’s
Test 3
Circles at Failure
Failure Envelope  = 0
cu
3f 3f 1f 1f 3f 1f

Normal Stress
cu = Su
(d)f ()
Undrained Shear
Strength (d)f constant regardless of confining stress (3)


 Test 1
Test 2
Circles at Failure
cu
´3f ´1f 3f 3f 1f 1f


(d)f (d)f
(d)f
(ud)f 3 = uc
Revised 04/2013
Figure 8.22. Das FGE (2006). Slide 47 of 55
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION (UC) TEST

COHESIVE SOILS
UC Test Setup
(Courtesy of Durham Geo)
Figure 11.34 . Das PGE (2006).

COHESIVE SOILS
Shear Stress
Where:
qu = Unconfined Compression Strength
1
()
cu = Undrained Shear Strength
Soil
cu = qu/2 Circle at Failure
1
3  1 = qu
qu


General Relationship between Consistency and qu of Cohesive Soils
Table 8.3 Das FGE (2006)
qu qu
Consistency
(tsf) (kN/m²)
Very Soft 0 – 0.25 0 – 25
Soft 0.25 – 0.5 25 – 50
Medium 0.5 – 1 50 – 100
Stiff 1–2 100 – 200
Very Stiff 2–4 200 – 400
Hard >4 > 400
Revised 04/2013 1 tsf = 95.8 kPa ≈ 100 kPa Slide 50 of 55
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION (UC) AND

UNCONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED (UU)
TEST COMPARISON
Shear Stress ()
Test 1 - UC
Test 2 - UU
Actual Failure Envelope
Test 3 - UU
Theoretical Failure Envelope
´ = 0
cu
3 qu = 1f 1 3 1
Normal Stress
(´)
SENSITIVITY OF COHESIVE SOILS

Sensitivity (St)
Undisturbed Shear Strength

St 
Disturbed Shear Strength
Disturbed = Remolded
Example: Unconfined Compression
Unconfined Compression Strength for qu ( undisturbed )

Undisturbed and Remolded Clays
St 
qu ( disturbed )
SENSITIVITY OF COHESIVE SOILS
Undisturbed Shear Strength

St 
Disturbed Shear Strength
Sensitivity Classification of Clays

Revised 04/2013
Figure 11.36. Das PGE (2006). Slide 53 of 55
THIXOTROPY OF COHESIVE SOILS
Thixotropy:
Time dependent
reversible process
in which soil gains
strength with time
after being
remolded if left
undisturbed.

ANISOTROPY OF COHESIVE SOILS
Strength Anisotropy in Cohesive Soils Direction Variation of Undrained Shear

Figure 8.27. Das FGE (2006). Strength in Cohesive Soils
Vertical/Horizontal
cu Ratio Where:
cu (V ) K = Coefficient of Anisotropy
K cu(V) = Undrained Shear Strength in Vertical Direction
cu ( H ) cu(H) = Undrained Shear Strength in Horizontal Direction

14 3302013ShearStrength

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

14 3302013ShearStrength

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

14.

330 SOIL MECHANICS

STRESSES IN A SOIL ELEMENT

 ´v = Vertical Effective Stress

Revised 04/2013 Slide 1 of 55

MOHR FAILURE ENVELOPE

a critical combination of normal

Mohr Functional Relationship f = Shear Stress on Failure Plane

Revised 04/2013 Slide 2 of 55

MOHR-COULOMB FAILURE CRITERIA

Criteria  MC Failure Criteria

FACTORS AFFECTING EFFECTIVE FRICTION ANGLE (´)

Criteria Table 11-3. Holtz and Kovacs (1981).

 f  c    tan   Angularity (A) A 

Grain Size Distribution Cu 

TYPICAL DRAINED FRICTION ANGLES (´)

TYPICAL DRAINED FRICTION ANGLES (´)

Revised 04/2013 Figure 7. NAVFAC DM 7.01 (1986). Slide 6 of 55

INCLINATION OF FAILURE PLANE

Shear Stress ()

INCLINATION OF FAILURE PLANE

INCLINATION OF FAILURE PLANE

SHEAR STRENGTH LABORATORY

Direct Shear D3080 Y N Y See Note 1

DIRECT SHEAR TESTING

Figure 8.3. Das FGE (2006).

DIRECT SHEAR TESTING

Failure occurs on fixed plane

Can be Stress or Strain

DIRECT SHEAR TESTING

NOTE: Cross-sectional Area (A)

DIRECT SHEAR TESTING

Revised 04/2013 Figure 8.5. Das FGE (2006). Slide 14 of 55

DIRECT SHEAR TESTING

DIRECT SHEAR TESTING

Confining Stress Shear Stress ()

DIRECT SHEAR TESTING

DIRECT SHEAR TESTING

10 Direct Shear Peak Values

DIRECT SHEAR TESTING

Confining Stress Shear Stress ()

DIRECT SHEAR TESTING

DIRECT SHEAR TESTING

200 Direct Shear Residual Values

DIRECT SHEAR TESTING

Interfacial Shear between

DIRECT SHEAR TESTING

Direct Shear Interfacial Testing for Geomembranes

INTERFACIAL FRICTION ANGLE

1/3 <  < 2/3

TRIAXIAL SHEAR TESTING

TRIAXIAL SHEAR TESTING

Figure 7-7d. FHWA NHI-01-031.

TRIAXIAL SHEAR setup

Chamber Pressure: 3 Triaxial

TRIAXIAL SHEAR TESTING

u Axial Load (Stress) 1 Load Cell

u Volume Change w Graduated Cylinder

Figure 5. NAVFAC DM 7.01 (1986).

TRIAXIAL SHEAR TESTING

Full Test Abbreviations (Example):

CONSOLIDATED DRAINED (CD) TEST

Revised 04/2013 Slide 30 of 55