Losses from Precipitation

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
 Course Learning Outcome 1
CLO 1
On completion of this chapter, students will be able
to evaluate water cycle for a catchment by estimation
of precipitation and the losses using measurement,
empirical and analytical methods.
 Program Outcome 1

PO 1
To acquire and apply engineering fundamentals
to complex civil engineering problems
(Engineering knowledge).
Losses from Precipitation

 Evaporation
 Evapotranspiration
 Initial losses
 Infiltration
 Lesson Outcomes
On completion of this chapter, you will be able to:
 differentiate between transpiration and
evapotranspiration
 identify factors influencing evapotranspiration
 perform measurement of evapotranspiration using
lysimeter
 estimate PET using empirical and analytical methods
 Transpiration
• Transpiration is the process by which water leaves the
body of a living plant and reaches the atmosphere as
water vapor.
• Transpiration is essentially confined to daylight
hours; the rate of transpiration depends upon the
growth periods of the plant.
• Evaporation occurs through the day and night with
different rates.
Factors Affecting Transpiration
Atmospheric vapor pressure
Temperature
Wind
Light intensity
Characteristics of plant
(such as root and leaf system)
 Evapotranspiration
• While transpiration takes place, the land area in which
plant stands also lose moisture by the evaporation of
water from soil and water bodies.
• Evapotranspiration (ET) is the sum of water used by
plants in transpiration and water evaporated from the
adjacent ground and water surfaces.
 Evapotraspiration - Terms
Field Capacity
• The maximum quantity of water that the soil Required
moisture
can retain against the force of gravity. content

• The excessive water simply drains away.

Permanent Wilting Point

• The moisture content of a soil at which the
moisture is not enough to sustain the plants. Required
moisture

• Moisture is so held by the soil grains that the content

roots of the plants are unable to extract it in

sufficient quantities to sustain the plants and
consequently the plant wilt.
 Evapotraspiration - Terms
Moisture Available for Plant Growth
• The difference between field capacity and permanent
wilting point

Available water = Field capacity – Permanent wilting point

Available water for plant growth

Required moisture content

Field capacity Permanent

wilting point
 Evapotraspiration - Terms
Potential Evapotranspiration (PET)
• Evapotranspiration rate at which the evapotranspiration
occurs when there is enough water/moisture in the soil
for the use of vegetation. Required
moisture
• Depends on climatic factor. content

Actual Evapotranspiration (AET)

• Rate of the real evaporation that occurs at a time.
 AET vs. PET
• When water supply to the plant is adequate
(i.e. soil moisture is at the field capacity),
PET = AET
AET = PET

• When water supply to the plant is less than

PET,
PET > AET
AET < PET ; AET/PET < 1

• When the soil moisture reaches the

permanent wilting point, AET = 0
AET = 0
 AET vs. PET

For clayey soils, AET/PET = 1 for nearly 50% drop in the available
moisture.
For sandy soils, AET/PET decreases with a decrease in the available
moisture.
 Factors Affecting ET
1. Climate Factors
– Solar radiation, light intensity, humidity, atmospheric
pressure, temperature, wind, etc.

2. Plant & Soil Factors

– Surface Vegetation & Soil Moisture Content:
When surface vegetation is dry and soil moisture content
falls below optimum value, AET rate will be limited by the
resistance of water movement imposed by the soil pores and
the plant.

– Density of vegetation cover:

Ratio of leaf surface area to ground area.
Measurement of Evapotraspiration
 A lysimeter is a special watertight tank containing a block of
soil and installed in a field of growing plants.
 The plants grow in the lysimeter are the same as in the
surrounding field.
 ET is estimated in terms of the amount of water required to
maintain constant moisture conditions within the tank.
 Lysimeters are designed to reproduce the soil conditions,
moisture contents, type and size of the vegetation of the
surrounding area.
 Lysimeter studies are time consuming and expensive.
 Lysimeter
The plants grow in the lysimeter
are the same as in the
surrounding field.

Watertight tank containing

a block of soil and installed
in a field of growing plants.

The amount of water required to maintain constant

moisture conditions within the tank is measured.
Estimation Methods for ET

Empirical method: Blaney-Criddle’s Eqt

Analytical method: Penman’s Eqt
 Blaney-Criddle Formula
 Blaney-Criddle formula is purely an empirical formula
based on data from arid western United States.
 This formula assumes that the PET is related to hours
of sunshine and temperature, which are taken as
measures of solar radiation at an area.
 This formula is largely used by irrigation engineers to
calculate the water requirement of crops.
 Blaney-Criddle Formula
Estimation of the PET (in cm) in a crop-growing season.

  PhT f 
ET  2.54 K  
 100 
 

K = An empirical coefficient, depends on the type of crop (Table 3.7)

Ph = Monthly percent of annual day-time hours, depends on the latitude
of the place (Table 3.6)
= Mean monthly temperature (F )

9 
o
F   o C   32
5 
 Blaney Criddle’s Equation

Table 3.7 (Pg. 75): K values for selected crops

Values of K for selected crops for use in Blaney-Criddle formula
Crop. Value of K Range of monthly values
Rice 1.10 0.85-1.30
Wheat 0.65 0.50-0.75
Maize 0.65 0.50-0.80
Sugarcane 0.90 0.75-1.00
Cotton 0.65 0.50-0.90
Potatoes 0.70 0.65-0.75
Natural vegetation
Very dense 1.30
Dense 1.20
Medium 1.00
Light 0.80
 Blaney Criddle’s Equation

Table 3.6 (Pg. 75): Monthly daytime hours percentage

Monthly daytime hours percentages Ph (hours) in north latitude
for use in Blaney-Criddle formula
North Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Lat.
0 8.50 7.66 8.49 8.21 8.50 8.22 8.50 8.49 8.21 8.50 8.22 8.50
10 8.13 7.47 8.45 8.37 8.81 8.60 8.86 8.71 8.25 8.34 7.91 8.10
15 7.94 7.36 8.43 8.44 8.98 8.80 9.05 8.83 8.28 8.26 7.75 7.88
20 7.74 7.25 8.41 8.52 9.15 9.00 9.25 8.96 8.30 8.18 7.58 7.66
25 7.53 7.14 8.39 8.61 9.33 9.23 9.45 9.09 8.32 8.09 7.40 7.42
30 7.30 7.03 8.38 8.72 9.53 9.49 9.67 9.22 8.33 7.99 7.19 7.15
35 7.05 6.88 8.35 8.83 9.76 9.77 9.93 9.37 8.36 7.87 6.97 6.86
40 6.76 6.72 8.33 8.95 10.02 10.08 10.22 9.54 8.39 7.75 6.72 6.52
 Blaney Criddle’s Equation

Example 3.4 (Pg. 75)

Estimate the PET of an area for the season November to
February in which wheat is grown. The area is at a latitude of
30oN with mean monthly temperature as below. Use the Blaney-
Criddle’s formula.

Month Nov Dec Jan Feb

Temperature (oC) 16.5 13.0 11.0 14.5
 Blaney Criddle’s Equation

Solution:
The temperature are converted to Fahrenheit and corresponding
values of Ph for 30oN is read from Table 3.6. 9 o 
o
F    C   32
From Table 3.7, for wheat K = 0.65. 5 

The calculation are shown in the table below.

Month Tf (F) Ph PhTf/100   PhT f 
ET  2.54 K  
 100 
Nov 61.7 7.19 4.44  
Dec 55.4 7.15 3.96
E  2.54 K F
Jan 51.8 7.30 3.78 T
Feb 58.1 7.03 4.08  2.54  0.65 16.26
FSPhTf/100 = 16.26
 26.85 cm
 Penman’s Equation
Combination of energy-balance and mass-transfer approaches.
A H n  Ea 
PET 
A
PET = Daily potential evapotranspiration (mm/day)
A = Slope of ew vs air temperature,Ta (mm Hg/C) (Table 3.3)
Hn = Net radiation (mm/day)
 = Psychrometric constant = 0.49 mm Hg/ C
Ea = Parameter including wind velocity & saturation deficit

u2 = Mean wind speed at 2 m above ground (km/day)

 u 
E a  0.351  2 (ew - ea ) ew = Saturation vapour pressure (mm of Hg) (Table 3.3)
 160  ea = Actual mean vapour pressure (mm of Hg)
 Penman’s Equation

Table 3.3 (Pg72): ew and A

Saturation vapor pressure of water (ew )
Air Temperature (oC) Saturation vapor pressure ew (mm of Hg) A (mm/oC)
0 4.58 0.30
5.0 6.54 0.45
7.5 7.78 0.54
10.0 9.21 0.60
12.5 10.87 0.71
15.0 12.79 0.80
17.5 15.00 0.95
20.0 17.54 1.05
22.5 20.44 1.24
25.0 23.76 1.40
27.5 27.54 1.61
30.0 31.82 1.85
32.5 36.68 2.07
35.0 42.81 2.35
37.5 48.36 2.62
40.0 55.32 2.95
45.0 71.20 3.66

A = Slope of ew vs air temperature

 Penman’s Equation
Net radiation, Hn (mm/day):

 n
  n
H n  H a (1 - r ) a  b  -  Ta 0.56 - 0.092 ea  0.10  0.90 
4

 N  N

Ha = Incident solar radiation outside the atmosphere on a

horizontal surface (mm of evaporable water/day) (Table 3.4)
a = constant depend upon the latitude ( ) = 0.29 cos 
b = constant with an average value of 0.52
n = actual duration of bright sunshine in hours
N = maximum possible hours of bright sunshine (Table 3.5)
r = Reflection coefficient (albedo) (see the table in Pg. 71)
 = Stefan-Boltzman constant = 2.01 x 10-9 mm/day
Ta = Mean air temperature in degrees Kelvin = 273 + C
ea = Actual mean vapour pressure (mm of Hg)
 Penman’s Equation

Table 3.4 (Pg. 72): Mean monthly solar radiation, Ha

Mean monthly solar radiation at top of atmosphere, Ha
(in mm of evaporated water/day)
North Lat. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0 14.5 15.0 15.2 14.7 13.9 13.4 13.5 14.2 14.9 15.0 14.6 14.3
10 12.8 13.9 14.8 15.2 15.0 14.8 14.8 15.0 14.9 14.1 13.1 12.4
20 10.8 12.3 13.9 15.2 15.7 15.8 15.7 15.3 14.4 12.9 11.2 10.3
30 8.5 10.5 12.7 14.8 16.0 16.5 16.2 15.3 13.5 11.3 9.1 7.9
40 6.0 8.3 11.0 13.9 15.9 16.7 16.3 14.8 12.2 9.3 6.7 5.4
50 3.6 5.9 9.1 12.7 15.4 16.7 16.1 13.9 10.5 7.1 4.3 3.0
 Penman’s Equation

Table 3.5 (Pg. 73): Mean monthly possible sunshine hours, N

Mean monthly possible values of sunshine hours, N (hours) in north latitude

North Lat. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1
10 11.8 11.8 12.1 12.4 12.6 12.7 12.6 12.4 12.9 11.9 11.7 11.5
20 11.1 11.5 12.0 12.6 13.1 13.3 13.2 12.8 12.3 11.7 11.2 10.9
30 10.4 11.1 12.0 12.9 13.7 14.1 13.9 13.2 12.4 11.5 10.6 10.2
40 9.6 10.7 11.9 13.2 14.4 15.0 14.7 13.8 12.5 11.2 10.0 9.4
50 8.6 10.1 11.8 13.8 15.4 16.4 16.0 14.5 12.7 10.8 9.1 8.1
 Penman’s Equation

Table (Pg. 71): Reflection coefficient, r

Usual range of reflection coefficient, r values
Surface Range of r values
Close ground green crops 0.15-0.25
Bare lands 0.05-0.45
Water surface 0.05
Snow 0.45-0.95
 Penman’s Equation

Example 3.2 (Pg. 72)

Calculate the potential evapotranspiration for an area in the
month of November by Penman’s formula. The following data
are available:
Latitude : 28o4’N
Elevation : 230 m (above sea level)
Mean monthly temperature : 19oC
Mean relative humidity : 75%
Mean observed sunshine hours : 9h
Wind velocity at 2 m height : 85 km/h
Nature of surface cover : Close ground green crop
 Penman’s Equation
Solution:
From Table 3.3 by linear interpolation:
1.05 - 0.95
 17.27Ta 
ew  4.584 exp   A  0.95  (19.0 - 17.5)  1 mm/ oC
 237.3  Ta  20.0 - 17.5
 17.27 19 
 4.584 exp  
 237.3  19 
 16.5 mm of Hg

28 4'  28  4 / 60  28.07 

From Table 3.4 by linear 9.1 - 11.2
interpolation: H a  11.2  (28.07 - 20)
30 - 20
 9.506 mm of water/day

From Table 3.5 by linear 10.6 - 11.2

N  11.2  28.07 - 20
interpolation: 30 - 20
 10.716 hours
n/N  9 / 10.716  0.840
 Penman’s Equation
Solution:
From given data:
ea
 0.75
ew
ea  0.75ew  0.75 16.5  12.38 mm of Hg

a  0.29Cos  0.29Cos 28.07   0.2559

b  0.52
  2.0110 -9 mm/day
Ta  273  19  292 K
Ta 4  14.613
r  albedofor close groundgreen crop
is taken as 0.25
 Penman’s Equation
Solution:
H n  H a 1 - r  a  b  - Ta4 0.56 - 0.092 ea  0.10  0.90 
 n  n
 N  N
 9.506  1 - 0.25  0.2559  0.52  0.84 
- 14.613  0.56 - 0.092 12.38  0.10  0.9  0.84 
 4.936 - 2.946
 1.990 mm of water/day

 u  AH n  Ea
Ea  0.351  2 ew - ea  PET 
 160 
A
 85 
 0.35  1    16.50 - 12.38 1  1.990  2.208  0.49
 160  
 2.208 mm/day 1  0.49
 2.06 mm/day