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B.Sc.

AGRICULTUREAGR
AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGYTHEORY

ChapterNo.Chapter Name

01. Introduction to Agricultural Meteorology


02. Atmosphere
03. Weather and Climate
04. Solar Radiation and Light
05. Temperature
06. Atmospheric Pressure
07. Wind
08. Atmospheric Humidity (Moisture)
09. Clouds and Precipitation
10. Evaporation and Transpiration
11. Precipitation
12. Agroclimatic Zones
13. Agroclimatic normals for field crops
14. Weather Forecasting
15. Agricultural Seasons of India
ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
Part - IChapter

1Introduction to Agricultural
Meteorology

Meteorology is defined as a branch of physics dealing


with the lower atmosphere (Atmosphere is a deep blanket
of gases surrounding the earth) with particular emphasis
to the individual phenomenon. In other words it is
concerned with the study of the characteristic and
behavior of the atmosphere. It explains and analyses the
changes of individual weather elements such as air
pressure, temperature and humidity that are brought about
due to the effect of insolation on the earth surface.
(Insolation refers to radiation from the sun received by
earth surface)
Agro meteorology is a science investigating the
meteorological, climatologic and hydrologic conditions,
which are significant for agriculture owing to their
interaction with the objects and processes of agricultural
production. In nutshell, it is a science dealing with
climatic conditions, which is directly related to
agriculture.
Divisions of Meteorology:

1. Dynamic Meteorology
It deals with the forces that create and maintain motion
and the latest transformation associated therewith

2. Physical Meteorology

It deals with pure physical nature such as radiation, heat,


evaporation, condensation, precipitation, ice accretion
(continuous coherence) and optical acoustical and
electrical phenomena.
3. Climatology
Climatology refers to the study of weather patterns over
time and space. It concerns with the integration of day-to-
day weather over a period of time. It refers to the average
conditions of the weather. Climatology is made up of two
Greek words, kilma + logos; kilma means slope of the
earth, and logos means a discourse or study. In brief,
climatology is simultaneously an old and a new science. It
is a statistical meteorology which determines the
statistical relations, mean value normal, frequencies,
variation distribution etc.
4. Synoptic meteorology
Its purpose is the analysis and forecasting of the weather
phenomena. Thus synoptic meteorology comprises
dynamic as well as physical meteorology and to a lesser
extent climatology in order to obtain a synopsis of the
state of atmosphere.
5. Aeronautical meteorology
It deals with application of meteorology to the problems
of aviation.
6. Maritime meteorology
It is related to marine navigation.
7. Agricultural meteorology
It deals with application of meteorology to agriculture,
soil conservation etc.
8. Hydrometeorology
It is concerned with meteorological problems relating to
water supply, flood control, irrigation etc.
9. Medical meteorology
It deals with the influence of weather and climate on the
human body.
10. Aerology
It is a branch of meteorology that is concerned with the
conditions of the free atmosphere on the basis of direct
observations.

Meteors and its Classification:


Meteors are defined as an atmospheric phenomenon,
having a luminous appearance that travels through space
as aerolites, fireballs, stars etc.
a. Aerial meteors :Wind, Tornado
b. Hydro or Aqueous meteors :Rain, hail, snow
and dew
c. Litho meteors :Dust and smoke
d. Luminous meteors :Rainbow and halos (circle of
light andsound luminous body around the sun ormoon)
e. Igneous meteors :Lightening and shooting stars.

Development and Importance of Agricultural


Meteorology
Superstition served to interpret atmospheric mysteries
such as rain, wind and lightening. In the early civilization,
Gods were often assigned to the climatic elements,Indians
still hold ceremonial worships/dances to Gods to produce
rains at times of drought. The Greek philosophers showed
a great interest in meteorological science. In fact the word
“Meteorology” is of Greek origin means the study on
things about meteors and optical phenomena. In fact, the
word “Meteorology has been borrowed from Aristotle’s
“Meteorological” dated about 350 BC. The period of
weather tradition and superstitionsin the development of
meteorology lasted until the beginning of the 17th
Century when the invention of instruments for scientific
analysis of weather phenomenon was made.In 1593,
Galileo constructed a thermometer and in 1643, his
student Torricelli discovered the principles of mercurial
Barometer. The climatological map waspublished by
British astronomer“Edmund Hally’
in 1686. By 1800, dependable weatherobservations were
made in Europe and USA. An International
MeteorologicalOrganization had been established in 1878.
The World Meteorological Organization(WMO) took its
present form in 1951. It serves as a specialized agency to
carryout theworldwide exchange of meteorological
information with the head quarters in
Geneva,Switzerland.The India Meteorological
Department (IMD) was established in the year 1875.
Thedivision of Agricultural Meteorology was started by
the IMD in 1932 to meet the needsof agriculture and
researchers. The IMD has brought out many useful
publications onrainfall. The Rainfall Atlas of India was
published based on the rainfall data from 1901to 1950. In
addition to rendering advice from time to time, the IMD
began to offerregular weather service and farmers weather
bulletins from 1945. The bulletins arebroadcast daily in
20 regional languages in all the All India Radio stations
on expectedweather conditions during the next 36 hrs.
Weather report is also broadcasted throughtelevision. At
present 8000 rain gauge stations and 52 principal types of
Agro metobservatories are available in our country.
Scope of Agricultural Meteorology

Climatic factors alone affect the yield of crops to an


extent of about 40%. In India thesuccess of agriculture
depends mainly on monsoon rains. Agricultural
Meteorology ismainly concerned with microclimatology
in which the influence of the shallow layer ofatmosphere
immediately above the surface is studied. Successful crop
productiondepends not only upon the total seasonal
rainfall but also on the proper distribution.The study of
agricultural meteorology helps the farmers to know when
the monsoonrain begins, its distribution etc. Apart from
this the farmer will be able to know aboutthe weather
abnormalities and their destructive effect on crops
Chapter–2 Atmosphere
It is necessary to review our memory with our earlier
understanding of atmosphere,which serves as a platform
for studying the meteorology. The word atmosphere
derivesfrom the Greek word“Atmos”which means vapour
and“Sphaira”which meanssphere. It is used now to denote
the gaseous sphere surrounding the earth.

Stratification and Composition of


Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a mechanical mixture of many gases,
not a chemical compound. Inaddition, it contains water
vapor volume and huge number of solid particles,
calledaerosols. Some of the gases (N, O, Ar, CO2) may be
regarded as permanent atmosphericcomponents that
remain in fixed proportions to the total gas volume. Other
constituentsvary in quantity from place to place and from
time to time. If the suspended particles,water vapour and
other variable gases were excluded from the atmospheres,
we wouldfind that the dry air is very stable all over the
earth up to an altitude of about 80 kilometers.
Principal gases comprising dry air in the
lower
atmosphere.Constituent Percent by volume
Nitrogen (N2) 78.08
Oxygen (O2)20.94
*Argon (Ar) 0.93
Carbon dioxide (Co2)0.03*
Neon (Ne) 0.0018*
Helium (He) 0.0005
Ozone (O3) 0.00006
Hydrogen (H2)0.00005*
Krypton (Kr) Trace*Xenon (Xe) TraceMethane (Me)

Inert chemically never found in any


chemical compounds
As shown in the table, two gases, nitrogen and oxygen,
make up about 99 per cent ofthe clean, dry air. The
remaining gases are mostly inert and constitute about 1
per centof the atmosphere generally homogenous and it is
called as homosphere. At higheraltitudes, the chemical
constituents of air changes considerably. The layer is
known asthe heterosphere.

Nitrogen
It is chemically inactive and an important plant nutrient,
but it has to be fixed in the soilto make it available to the
plant. The fixation of nitrogen in the soil is carried out by
thefollowing agencies

1.Nitrogen fixation by symbiotic bacteriaa.


a. Symbiotic root nodule leguminous bacteria -
Rhizobium group.
b. Symbiotic root nodule leguminous bacteria -on
Casuarinas.
c. Symbiotic leaf nodule bacteria on Pavetta and
Dioscorea.
d. Symbiotic root nodule - Actinomycetes in Myrstica
and Almus.

2.Nitrogen fixation by free living


a. Azetobacter and clostridium group of bacteria.
b. Photosynthetic and chemo synthetic Sulphur bacteria
c. Free living east cells of fungi.
d. Blue green algae

3. Lightning and powerful electrical charges


During lightning and powerful electrical charges are
released and‘N’and‘H’inelements present in the
atmosphere forms NH2dissolved and brought down by
rainand water as NH3. About 2 to 20 lbs of nitrogen is
added to the soil/acre.
4. By means of artificial methods
By electrical arc method.

Oxygen
It has got considerable importance in plant and animal
life. It plays an important role inrespiration, bacterial
activity in soil oxidation and absorption of plant nutrients
andseveral soil forming or weathering activities in the
soil, which improve plant foodavailability.

3. Carbon dioxide
It plays an active part in photosynthetic activities.

4. Argon
It is used extensively in electric lamp bulbs because of its
inertness. It is also used inflorescent tubes. It flows
with blue light.

5. Neon
Neon is used to fill florescent tubes. It flows with
distinctive orange red colour.

6. Helium
It is the second highest element with a density of 0.177
gms per liter (Hydrogen 0,08988gms /liter). It is used to
inflate balloons because it will not burn.
7. Krypton
This glows with brilliant green and yellow colour.

8. Xenon
It is chemically inert and glows with a blue green colour.
Besides these the atmospherealso contains small
quantities of ozone (O3), Methane (CH4), Nitrous
oxide(N2O),Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and traces of Iodine,
NaCl,NH3Carbon monoxide etc., Theamount of CO2
in the atmosphere is not quite constant. The vegetable
Worldcontinuously consumes CO2, which again is
produced by the animal World, throughburning of fuels,
volcanic action and various process of decay in the soil.
But the oceansby dissolving the excess of CO2
, so effectively regulate it that the amount of CO2
in t heatmosphere remains almost constant. Ozone, which
is present in the lower atmosphere,has a maximum in the
upper atmosphere between 10 and 25 km (30,000 and
80,000)where it amount varies considerably. Apart from
this the composition of theatmosphere is remarkably
constant all over the earth’s surface.

Water vapour:
The air also contains variable of water vapour. The water
vapour present in theatmosphere varies up to 4% by
volume as in tropical humid climate. Most of thevapour is
found in the lower part pf the atmosphere. The maximum
amount of watervapour that the air can absorb depends
entirely on the temperature of the air, the higherthe
temperature of the air the more water vapour it can hold.
The air is saturated withmoisture when this maximum
amount is reached, when air is cooled below itssaturation
temperature condensation takes place, water droplets
formed or at lowtemperature ice crystals formed. Small
water drop lets and ice crystals are kept afloat inthe air by
the ascending air currents and under special
circumstances the water dropletsand ice crystals coalesce
and form large drops or snow flakes which are
precipitatedfrom the clouds when they become too large
to be kept afloat.

Sold particles of atmosphere:


The air also contains a variable amount of impurities such
as dust, soot, salts, fungalspores, bacteria and pollen (both
organic and in organic) Over a city it is estimated
tocontain, 1,00,000 0articles per cc. A cigarette puff sends
about 400 crores of dustparticles. The main source of dust
is the arid regions such as deserts and steppes. Theminute
dust particles are readily distributed throughout the lower
atmosphere and carried for from the source. The industrial
regions forest fires and volcanoes constitutethe main
source of soot. Through the action of winds, spray is
whirled up from theoceans, and when it evaporation the
salt remains in the air in the form of minuteparticles. The
presence of dust particles in the atmosphere is important since
when theair is cooled to its saturate temperature,
condensation takes place on certain activenuclei. The salt
particles from the oceans are most active as condensation
nuclei onwhich the water vapour condenses to form fog or
rain. They are the cause for twilight.

Layered structure of the Atmosphere:


During the international Geophysical year (1957-62),
important discoveries were madeabout
the atmosphere and many new facts came to
light. Theearth’s atmosphereconsists of zones or layers
arranged like spherical shells according to altitude
andtemperature variations above the earth’
s surface. According to Peterson, theatmosphere is
divided into the following more significant spheres

1.Troposphere
2.Stratosphere
3.Mesosphere (also called Ozonosphere)
4.Ionosphere
5.Exosphere

1. Troposphere:
It contains about 75 per cent of the total gaseous mass of
the atmosphere. It has beenderived from the Greek
word‘trops’meaning“mixing ”or turbulence. The
averageheight of this lowermost layer of the atmosphere
is placed at about 14 km above sealevel. Under normal
conditions, the height of the troposphere at the poles is
about 8kilometers, while at the equator it is about 16
kilometers.

Troposphere is marked by turbulence and eddies. It is also


called connective region.Various types of clouds,
thunderstorms as well as cyclones and anticyclones occur
inthis sphere because of the concentration of almost all
the water vapour and aerosols init. Wind velocities
increase with height and attain maximum at the top. The
mostimportant feature is decrease in temperature with
increasing elevation up to 14km.Tropopause is a shallow
layer separating troposphere from the next thermal layer
of theatmosphere i.e., stratosphere. Tropopause (Greek
word) means where the mixing stops.The temperature
remains constant throughout the tropopause. The height of
thetropopause is about 1 to 2 km.

2. Stratosphere:
The stratosphere begins at the tropospause, which forms
its lowerboundary. The lower stratosphere is isothermal in
character (16-30 kilometers). There isa gradual
temperature increase with height beyond 20 km i.e., upper
stratosphere(temperature inversion). No visible weather
phenomena occur above tropopause

3. Mesosphere or Ozonosphere:
There is maximum concentration of Ozone between 30to
60 kilometers above the surface of the earth. Because of
the concentration of ozone inthis layer it is called the
ozonosphere. It is a warm layer because of selective
absorptionof ultra violet radiation by ozone. In fact, it acts
as a filter for ultra violet radiation fromthe sun. In this
layer the temperature increases with height @ 5 The
maximumtemperature recorded in the ozonosphere is
higher thanthat at the earth’s surface.Because of the
preponderance if chemical processes, this sphere is sometimes
called aschemosphere.
4. Ionosphere:
Ionosphere, according to Peterson, lies beyond the
ozonosphere at aheight of about 60 km above the earth’s
surface. At this level the ionization atmospherebegins to
occur. Above ozonosphere, the temperature falls again
reaching a minimumof about 1000C at a height 80 km.
above earth’s surface. Beyond this level thetemperature
increases again due to the absorption of short wave solar
radiator by theatoms of O & N in this ionosphere.0
C/km. The maximumtemperature recorded in the
ozonosphere is higher thanthat at the earth’s
surface.Because of the preponderance if chemical processes,
this sphere is sometimes called aschemosphere.

5. Exosphere:
The outer most layer of earth’s atmosphere is known as
the exosphere, which liesbetween 400 and 1000
kilometers. At such great height density of atoms in
theatmosphere is extremely low. Hydrogen and helium
gases predominate in the outermost regions. Kinetic
temperature may reach 5568 d.Celsius.

5. Exosphere:
The outer most layer of earth’s atmosphere is known as
the exosphere, which liesbetween 400 and 1000
kilometers. At such great height density of atoms in
theatmosphere is extremely low. Hydrogen and helium
gases predominate in the outermost regions. Kinetic
temperature may reach 5568d.Celsius.

Modern Views Regarding the Structure of


Atmosphere
On the basis of composition, the atmosphere is divided
into two broad spheres.
1.Homosphere and
2.Heterosphere

Homosphere means zone of homogenous composition height -


up to 88 kilometers. Theproportions of the component gases
of the sphere are uniform at different levels.It is sub-
divided intoa.
Troposphere - very shallow transition layer tropopauseb.

Stratosphere - Stratopausec.

Mesosphere - Mesopause
Heterosphere:
The atmosphere above the homosphere is not uniform in
composition. Different layersof the atmosphere in this
part differ from one another in their chemical and
physicalproperties. In this sphere gases are said to be
arranged into the following four roughlyspherical shells,
each of which has its own distinctive composition.
1.Nitrogen layer - 200 km above earths surface molecular
N.
2.Oxygen layer - Average ht. 1120km (atomic oxygen)
3.Helium layer - Average ht. 3520km.
4.Hydrogen layer - these layer are arranged according to
the weight of the gases.

Lapse rate:
The rate of decrease of temperature with increase in
height at a given place and time iscalled Lapse rate. The
normal lapse rate is 6.5d.C per km increase in height.
Chapter–3Weather and Climate

Phenology
It indicates the coming season. It is a science, which deals
with the reoccurrence ofimportant phases of animals and
vegetable life in relation to climate during the year.
Events such as leafing, flowering, fruiting, leaf shedding,
migration of birds, occurrenceof insects etc provide
indications of the coming season.
According to Indian Meteorological Department the
flowering in mango tree takesplace by 15th
December in Chennai and Andhra Pradesh while in
northern state it is aslate as 15thof March.

Seasons:
1.Spring : January to March - Fresh leaves form in trees.
2.Summer : April to June–Flowering and fruiting takes
place.
3.Autumn : July–September.
4.Winter : October–December.

The sequence of flowering obeys Hopkins Bioclimatic


law, to which the time offlowering develops upon the
latitude, longitude and altitude. According to the law,
1.For every degree of latitude north or south of equator,
flowering is retardedby 4 calendar days.
2.For every 5d.of longitude for East or West on land areas
flowering is advancedby 4 calendar days.
3.For each 400’increase in altitude flowering is retarded
by 4 calendar days.

Boyle’s Law
The Volume of a given quantity of air varies inversely as
the pressure upon it, providedthe temperature remains
constant.
Charle’s Law
The volume of a given quantity of air varies directly as
the absolute temperature,provided the pressure remains
constant.
Weather
The condition of atmosphere at a given time defined as
weather and it is highlyvariable. I t is a heat or moisture
exchange for a shorter period of time over a smallerarea
particularly respect to wind, temperature, cloudiness,
relative humidity, andpressure etc. Weather and climate
are the important factors determining the success or
failure of agriculture. Weather influences agricultural
operations from sowing of a cropto the harvest and
depends on the mercy of the weather particularly rain
fedagriculture. In India every year there is a considerable
damage by floods in one part ofthe country and a severe
drought causing famines in another part. The total annual
preharvest losses for the various crops are estimated from
10 to 100 per cent; while, thepost harvest losses are
estimated to range between 5 and 15 per cent. Hence,
study ofweather element is essential. Weather is the
condition of atmosphere at a given time. Itis the day to
day interplay of temperature, humidity, pressure, rainfall
etc. The weatherconditions of Coimbatore on a particular
day at a particular time may not be the sameas that of
Annamalainagar
weather.Eg: Weather data for Annamalainagar during 200
5Maximum temperature was observed on ---------------
Maximum rainfall was received on -----------------------
Maximum relative humidity was recorded on ---------

Climate
The state of atmosphere over the period of time is known
as climate. It is the synthesisof these various elements of
the weather. The word climate refers to the mean or
normalconditions over a long period such as 20-30 years
or more; where as the cold weatherrefers to the mean or
normal conditions over a long period such as 20-30 years
or more.Where as the word weather refers to more or less
instantaneous conditions in theatmosphere or the trend of
there conditions over a relatively short period of time.

Difference Between Weather and Climate


Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR
WEATHER CLIMATE
COMPARISON

Meaning Weather is everyday atmospheric Climate alludes to standard


condition of a particular region, as pattern of weather of a particular
BASIS FOR
WEATHER CLIMATE
COMPARISON

regards temperature, humidity, wind place, taken over more than 25


speed, etc. years.

What is it? Minute by minute state of atmosphere Average weather in a region.


in an area.

Represents What are the condition of atmosphere In what way atmosphere acts
in a geographical location, over short over typically long period.
period.

Variation Varies constantly. Does not vary constantly.

Affected by Temperature, humidity, air pressure, Temperature and Precipitation.


cloudiness, precipitation etc.

Assessment For short term Over a long period

Study Meterology Climatology

Longitude
It is the distance east or west on the earth’s surface
measured as an arc of the equator (indegrees up to 180d.
or by the difference by time ) between the meridian
passing througha particular place and a standard of prime
meridian, usually the one passing throughGreenwich,
England.
Meridian
Meridian is a great circle of the earth passing through the
geographical poles at anygiven point on the earth’s
surface.

Equator
It is an imaginary circle of around the earth, equally
distance at all points from both the North Pole and the
South Pole. It divides the earth’s surface into the northern
hemisphere and the southern hemisphere like dividing the
coconut fruit at the centre horizontally.

Factors influencing the climate


The most important climate elements are temperature
precipitation, humidity, windvelocity, duration of
monsoons and cloudiness air pressure etc., which in
differentcombinations decided the climate of a place.
Because of the intimate relation betweenclimate and
vegetation climates are classified according to the type of
plants grown orcultivated soil such as tropical climate,
forest climate, desert climate, pine forest climate,tundra
climate etc. The climatic elements are the results of
interaction of number offactors such as

1.Latitude- distance from the north or south of equator.


2.Altitude–the elevation of a place above mean sea level.
3.Precipitation
4.Distance from the sea
5.Topography

1.Latitude:
Latitude is the angular distance, measured in degrees,
north or south from the equator.It is the main factor in
determining the climatic zones such as torrid, temperate,
tropical,subtropical and polar zones. It is found that the
quality of grains is better in higherlatitudes than that of
lower latitudes.
For Example:
1. Canadian wheat is of better quality than Egyptian
wheat.2. Italian rice is superior to Indian rice.The latitude
of a place in question for its depends on the angle of
incidence of theincoming radiations from the sun, the
length of the day and night, the length of theseasons, the
amount of incoming radiations
etc.,Distance from East to West : 2933 kmDistance from
North to South : 32144 kmLand frontiers : 15200 kmCoas
t line : 6083
Zenith
Zenith is defined as the time at which part of the sun is
directly overhead

02.Altitude
It is the elevation of a place, the metrological elements
vary rapidly with height abovethe sea level and it has a
profound influence on a climate. Even in the tropical
climate,the high mountains have temperate climate. The
temperature decreases by 0.6d.forevery 100 m from the
sea level. Generally there is a decrease in pressure and
increasein precipitation and wind velocity. The important
effects of altitudes are

1.As the height increases the pressure is decreased the


barometer reading indifference heights are as
follows:a.30”at sea levelb.29”at 830 feet.c.15”at 18,500
feet.2.As the height increases the mean temperature is
decreased and the decrease isusually 10F fro every 300’
ascent (0.6 C for every 100 m increase in height fromsea
level)3.
As the height increases the precipitation also increases.

3. Precipitation
As the height increases the precipitation also increases
and hence rainfall is more inmountainous regions. The
quantity and distribution of rainfall decides the nature
ofvegetation and the nature of the cultivated crops. The
crop region is classified on thebasis of average rainfall,
which is as follows:
Rainfall (mm) - Name of the climatic region
Less than 500 - Arid
500-700 - Semi arid
750-1000 - Sub humid
More than 1000 - Humid

4. Distance from the Sea


The presence of large water bodies like lakes and sea
effect the climate of the surrounding areas. E.g., islands
and coastal areas. The movement of air from earth surface
and from water bodies to earth modifies the climate. The
extreme variation in temperature during summer and
winter is minimized in coastal areas and is lands.The
difference between marine and continental climate can
be classified as follow:

Marine Continental
1. Rainfall More and well distributed Less and ill distributed
2. Temperature Variation is less Variation is more
3. Land and Sea Sea breeze is regular No sea breeze
Breeze
5. Topography (Relief)
The surface of landscape (levelled or uneven surface
areas) produces marked change sin the climate. This
involves the altitude of the place, steepness of the slope
and exposure of the slope to light and wind. The frost
occurrence will be mostly in the valleys rather than the
hills. Besides these, soils and vegetation as physical
factors also affect climate to a smaller extent.
i) Soil type
Soil is product of climatic action on rocks as modified by
landscape and vegetation over a long period of time. The
colour of soil surface affects the absorption, storage and
re-radiation of heat. White colour reflects while the black
absorbs more radiation. Due to the differential
absorption of the heat energy, variations in temperature
are created at different places. In black soil areas the
climate is hot while in red soil areas it is comparatively
cooler due to lesser heat absorption
E.g. Tirunelveli and Ramnad District.
ii) Vegetation
Kind of vegetation characterizes the nature of climate.
Thick vegetation is found intropical regions where
temperature and precipitation are high. General types
ofvegetations present in a region indicates the nature of
climate of that region. Thickforest areas with more
vegetation will be cooler than the desert because the
forest treesand by the surrounding environment becomes
cooler. The black soil type regions generally a hot climate
exists because of more absorption of by the black soil.
Other factors that influence the weather and climate
marginally are
i.Semi permanent high and low pressure systems.
ii.Winds and air masses.
iii.Atmospheric disturbances or storms.
iv.Oceans currents.
v.Mountain barriers

The temperature distribution near the earth surface would


be as follows
a.Mean annual temperature is highest at equator and
lowest at poles.
b.Annul variation in temperature is small at the equator
(with maximum temperature in spring and autumn)
c.Diurnal variation in temperature is greatest at the
equator and decreasing withincreasing latitude.)

Classification of Climate:
Mr. Koppen has classified the climate into eleven
principal types as follows:

1.Tropical rainforest climate:


It occupies the major portions of the equatorial belt.
Along the west coast the belt isrelatively narrow and
along the east coast it spreads out 26d.N and S because of
the monsoons and on the land trade winds give warm
weather and rainfall most of the year.This climate is
characterized by
a.High temperature coldest weather above 18d.C
(64.4d.F) annual variation in temperature less than 6d.C
(11d.F).
b.Sufficient rainfall to maintain tropical forest, either rain
at all seasons, tworain maxima or one long rain period
and one short and dry season with at least 6 cm rainfall.
c.Vegetation of the mega the rm type, which require high
constant temperature, abundant precipitation and high
relative humidity.
2. Tropical-Savanna Climate:
This zone surrounds the tropical rain forest. They have a
dry period caused by them igration of the doldrums and
the climate is characterized by
a.High temperature, coldest much above 18d.C annual
variations in temperature less than 12d.C.
b.Relatively abundant rainfall in summer and dry winter,
with at least one month with less than 6cm rainfall.
c.Vegetation related to the tropical rain forest, but because
of the winter dryness the forests are replaced by open land
with trees.

3. Steppes
The steppes continue for into the interior continent where
the dryness is in part due to the large distance from the
coast and lack of moisture bearing winds. The equatorial
part and eastern part of the steppe region has light
summer rainfall chiefly because of summer showers, and
the portion indicated by WR (winter rainfall) has dry
summer and slight winter rainfall. The steppe climate is
characterized by
a.Temperature varying within wide limits.
b.Lack of rainfall, evaporation-exceeding precipitation
most of the rain at rare intervals and the amount
varying considerably.
c.Vegetation adapted to high temperature large
temperature variation and long day periods.
4. Deserts
Here the descending air in the subtropical anticyclones
causes extreme dryness. The deserts are characterized by:
a.High summer temperature, large diurnal variation and
moderate annualvariation in temperature.
b.Cloudy sky, extreme dryness, dust and sand storms,
rains squalls at rareintervals.
c.Very sparse vegetation of steppe type.

5. Warm climate with dry winter:


Adjacent to savannas and winds are mainly monsoon
type, dry winter and wetsummer.
a.Mean temperature of the coldest month below 18d.C
but above–3d.C mean temperature of warmest month
over10d.C.
b.Dry winter and wet summer at least 10 times as much as
rainfall in thewettest month of summer as in the driest
month of winter. Warm climatewith dry winter.

2. Warm Climate with dry summer:


Under the poleward part of the subtropical anticyclones
where because of the annualmigration of these
anticyclones, the prevailing westerlies give rain in winter.
a.This zone is characterized by temperature as in climatic
zone–5.
b.Dry summer and moist winter with at least 3 times as
much rainfall in the wettest month of winter as in the
driest month of summer having less than 3 cm of rainfall.
c.Vegetation of the meso thermal type adapted to dry and
warm summer sand moderately cold and wet winters.

The summer is frequently too dry and whether is too cold


for the vegetation. As aresult most plants blossom in
spring and autumn where there are sufficient heat
ormoisture.
3.Humid temperate climate
They are under the influence of moisture throughout the
year with a high temperaturein winter and sufficient
rainfall in all seasons.
a.Temperature as in climate zone (No. 5 and 6).
b.No appreciable annual variation in rainfall.
c.Vegetation of mesothermal type adopted for high
moisture throughoutthe year (Evergreens).
8.Cold climate with moist winter
This coincides with sub polar belts of pine forests.
a.Mean temperature of coldest month less than
warmest month above 10d.C.
b.Rains all through the year on the coast mostly in winter
in land mostly insummer.
c.Vegetation–isothermal type, which required short
summer and longwinter and needs snow cover for
protection during the long and coldwinter (E.g. Pine and
Fir).
9. Cold Climate with Dry Winter
In high latitudes because of the low winter temperature
and the great distance frommoisture bearing winds, the
rain during winter is very small other characteristics
aresimilar to zone. (8).

10.Tundra Climate
In the northern permanent most part of the continent. The
mean temperature of thewarmest winter is below
10d.C. Subsoil is frozen throughout the year and there are
no forests.
11. Ice climate
The polar cap of /snow and ice with mean temperature of
the warmest month is below 0d.C (32.5d.F)Thornthwaite
establishes five climatic provinces that correspond closely
to natural plant covers.

Climatic province Type of vegetation T.E. Index


Wet Rainforest >=128
Humid Forest 64 – 127
Sub Humid Grass land 32–63
Semi arid Steppe 16–31
Arid Desert <16

If we travel along the west coast from the equator towards


North Pole we pass theclimatic zone in the following
order.
1.Tropical rain forest
2.Savanna
3.Steppe
4.Desert
5.Warm summer rain
6.Warm winter rain
7.Temperate rain all seasons
8.Cold moist climate
9.Cold winter dry climate
10.Tundra
11.Ice

The following are some of the most important elements of


weather, which in differentcombinations make up the
climate of particular place or areas.
Weather parameters/Weather elements:
1.Solar radiation
2.Temperature
3.Air pressure
4.Wind velocity and wind direction
5.Moisture (humidity)
6.Cloudiness (Sunshine hours)
7.Precipitation (Rainfall)

All these are highly variable and constitute the weather /


climate. A change in one of the elements generally brings
about changes in the others. All these weather elements
are discussed n the following chapters.
Chapter - 4Solar Radiation and Light

The sun is primary source of heat to the earth and its


atmosphere. The heat received from other celestial bodies
as well as the interior of the earth from the sun is
about1,49,000,000 (1.49 * 108) kilometers. The diameter
of the sun measures roughly about13,82,400 (1.38*106)
kilometers. The surface temperature of the sun
is estimated between5500d.C and 6100d.C. The interior
temperature ranges from 8*106 to 40*1006d.K. Solar
radiation provides more than 99.9 percent of the energy
that heats the earth and does not change appreciably from
year to year and varies only with latitude and season.
Undoubtedly, the radiant energy from the sun is the most
important control of our weather and climate. The most
astonishing fact about the incoming solar radiation
(insolation) that strikes the earth’s surface is that it is
equal to about 23-billonhorsepower. Actually it is this
amount of energy received from the sun that acts as
thedriving force for all the atmospheric as well as
biological processes on the earth.
Besides, all other sources of energy found on earth
such as coal, oil and wood etc., arenothing but converted
from of solar energy.All matter (not at the absolute zero
temperature) what ever their temperature sends outenergy
into the surrounding space in the form of electromagnetic
waves and thepropagation of this energy as well as the
energy it self is called“Radiation”. (If weassume that the
sun is perfectly black, the temperature it should have in
order for theflux at the outer limits of the earths
atmosphere to equal the solar constant and this is know as
the“Effective temperature of the sun”and is equal to
5760d.K.) A black body atthe temperature of the sun will
radiate upward 99% of its energy between thewavelengths
0.15 and 4

. About ½ of the radiation will be in the region of the


spectrumbetween 0.38 to 0.77

and the reminder in the invisible ultraviolet and


infrared regions.The word‘insolation’is abbreviated form
of“incoming solar radiation”
. Radiant energyfrom the sun that strikes the earth
is called insolation.
Deflection of solar radiation:
The incoming solar radiation suffers deflection as
follows:
1.Absorption by ozone layer in the upper atmosphere
(about 5%).
2.Scattering by dry air.
3.Absorption, scattering and diffuse reflection by
suspended solid particles and
4.Absorption and scattering by water vapour.The surface
of the earth is a poor reflector of solar radiation.
i.Fresh snow reflects 80 - 85% of incoming radiation.
ii.Old snow–40%
iii.Grass - 20 to 44%
iv.Rock–12 to 15%
v.Dry earth–14%
vi.Wet earth–8 to 9%.
vii.Cloud reflects 78%No radiation is reflected be a
smooth water surface when the sun is with 40d.of
theZenith.

Reflection of solar radiation by earth’s


surface and by clouds ( Albedo of earth):
The“Albedo of the earth”is a quantity used to measure the
total reflecting power of theearth and atmosphere. It is
defined as the fraction of the incoming solar radiation
returned to space by scattering and reflection in the
atmosphere and by reflection at clouds and at the earth
surface. It represents the unused fraction of the incoming
solarenergy; the part that is absorbed neither in the
atmosphere nor in the earth. The average ealbedo value of
the earth is 34%

Transfer of heat:
The atmosphere is a poor absorber and the earth’s surface
is good absorber of incomingradiation, and the
atmosphere receives most of the heat energy via the earth
surface.
The heat received in one place may be transported to
other places by the followingmechanism
1.Conduction
2.Radiation
3.Turbulence
4.Advection
5.Convection

1. Conduction
Conduction is the process of heat transfer through matter
by molecular activity. In this process heat is transferred
from one part of a body to another or between two object
touching each other. Conduction occurs through
molecular movement.
2. Radiation
Radiation is the process of transmission of energy by
electromagnetic waves and is themeans by which energy
emitted by the sun reaches the earth.
3. Turbulence
The wind is never a steady current. It consists of a
succession of gusts and lulls of short period (Gust refers
to sudden blast of wind and Lull refers to become calm).
This irregular motion is called Turbulence is made up of
number of small eddies that travel with general air
current, super imposed on it. These eddies carry heat,
moisture, dustetc, with them as they travel from one place
to other. The turbulence transfer of heat ismost effective
in the vicinity of earths surface is distributed through air
column,through mixing of neighboring air masses.

4. Advection or large-scale air currents


These are mainly horizontal currents and so heat is
transported from one place toanother mainly through
horizontal currents and hence only in horizontal
directionwhere as turbulence and convective currents
transport heat along the vertical.
a. Vertical mixing
In vertical mixing of heat the air is subject to pressure
changes as it moves up or down through the atmosphere
(in turbulence). In the atmosphere the ascending air will
be cooled adiabatic ally and the descending air will be
heated adiabatic lapse rate. There sult of turbulence
mixing along the vertical is to create dry adiabatic lapse
rate if the air is unsaturated and a moist adiabatic lapse
rate if the air saturated. Vertical mixing will tent to
decrease the temperature and increase moisture content in
the upper portion of the mixed layer and increase the
temperature and decrease the moisture content in the
lower portion. This will decrease the relative humidity
near the earth’s surface andincrease in the upper surface.
b. Horizontal mixing
The horizontal mixing takes place at constant pressure
and no adiabatic changeinvolved. Two different air
masses of different temperature either of which is
saturatedmight become saturated after complete
horizontal mixing.

5. Convection
Convection is the process of transfer of heat, through
movement of a mass or substance from one place
to another. Convection is possible only in gases or fluids, for
they alone have internal mass motions. In solid substance
this type of heat transfer is impossible.The instability is
created in the lower layer of the atmosphere either
through the diurnal heating of the earth’s surface by the
sun or through heating of the air when it travel towards
warmer regions. Gustiness, cumulus clouds, showers and
thunderstorms are directly caused by instability. As soon
as the temperature lapse rate near the earth exceeds the
dry adiabatic slightest disturbance will upset the
stratification. Air from earth’s surface rises and air from
higher levels sinks to replace the ascending masses.This
process of overturning of unstable air is
called“Convection”
. If the rising currentsreach the condensation level, clouds
will form. The descending air surrounding therising
masses will be heated adiabatically the R.H. Will be
lower and the sky will bebroken clouds of the cumulus
type. The weather phenomena that convection
willproduce depend on the depth of the unstable layer, the
height of the condensation leveland the distribution
of temperature aloft.

Heat Budget
Of the total solar radiation reaching the outer limit of the
atmosphere, about 25 per cent is reflected by clouds and 7
percent is scattered back to space by suspended partic
lesand it is not used to heat air. The earth surface reflects
2 percent pf radiation to the pace. About 19 per cent of
solar radiation is absorbed by gases and water vapour in
the atmosphere. About 47 per cent is absorbed by
the earth. Out of which 23 percent is absorbed by the
earth from scattering of clouds and atmosphere. And 24
percent is received directly from the sun. Thus
approximately two-thirds of the total radiation is effective
in heating the earth. The total energy coming to the earth
over a consider able period of time is equal to the total
outward losses. In order to maintain the terrestrial heat
balance, the 66 percent of solar radiation gained must be
balanced by the same amount of energy radiated back to
space in the form of long-wave terrestrial
radiation(transferred by conduction and convection). In
this way the overall heat budget of theearth is balanced. If
this were not so, the earth would soon become either very
hot orvery cold. Actually there is a deficit of heat at
higher latitudes and surplus in lowlatitudes.
Latent heat
Normally, when heat is given to a substance, its
temperature rises. However, the heat which changes the
physical state of a substance but not raise its temperature
is called latent heat of that substance. The latent heat of a
substance is thus the amount of heat obsorbed (or given
out) by a unit mass of the substance to change its state
with out change of temperature. The latent heat is used up
in overcoming the force of attraction between the
molecules of the substances.
Sensible heat flux
It is same as enthalpy and the product of heat capacity
times the Kelvin temperature, at constant pressure for a
perfect gas. This is used in meteorology in contrast to
latent heat.In crop canopies the heat energy utilized in
raising the temperature is referred to assensible heat.
Sensible heat advection
The process in which warm dry air passing over a field
supplies energy for transpiration.
Solar Constant
It is the amount of solar energy incident on a unit area at
right angle to the sun’s rays at the earth’s mean distance
per unit time in the absence of atmosphere. Solar constant
is 2cal /cm2/ minute. The sun is the source of more than
99 per cent of the thermal energy required for the physical
processes taking place in the earth atmosphere
system. Every minute, the sun radiates approximately
56x1026 calories of energy. In terms of the energy
per unit area incident on a spherical shell with a radius of
1.5x1013cm (the meandistance of the earth from the sun)
and concentric with the sun, this energy is equal to
56 x 1026 cal. Min-1
S= ------------------------- = 2.0 langely min-1
.4(1.5x1013cm)2

(Langley =gram calories cm-2).

Solar constant = 2.0 gram calories cm-1min-1


The solar constant (S) is a true constant, but fluctuates by
as much as 3.5 percent about its mean value, depending
upon the distance of earth from the sun.

Solar constant
is defined as the rate at which solar radiation is received
out side the earth’s atmosphere on a surface perpendicular
to the sun’s rays when the earth is at an average distance
from the sun. The Smithsonian Institute, USA has come
to the conclusion that the standard value of solar constant
is 1.94g cal. cm-2min-1.
Since there is fluctuation in the amount of radiant energy
emitted by the sun due to periodic disturbances on the
solar surface, the amount of solar constant, there
fore,registers a slight increase or decrease. However, this
hardly exceeds 2-3 per cent.The amount of insolation
received on any date at a place on the earth is governed by
1.The solar constant which depends on (a) energy output
of the sun and(b) distance from the earth to sun.
2.Energy out put of the sun.
3.Distance from the earth to sun.
4.Transparency of the atmosphere.
5.Duration of the daily sunlight period.
6.Angle at which the sun’s rays strike the earth.

The distance between the earth and the sun varies


between 94.5 million miles(157.5m km) at aphelion
(July1st) and 91.5 million miles at perihelion (January1st).
The amount of radiation received is seven percent greater
at perihelion than at aphelion.This is a consequence of the
inverse square law, which states, in effect, that the
radiation received on any unit area decreases in
proportion to the square to the distance of the sources.
1
Intensity = ------
d2

(Aphelion–The point farthest from the sun in the orbit of


a planet.
Perihelion - The point nearest from the sun in the orbit of
a planet)Transparency of the atmosphere has a more
important bearing upon the amount of insolation, which
reaches the earth’s surface. The areas having dust, clouds,
water vapour and cloudiness or polluted air will receive
less direct insolation. The transparency of atmosphere
depends on the latitude of a place. At middle and high
latitudes the sun’s rays must pass through thicker layers of
reflecting/scattering material and it is not so at tropical
latitudes.
Effect of Light on Plants
Solar radiation consists of a bundle of rays of radiant
energy of different wave lengths.The sun emits radiant
energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. The visible
portion of the solar spectrum appears as light. Light
travels with a speed of 2,97,600 km/sec. It takes 8
minutes and 20 second to reach the earth. Light is the total
effect of the combination of the seven different colours,
Viz., Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow,Orange and Red
(VIBGYOR). The waves that produce the effect of red
colour are the longest and those producing the violet are
the shortest. Waves shorter than the violet are called
Ultraviolet rays, while those longer than the red are
known as infra Red rays.The ultra violet waves form only
6 per cent of the insolation, but have strong
photochemical effects on some substances. The infrared
rays, even though invisible,form 43 per cent of the
isolation. They are largely absorbed by water vapour that
is concentrated in the lower atmosphere.Solar radiation is
the primary source of electromagnetic spectrum having
different wavelength. Different type of radiation is shown
below. (Wavelength in micron)
1.Cosmic rays 10-7to 10-4micron
2.Gamma rays 10-4to 10-3micron
3.X rays 10-3to 10-1micron
4.U.V. 1 to 390 micron
5.Visible 390-760 micron
6.Infrared 760-106micron
7.Radio wave 106-1013Micron
Visible solar radiation is called as light. The shorter
wavelength in the solar spectrum is harmful to the plants
when exposed to excessive amounts. The atmosphere,
however,absorbs almost all the shorter wavelengths. The
infra radiation has thermal effect on plants by supplying
necessary energy for evaporation of water from the
plants.The visible portion of the solar spectrum is the light
with wavelength ranging from 0.4to 0.7
. Light is one of the important climatic factors for many
vital functions of the plant. It is essential for the synthesis
of the most important pigment i.e., chlorophyll.The
chlorophyll absorbs the radiant energy and converts into
potential energy of carbohydrates (photosynthesis). The
carbohydrate thus format is the connecting link between
solar energy and living World. In addition, it regulates the
important physiological functions like transpiration.

Effect of light on plant can be studied under four headings


1.Light intensity
2.Quality of light
3.Duration of light and
4.Direction of light.

1.Light Intensity:A standard unit called


candle measures the
intensity of light. The amount of lightreceived at a
distance of one meter from a standard candle is known
as“Metre Candleor Lux”.The light intensity at one
foot from a standard candle is called“Foot
candle”or10.764 luxesand the instrument used
iscalled as“Lux meter”.
About one per cent of the light energy is converted into
biochemical energy. Very low light intensity reduces the
rate of photosynthesis and may even results in result in
the closing of the stomata detrimental to plants in many
ways. This results in reduced plant growth. Very highlight
intensity increases the rate of respiration. It causes rapid
loss of water, i.e., it increases the transpiration rate of
water from the plants resulting in closure of stomata.The
most harmful effect of high intensity light is that it
oxidizes the cell contents, whichis termed
as“Solarisation”.
This oxidation is different from respiration and is called
as“Photo oxidation”.
Under natural conditions light intensity varies greatly and
plants shoe marked response to changes of light
intensities. Based on the response to light intensities the
plants are classified as follows:
i)Sciophytes -(Shade loving plants)The plants that
grow better under partially shaded (low light) conditions
e.g.,Betel vines, Buckwheat, Turmeric etc.,

ii)Heliophytes -(sun loving Plants)


Many species of plants produce maximum dry matter
under high light intensities when the moisture is available
at the optimum level, e.g. maize,
sorghum, rice etc. Except under glass house or shaded
conditions, intensity of lightcannot be controlled.

2. Quality of Light
When a beam of white light is passed through a prism, it
is dispersed into different colours with their wavelengths
partitude. This is called the visible part of the solar
spectrum
The different colours and their wavelength are as follows:
Violet & Indigo 400-435nm
Blue 435-490nm
Green 490-574nm
Yellow 574-594nm
Orange 594-626nm
Red 626-750nm
Visible rays 390-760 mill micron /m/nm
1
Micron = ------------- meter or 10-6m
10,00,000
1
= ---------- mm = 10-3mm
1000
Milli micron: 10-9m = nanometer
The Principal wavelengths absorbed and used in
photosynthesis are in the violet-blue and the orange-red
regions. Among this, red light is the most faovrable light
for growth followed b violet-blue. Ultra violet and shorter
wavelengths kill bacteria and many fungi.

3. Duration of light
The duration of light has greater influence than the
intensity. It has a considerable importance in the selection
of crop varieties. The response of plants to the relative
length of the day and night is known as photoperiodism.
The plants are classified based on the extent of response
of day length as follows.

i) Long day Plants


The plants which develop and produce normally when the
photoperiod isgreater than the critical minimum (greater
than 12 hours) e.g. Cereals, Potato,Sugar beet, Wheat,
Barley etc.
ii) Short day plants
The plants which develop normally when the photoperiod
is less than the criticalmaximum (less than 12 hours) e.g.
Tobacco, Soybean, Millets, Maize, Sugarcane, etc.
iii)Indeterminate or day neutral plants
Those plants which are not affected by photo period, e.g.,
Tomato, Cotton, Sweet potato, pineapple etc. The
photoperiodism influences the plant characters such as
floral initiation and development, bulb and rhizome
production etc. If a long day plant is grown during periods
of short days the growth of internodes are shortened and
flowering is delayed till the long days come in the
season. Similarly when short day plants are subjected to
long day periods, there will be abnormal vegetative
growth and there may not be any floral initiation in Rice
Cv. CO 38. But now a days many crops do have photo-
insensitive varieties.
4. Direction of light
The direction of sunlight has a greater effect on the
orientation of roots shoots andleaves. In temperate
regions, the southern slopes show better growth of plants
than thenorthern slopes due to higher contribution of
sunlight in the southern side.
Orientation of leaves
The changes of position or orientation of organs of plants
caused by light is usuallycalled as“Phototropism”
For example, the leaves are oriented at right angles
toincidence of light to receive maximum radiation.
Photo morphogenesis
It is defined, as changes in the morphology of plants due
to light. This is due to ultraviolet and violet rays of the
sun.
The vertical rays of the sun at noonday fall directly
overhead at the equator on March21st and this is called‘
Vernal equinox’
. The vertical rays continue to move northern tothe tropic
of cancer and are overhead there on June 21stand this date
is known as“Summer solstice”
(In northern hemisphere) and the rays return to the
equator onSeptember 21stand this date is known as”
Autumnal equinox”
. Then it reaches thetropic of Capricorn on December 21st
and this date id known as“ Winter solstice’
(innorthern hemisphere). The summer and winter solstices
will be reverse in the southernhemisphere. At equinox
days and nights are of equal length throughout the world.
In summer solstice the day will be longer whereas in
winter solstice the day will be shorter than night. The
northern pole will be in daylight for the full 24 hours on
summer solstice and will be dark for full 24 hours on
winter solstice of northern hemisphere.
Angle of the sunrays
The effect of varying angle at which the sun’s ray strike
the earth can be seen daily by the march of the sun across
the sky. At solar noon the intensity of insolation is the
greatest but in the morning and evening hours when the
sun is at low angle, the amount of insolation is also
small.At equator the angle of incidence varies from
231/2d.North of the zenith to 231/2d.Southof the zenith.
The intensity of solar radiation ranges from 92% on
June21st and December 21st to 100% on March 21st and
September 23rd . The range is only 8%. At 45d.Nlatitude
the angle of incidence varies from 211/2d.south of zenith
to 681/2d.south of only 211/2d.above the horizon. The
variation in intensity is due to the change in the angle of
incidence from 93% of maximum on June 21st
to 98% on December 21st . The inclination of the earth is
66d.33’against the plane of the orbit and this angle is the
mainreason for the seasons. Only at the time of Equinox
(March 21, September 23) does the dividing line of the
lighted and dark half of the earth parallel and pass through
the poles. Between March 21 and September 23 to the
north pole is tilted towards the sun and from September
23 to March 21 the south Pole is tilted towards the sun.
The sun isfixed in its place but rotates on its axis once in
251/3days. The path taken by the earth round the sun is
called the“Eliptic”. The orbit of earth round the sun is
rough lycircular, with only a slight eccentricity (in a conic
section). The sun’s ray strikes the surface of the earth
perpendicularly near the equator and with greater
obliquity as the place moves from the equator to the
poles. As the obliquity increases, the surface over which
the rays spread out is increased and the insolation
received by unit surface decreases.
Facts about earth
a.Superficial area: 19, 69, 50, 000 (1.97x108) sq. miles
b.Land surface: 5, 75, 10,000 (5.7x 107) sq. miles.
c.Water surface: 13, 94, 40, 4000 (1.39x108) sq. miles.
d.Earth makes one complete revolution on it axis in 23
hours and 56 minutes.
e.Earth rotates round the sun in 3651/4days.
f.Earth revolves in its orbit round the sun at a speed of
6,66,000 m.p.h.
g.Earth rotates on its axis at an equatorial speed of
1000 m.p.h.
h.The earth is closest to the sun on January 1 at about 91,
342,000 miles andfarthest away on July 2nd 94,454,000
miles.The sun is a star with a surface temperature of about
6000d.C radiates into space. On a surface exposed normal
to the Sun’s rays at the mean distance from the sun,
energy of1.94 gm cal/cm2per minute is received on an
average. This energy amount of 1.94 gmcal/minute is
called the
Solar constant.
The mean intensity of the solar radiation received on
January 1st and July 2nd at the boundary of the atmosphere
is 2.007 and1.877 g cal/cm2/minute respectively.
Chapter – 5
Temperature

Temperature refers to the degree of hotness or coldness of


a substance or a thing and it provides a measure of the
intensity of heat energy.
Air temperature and its Importance
Temperature is necessary for the weathering of soils,
promoting bacterial activity,sterilization of soils, killing
of weeds, pests and disease, for drying grains and
maturityof crops. Every living organism, plant, or animals
or insects requires optimumtemperature for carrying out
the basic biochemical activities for survival.
Excessivetemperature is harmful for germination growth,
flowering and maturity of fruits. Itincreases the
transpiration from plants and evaporation from the soil
and necessitates frequent irrigation. It is the most
important phenomenon of solar energy. In climate logy
the word temperature denotes “Shade”
temperature to avoid the influence of directrays of sun.It
is measured by means of thermometers. Day temperature
at any given time is meant the temperature of the air
measured under standardized condition and with certainre
cognized precautions against errors introduced by
radiation from the sun or other heated body.
Mean daily temperature
It is the mean of 24 readings taken at hourly intervals as
in the self-recording instruments, like thermograph. But in
other thermometers these are usually taken in the morning
(8 a.m.), afternoon (2 p.m.) and evening (6 p.m.).

Mean monthly temperature


It is the average of the total daily mean temperature for
the month divided by the number of days in a month.
Mean annual temperature
It is the average of the 12 months temperature for the total
of monthly means divided by 12.
Mean annual range
The difference between the warmest and coldest months
is the mean annual range.Only mean temperature is
usually quoted in describing climate.The centigrade scale
labels the temperature of boiling point of water under 1
atm. ofpressure 100d.C and the freezing point of water as
0d.C. The Fahrenheit scale labels the same temperature as
212d.F and 320F respectively. The numerical
relation between the two scales is then
0C = 100
0F-32 180
Sensible temperature
The temperature recorded by the thermometer does not
always agree with the sensations of heat felt by the human
body. The sensation of the heat depends upon air
movement and humidity. 80d.F in the equatorial zone is
more uncomfortable than 100d.Fin the desert because of
humidity.
Seasonal (temperature) variations
Temperature (Diurnal, mean and range) vary according to
the season. The main factor scontributing to seasonal
variations are: -
1.The angle of inclination of solar rays, which decides the
intensity of radiation.
2.Distance between earth and sun
3.The movement of seasonal winds which contributes to
rain and precipitation.

Diurnal variation
The difference between the maximum and minimum
temperature on a day is called diurnal range. It is smaller
in the wet season than in the dry season and smaller in
coastal areas in the interior place.
Annual Variation
The difference between the temperatures in a year is
annual variation. The temperature is more in May
and June and lesser in November, December in
Tamilnadu.The amount of the daily range of variation
varies widely with many factors like cloudiness and
humidity of the air, nature of earth’s surface, the vertical
lapse rate of temperature, wind, elevation and latitude and
is discussed below.
Cloudiness:
Cloudiness influences the penetration of insolation to
earth’s surface by day and retardation of net loss of heat
by terrestrial radiation at night.
Humidity of air
There is only very small diurnal variation of temperature
over the ocean; on land, after heavy rains where soil is
moist and water stands on the surface, temperature ranges
are less than during dry weather, because of the humidity
of the air. The average range of temperature increases
with distance from water sources.
Air with Steep Lapse-Rate
Heating during the day is accompanied by deep
convection where by energy absorbed by air near the
earths surface is distributed through a thick layer of air.
Similarly at night steep lapse rates are often accompanied
winds and turbulent mixing that keep the lower layers
warmer than in conditions of still stable air with steep
lapse-rate. Diurnal ranges of temperature are usually
smaller at in the station than nearly valleys. Daily range
of temperature increase with latitude up to subtropical
latitude. Maximum daily ranges have been recorded in
subtropical deserts where clear air & dry land surface
prevails. But in the same latitude along foggy coasts
parallel by cool ocean current, sea,breeze chop off
maximum temperature, fog interferes with terrestrial
radiation at night and hence daily range are the lowest in
the world. In middle latitudes, daily ranges very less with
latitude than with distance from the sea. In high altitudes
diurnal range decrease again, owing to the lessened
effectiveness of the daily successive of the sunlight and
darkness.
Vertical distribution of temperature
(Altitude)
As a general rule throughout the troposphere, the
temperature decreases with elevation. The rate of decrease
with altitude this condition is reversed at certain level sso
that temperature temporarily increases with altitude is not
uniform; it varies with time of the day, season and
location. The average decrease is approximately0.65d.
C/100m. (6.5d.C/km). This is known as normal
lapse rate or vertical temperature gradient.

Temperature Inversion
Although normally, the lower several miles of atmosphere
show a decrease intemperature with increasing altitude
when the colder air lies below warmer air andcloser to
earth’s surface the normal lapse rate is reversed and this is
called temperature inversion.

Horizontal distribution of temperature


(Latitude)
The lines connecting places, which have same air
temperature, are called isotherms.Thus, all the points
on a map through which any one isotherm passes have
identical average temperature for the period
indicated. There is general decrease from equator to poles
(increase in latitude).
Factors affecting temperature
 Elevation of a place
 Soil type
 Nearness to water body
 Presence of hill or mountain
 Location of the earth (co-ordinate)
 Anthrophic factors

Effect of temperature on Plant growth / Crop


Productivity
Air temperature is the most important weather parameter,
which affects the plant life.The growth of higher plants is
restricted to a temperature between 0 to 60d.C and the
optimum For example 10d.C to 40d.C. Beyond these
limits, plants are damaged severely and even get killed.
The maximum production of dry matter occurs when the
temperature ranges from 20 and 30d.C. As already seen
the temperature of a place is largely determined by
latitude and altitude. Based on the above the vegetations
are classified as tropical (rain forest, desert, grassland),
temperature (Grassland, deciduous forest), taiga
(coniferous forest), tundra (low shrubly growth, lichen)
and polar. Some investigators have classified the
vegetation of the world into four classes based on the
prevailing temperature conditions. The four classes are
1.Megatherms - Equatorial and tropical rain forests
2.Mesotherms - tropical and sub tropical, tropical deciduo
us forests
3.Microtherms - temperate and high altitude, alpine veget
ation and mixed coniferous forests and
4.Hekistotherms - artic and alpine regions

High night temperature favors growth of shoots and


leaves and it also affects plant metabolism. On the other
hand low night temperature injures the plants. Tender
leave sand flowers are very sensitive to low temperature
and frost.

Temperature is of paramount importance for


organic life because of the following factors: -
a.Temperature governs the physical and chemical
processes within the plants, which in turn control
biological reactions which take place with In the plants.
b.The diffusion rate of gases and liquids change with
temperature.
c.Solubility of different substances is depending upon
temperature.
d.The rate of reactions varies with variations in
temperature.
e.Equilibrium of various systems and compounds is
a function of temperature and
f.Temperature affects the stability of the enzyme system.

Every plant has its own minimum, optimum and


maximum temperature limits for its normal growth and
reproduction. The vital physiological activities of a plant
stop both at below the minimum level ad at above the
maximum level, whereas physiological activities will be
at its maximum at optimum temperature levels. These
levels of temperature are known as
cardinal temperature points.

Cardinal temperature for the germination of


some important crops (Bierhyzen, 1973)

ardinalTemperature0C
Plant Minimum Optimum Maximum
1 Rice 10-12 30-32 36-38
2 Sorghum 8-10 32-35 40-42
3 Maize 8-10 32-35 40-44
4 Wheat 3-4.5 25 30-32
5 Barley 3-4.5 20 38-40
6 Sugar beat 4-5 25 28-30
7 Tobacco 13-14 28 35
8Carrot 4-5 8 25
9 Peas 12 32-34 40
10 Oats 4-5 25 28-30
11 Lentil 4-5 30 36
In General
Cool season crops 0-15 25-31 31-37
Hot season crops 15-18 31-37 44-50

Apart from yield reductions, many visible injuries on the


plants are seen due to very high temperature.

Cold injury: (Low Air Temperature and Plant


Injury)
1. Chilling injury
Plants, which are adapted to hot climate, exposed to low
temperature for sometime, are found to be severely
injured. Some effects of chilling are development of
chlorotic condition (Yellowing)
Example: Chlorotic bands in the leaves of Sugarcane,
Sorghum and Maize in wintermonths when the night
temperature is below 20d.C.

Based on the reaction to chillness, plants can be divided


into five categories.
a.Plants killed by exposure to temperature in the range of
0.5 to 5.0d.C for 60hours. Rice, Cotton, Cowpea.
b.Plants injured by the above condition but recovered
after being placed in favorable conditions.
For example Sudan grass, Spanish and Valencia peanut
c.Plant not likely to suffer serious injury. For example
Corn, Sorghum and Pumpkin.
d.Plants injured by prolonged chillness. For example
Buck wheat andSoybean.
e.Plants not injured by prolonged chillness. For example
Sunflower, Tomatoand Potato.

In temperate climate two types of injury viz., delayed


growth and sterility occur because of low temperature for
example, In Japan, rice yields decreases due to
insufficient grain maturation caused by low temperatures
during the ripening period.Low temperatures delay
flowering at a certain stage before heading. Rice yield
decreases due to sterility of spike let caused by low
temperatures at the booting stage or anthesis. The
observed injuries may be stoppage of anther development,
pollen unrippeness, partial or no dehiscence, pollen grains
remaining in anther loculi, little or no shedding of pollen
grains on stigma and failure of germination of pollen on
stigma.
2.Freezing injury
Plant parts or entire plant may be killed or damaged
beyond repair as a result of actual freezing of tissues. Ice
crystals are formed first in the intercellular spaces and
then within the cells. Ice, within the cells, causes more
injury by mechanical damage on the
structure of the protoplasm and plasma membrane.
Freezing of water in inter cellular spaces results in
withdrawal of water from the cell sap due to dehydration
and causes death of cells. E.g., Frost damage in Potato,
Tea, etc.

3. Suffocation
In temperate regions, usually during the winter season, the
ice or snow forms a thick cover on the soil surface. As a
result the entry of O2 is prevented and plants suffer for
want of O2. Ice coming in contact with the roots prevents
the diffusion of CO2 Outside the root zone. This prevents
the respiratory activities of roots leading to accumulation
of harmful substances.

4. Heaving
This is a kind of injury caused by lifting up of the plants
along with soil from its normal position. This type of
injury is common in temperate regions. The presence of
ice crystals increases the volume of soil. This causes
mechanical lifting of the soil.

Effect of high Temperatures


Cells of most plant species get killed when the
temperature ranges from 50 to 60
C.This point of temperature is called
Thermal death point
and varies with the followingfactors.
1. The species
2. The age of tissue and
3. The time of exposure to high temperature
It is reported that most plant cells are killed at a
temperature of 45 to 55d.C. Some plants tissues withstand
a temperature of up to 105d.C. The aquatic plants and
shade loving plants are killed at comparatively, lower
temperature (40d.C); where as, for xerophytes it is
50d.C. High temperature results in desiccation of
the plants and disturbs the balance between
photosynthesis and respiration. Higher temperature
increases the respiration leading to rapid depletion of
reserve food in plants resulting in growth stunted due to
incipient or starvation

Heat injuries
1. Sun clad
Injury caused by high temperature on the sides of bark is
known as sun clad, this isnothing but exposure of barks of
the stems to high temperature during daytime and low
temperature during night time.

2. Stem girdle
It is another injury associated with high temperature. High
temperature at the soil surface scorches the stems at
ground level. This type of injury is very common in
young seedlings of cotton in sandy soil where the after
noon soil temperature exceeds 60d.C to65d.C. The stem
girdle injury is first noticed through a dis colored band a
few millimetres wide. This is followed by shrinkage of
the tissues, which have been discoloured. The stem girdle
causes the death of the plant by destroying the conductive
and cambial tissues or by the establishment of pathogens
in the injury. As direct effects on crop plants high
temperature causes sterility in flowers. The general effects
of excessive heat are defoliation, pre-mature dropping of
fruits. In extreme cases, death of the plants may also
occur.
Temperature aberrations Heat Wave
A region is considered to be in the grip of moderate heat
wave when it recorded maximum temperature exceeds the
normal by 5d.to 8d.C. Heat wave is common in the state of
Uttar Pradesh (54%Probablity) in the month of June.
Incidences are maximumin western UP. Persistence is 5-6
days particularly more in June.

Effect of Heat wave


As already discussed under the effect of temperature crop
growth the thermal death point affects photosynthesis and
respiration. Increased respiration results in depletion of
reserve food, sun clad, stem girdle.
Part–II
Chapter–6
Atmospheric Pressure

Pressure is defined as the force acting over any surface.


Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the air, which lies
vertically above a unit area, centered at a point and
expressed by the height of mercury in ‘inches’or
‘millimeters’ . Pressure mainly affects temperature and
precipitation. The weight of the air presses down the earth
with the pressure of 1.034 g/cm2.The weight of air mass
is over 56 trillion tons. (56x1014ton).Weight of 1sq. Inch
column of air from sea level to top of the atmosphere
weighs nearly15 1b. This weight is balanced by column of
mercury 29.93 inches or 760 mm tall having the same
cross sectional area. This is the pressure at sea level at
latitude 45d,.Another unit of measurement millibar is
widely adopted by national weather service of
the world. (Millibar = 1000 dynes / cm2). Dyne is a unit
of force approximately equal to the weight of a
milligram. Sea level pressure under this system is 1013.2
m.bars (mb).One tenth of an inch of mercury is
approximately equal to 3.4 mb.
Units of measurement:
Up to the year 1914 the unit of measurement of pressure
was in inches or in m.m. At sea level the atmospheric
pressure is 30”or 76”cm or 760 mm. At a temperature of
273d.A.In the year 1914 a scientist by name Bjehkres
derived a new unit called the“millibar”(mb). Normal
pressure at sea level is roughly 30 inches or 760 mm. which
correspondsto 1013 MB. The conversion from units of
length to unit of pressure is as follows.Suppose the Hg
column at M.S.L. is 76cm it is then multiplied by the
density of mercury(13.595) and mass of Hg column is
found out.76 x 13.595 = 1033.22 gm.
The acceleration of gravity (normal) in CGS units is
980.665. Multiplying the mass by gravitational force i.e.
1033.22 x 980.665 we obtain the pressure in CGS units
(centimetergram second) is 10, 13,250 dynes/sq.cm. For
convenient sake it is taken as 10, 00,000dynes called
a‘bar”.
One thousandth of a bar is called a“millibar”
.A millibar = 1000 dynes/cm2
Approximately 760 mm = 1000 m.b.
or 1 mb = 0.76 mm.
33 m.b. = 0,76 x 33
= 25.08 mm or= 1”
.The observed pressure is reduced to 32d.F or 0d.C at
M.S.L. at 45Latitude as the standard to facilitate the
comparison of pressure of different stations.

Factors affecting the Atmospheric Air


Pressure:
1. Altitude
It is the relative height of place above M.S.L. The
pressure decreases for every increasesof the altitude. At
sea level the air column exerts its full pressure, but we
when we goup, pressure is reduced at high altitude. For
every 900 ft of altitude 25 mm or 33 mbpressure is
decreased by 1 mb for every 10 meters.
2. Latitude
When the latitude increases the pressure will increase.
Temperature
When the temperature increases the pressure will
decrease. The density of given volume of air vary with
temperature. Thus when air is heated, it expands and
become sless dense, so that column of warm, light air
weight less than a column of cold, heavy air both having
the same height and cross sectional area. Changes in
temperature produces changes in air density which setup
vertical and horizontal movement resulting in differences
in air pressure. Over a warm region when air is heated it
expands and overflows aloft to adjacent region when air is
heated it expands and overflows aloft to adjacent region
when temperature is lower. As a result of this horizontal
transfer, the weight of the air is reduced in the warm
region with and increased the adjacent cooler regions.
Hence region with high temperature are likely to have
lower air pressure than other regions where temperature is
not so high. In other words, high temperature tends to
produce low sea level pressure while low temperature is
conducive to high sea level pressure.There is a rapid
decrease in air weight or pressure with increasing altitude.
The lower layers of atmosphere are densest because the
weight of all layers above which rests upon them. For the
first few thousand feet above the sea level the rate of
pressure decrease, is in neighborhood of 1”or
34 mbof pressure for each 900 to 1000’.
Nearness to the sea
Places near to the sea are often subjected to cyclones due
to low pressure.
Water Vapour
Moist air of high temperature exerts less pressure. When
compared to moist air of low temperature, because water
vapour content is lighter in cold area than air, which
is dry.
Rotation of the earth
Due to rotation of earth the pressure at 60 - 65
0
N and S becomes low for the air to escape from these belts
that move towards the horse latitude (30–35d.
N&S) and the see belts absorb air from the sub-polar belts
making the pressure high.
Seasonal variation
Pressure system changes according to the season. Season
changes according to the position of the sun. When the
sun moves to the tropic of cancer, pressure belts move to
the North by 5d.away from their normal. When sun
moves to tropic of Capricorn, the pressure belt also moves
south and sight by 5d.away from their original position.
This is known as“Swing of pressure belts”.

Significance of pressure
The pressure are forms the cyclones. Whenever the
atmospheric pressure of a place drops from the normal
conditions, depression occurs and cyclone may be
formed.The barometer reading is the best indication of the
possible occurrence of cyclone or storm as well as rain in
area.

Sea breeze and land breeze due to seasons


During summer horse latitudes receive the direct sunrays
and an area of low pressure increases over the continent
masses and they enlarge a small high-pressure center over
the continents. But surrounding seas have a vast high-
pressure area in summer the wind blows from sea (high
pressure) towards the lands. (Low pressure) In
winterseason, a major area of high pressure covers the
landmasses. The sea areas are comparatively at low
pressure. So winds start moving from the land towards
the sea.
Diurnal variations
To find out the mean daily change in air pressure, the
average of hourly-observed pressure for a long period of
time is calculated. The mean value of the daily pressure is
free from the temporary effect of atmospheric
disturbances. There is a definite rhythm min the rise and
fall of mercury. Insolational heating and radiational
cooling are the principal reasons for diurnal variations of
air pressure. In other words, pressure changes are mainly
due to the expansion and contraction of the air.
Seasonal or annual variation
This is clearly the effect of annual variation in the amount
of insolation received in a particular region. Annual
pressure variation in the tropical region is larger than
other regions of the world. The equatorial regions record
the smallest amount of variation in their seasonal
pressures, because there is practically no variation in the
amount of insolation received at the equator throughout
the year High pressure - cold season
Low pressure - warm season
Pressure systems of the world
Pressure system differs greatly in both size and duration.
Pressure System is of two types
i.High pressure system
ii. Low pressure system

Centers of low pressure are called as depression, cyclones


or lows. Prolonged low pressure, centers are called
troughs. The equatorial belt of low pressure is called
doldrums (5d.N & 5d.S of Equator) and it is because of
the following factors viz of sun falling vertically all round
the year, water vaporization being high and rising of
air.The doldrums belt is spread over Amazon, Congo,
Passion and Guinea belt etc. Thecenters of high pressures
are called anticyclones or highs. An elongated high
pressure iscalled as Ridge. Near 30d.N and 30d.S the
pressure is always high because intensive hotair from the
equator descends down in this belt and polar air from the
sub-polar belt salso descents here.
Storm
A marked atmospheric disturbance characterized by a
strong wind, usually accompanied by rain, snow, sleet
(rain that freezes as it falls-mixture of rain with snowor
hail) or hail and often thunder and lighting.
Thunder Strom
A storm invariably produced by a cumulonimbus cloud
and always accompanied by thunder, usually
accompanied by strong wind, gusts, heavy rain and
sometimes hails. Itis usually of short duration, seldom
over 2 hour.
-Vertical motion is having many weather modifications.
-Upward motion results due to expansion that it gets
cooled and eventual condensation.
- Cumulonimbus cloud types are closely related to the
strength of the verticalmotion.
-A thunderstorm is as the name implies a storm
accompanied by thunder andtherefore lightning. As
Benjamin Franklin demonstrated in 1750
lightningdischarges giant electrical sparks.
-Cumulonimbus clouds therefore are great electrical
generators. The cloud produce‘+’and‘-‘value charges by
charged poles.
-The lower part of the cloud is negatively charged and
upper part is positively charged.

Hail
Precipitation in the form of balls or irregular lumps of ice
is referred as hail.
Hail Strom
Small round pieces of ice hail that sometimes fall during
thunder storms (frozen raindrops, hail storms) is referred
as hail storm and its features are
-Hails may be sometimes greater in size than a large
marble.
-It falls from cumulonimbus clouds.
-Hails are destructive to crops to crops that cause
mechanical damage, structures.

Hurricane
A violent tropical cyclone with wind speed of 73 or more
miles per hour or 134 and more km/h usually
accompanied by torrential (very heavy fall) rain,
originating usually in West Indian regions.

Tornado
Tornado is coined from a Spanish word
–Torn as means,“to turn”and itscharacteristics are as
follows.
-The smallest vortex (whirlpool, whirl or powerful eddy
of air, whirl wind - awhirling mass of water forming a
vacuum at its center, into which anythingcaught in the
motion are drawn).
-Eddy - current of air, water, etc., moving against the
main current and worthcircular motion.
-But most powerful one.
-The intense rotation is confined normally to diameter of
kilometer or less.
-But its wind speed can reach even 300 km/h

Water spouts
The tornado occasionally forms over water and because of
high moisture content of theair, the funnels are heavily
laddened with water drops, so they look somewhat like
astream of water pouring from the base of the cloud.
For this reason they are calledwaterspouts.

Dust Devil
A whirlwind that frequently forms on very hot days
especially over desert is the dustdevil. Normally there are
no clouds associated with it.

Cyclone
It is a system of winds blowing around the center of low
barometric pressure i.e., meansclosed circulation about a
low-pressure center, which is anti clockwise in the
Northernhemisphere the characteristics are
-Cyclonic whirls are the“Storms”of middle latitude.
-In the temperate latitude they produce much of the winter
precipitation.
-Around the low-pressure centers.
-Air circulates anti clockwise direction in Northern
Hemisphere.
-The air is heterogeneous in relation to temperature and
moisture.

Anticyclone
It is a condition in which the atmospheric pressure
distribution where central pressure is high relative to the
surroundings. Circulation is a clockwise in northern
hemisphereand anti clockwise in Southern hemisphere.
-The whirling speed reduces @ 10-15 cm/sec. and fair
weather generally prevail.
-The air masses are homogenous with respect to
temperature and moisture.

Typhoon
Any violent tropical cyclone originating in the western
Pacific especially in the SouthChina Sea
Plant growth
It is the resultant of all the environmental factors-climatic,
physiographic, edaphic and biotic factors. For a particular
field it is primarily a function of climate with temperature
and height being the most important factors. A very close
relationship exists between plant phenology and both
latitude and altitude.
Chapter–7
Wind
Wind is defined as the moving air of atmosphere parallel
to earth’s surface air in horizontal motion. All other
masses of air in motion (vertical) should be called as Air
Currents. Wind is an invisible weather element but the
effect of wind can be seen from the movement of tree
branches, dust particles and by feeling. The pattern and
intensity of wind is affected by various factors.
Advantages of wind:
1.Fresh wind is useful for renewing the environment.
2.Wind is useful for effecting pollination in the crops.
3.It is useful for cleaning for agricultural produces.
4.It is used as a force in certain machines such as
windmills, winnowing machinesetc.

Effect of Wind on crops


1.Increases transpiration under normal condition with
increasing wind velocity.Layers of humid air adjacent to
plant leaf surfaces are removed by wind andbecome
mixed with dry air above. This keeps RH low and
increases transpirationrate. There is a greater increase in
cuticular transpiration than stomataltranspiration witch
cause moisture stress in plants.
2.Wind increases the rate if Photosynthesis. Wind
increases turbulence inatmosphere thus raising the supply
of Co2to the plants and thereby increasingthe rate of
photosynthesis. However, the increase is only up to a
certain windspeed.
3.When the wind is hot it accelerates the drying of the
plants by replacing humid air by dry air in the
intercellular spaces. At the time of cell expansion, the hot
dry wind affects the maturing cell and that result
in dwarfing of plants.
4.Much damage is caused by hot dry winds at or near the
time of flowering. The internal water balance is upset,
resulting in poor seed setting. Another form of injury is“
blossom injury”caused by evaporation of secretions in the
stigma.
5.Interfere pollination by insects. But mild wind will
favour pollination by wind.
6.Deplete soil moisture.
7.Due to mechanical effect of wind the growth pattern and
shape of trees atechanged lopsidal growth.
8.Uprooting of plants is common where as crops and trees
with shallow roots areuprooted.
9.Cause fruit drops in plants. Example. Citrus fruit drop.
Fruits and nuts arestripped off from trees.
10.Soil erosion occurs when the plant cover is not thick,
strong winds remove the dry soil exposing their roots and
killing them. The eroded material from one place is
deposited in another place causing hazard to small plants
in that place.The deposited materials reduce the
aeration around the roots and plants.
11.Salt deposition by wind is another phenomenon where
wind from sea carriessalts as spray on coastal area and
makes it impossible to grow crops which aresensitive to
excess salts.

Disadvantages of wind
1.High-speed wind accelerates the drying of moisture
from the soil and also itincreases the rate of transpiration
in plants thereby necessitating frequent irrigation.
2.High-speed wind results in lodjing of many crops such
as Banana, Sugarcane andother fruit trees.
3.Heavy wind will affect the fruit set and also the
available fruits to fall or to bewithered.
4.Heavy wind also results in soil erosion.
Effect of high wind can be prevented to some extent by
means of the followingpractices.
1.Properly oriented and designed shelterbelts.
2.In temperature conditions wind breaks save plants from
freezing and mechanicaldamage caused by cold winds.
3.Windbreaks also reduce soil erosion caused by wind.
4.Tall crops such as Corn, Sorghum, Sunflower etc are
used as temporary wind barriers to protect crop viz.,
Sugar beat, Soy bean, Tomato, Brinjal etc.

Causes for the formation of the wind:


The principal cause for wind is difference in pressure. Air
always moves from areas ofhigh pressure to those of low
pressure
1.Due to variation in the atmospheric temperature,
pressure etc., i.e. when the atmospheric temperature is
very high the pressure will decrease correspondingly.

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