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AGRICULTUREAGR
AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGYTHEORY
ChapterNo.Chapter Name
1. Dynamic Meteorology
It deals with the forces that create and maintain motion
and the latest transformation associated therewith
2. Physical Meteorology
Nitrogen
It is chemically inactive and an important plant nutrient,
but it has to be fixed in the soilto make it available to the
plant. The fixation of nitrogen in the soil is carried out by
thefollowing agencies
Oxygen
It has got considerable importance in plant and animal
life. It plays an important role inrespiration, bacterial
activity in soil oxidation and absorption of plant nutrients
andseveral soil forming or weathering activities in the
soil, which improve plant foodavailability.
3. Carbon dioxide
It plays an active part in photosynthetic activities.
4. Argon
It is used extensively in electric lamp bulbs because of its
inertness. It is also used inflorescent tubes. It flows
with blue light.
5. Neon
Neon is used to fill florescent tubes. It flows with
distinctive orange red colour.
6. Helium
It is the second highest element with a density of 0.177
gms per liter (Hydrogen 0,08988gms /liter). It is used to
inflate balloons because it will not burn.
7. Krypton
This glows with brilliant green and yellow colour.
8. Xenon
It is chemically inert and glows with a blue green colour.
Besides these the atmospherealso contains small
quantities of ozone (O3), Methane (CH4), Nitrous
oxide(N2O),Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and traces of Iodine,
NaCl,NH3Carbon monoxide etc., Theamount of CO2
in the atmosphere is not quite constant. The vegetable
Worldcontinuously consumes CO2, which again is
produced by the animal World, throughburning of fuels,
volcanic action and various process of decay in the soil.
But the oceansby dissolving the excess of CO2
, so effectively regulate it that the amount of CO2
in t heatmosphere remains almost constant. Ozone, which
is present in the lower atmosphere,has a maximum in the
upper atmosphere between 10 and 25 km (30,000 and
80,000)where it amount varies considerably. Apart from
this the composition of theatmosphere is remarkably
constant all over the earth’s surface.
Water vapour:
The air also contains variable of water vapour. The water
vapour present in theatmosphere varies up to 4% by
volume as in tropical humid climate. Most of thevapour is
found in the lower part pf the atmosphere. The maximum
amount of watervapour that the air can absorb depends
entirely on the temperature of the air, the higherthe
temperature of the air the more water vapour it can hold.
The air is saturated withmoisture when this maximum
amount is reached, when air is cooled below itssaturation
temperature condensation takes place, water droplets
formed or at lowtemperature ice crystals formed. Small
water drop lets and ice crystals are kept afloat inthe air by
the ascending air currents and under special
circumstances the water dropletsand ice crystals coalesce
and form large drops or snow flakes which are
precipitatedfrom the clouds when they become too large
to be kept afloat.
1.Troposphere
2.Stratosphere
3.Mesosphere (also called Ozonosphere)
4.Ionosphere
5.Exosphere
1. Troposphere:
It contains about 75 per cent of the total gaseous mass of
the atmosphere. It has beenderived from the Greek
word‘trops’meaning“mixing ”or turbulence. The
averageheight of this lowermost layer of the atmosphere
is placed at about 14 km above sealevel. Under normal
conditions, the height of the troposphere at the poles is
about 8kilometers, while at the equator it is about 16
kilometers.
2. Stratosphere:
The stratosphere begins at the tropospause, which forms
its lowerboundary. The lower stratosphere is isothermal in
character (16-30 kilometers). There isa gradual
temperature increase with height beyond 20 km i.e., upper
stratosphere(temperature inversion). No visible weather
phenomena occur above tropopause
3. Mesosphere or Ozonosphere:
There is maximum concentration of Ozone between 30to
60 kilometers above the surface of the earth. Because of
the concentration of ozone inthis layer it is called the
ozonosphere. It is a warm layer because of selective
absorptionof ultra violet radiation by ozone. In fact, it acts
as a filter for ultra violet radiation fromthe sun. In this
layer the temperature increases with height @ 5 The
maximumtemperature recorded in the ozonosphere is
higher thanthat at the earth’s surface.Because of the
preponderance if chemical processes, this sphere is sometimes
called aschemosphere.
4. Ionosphere:
Ionosphere, according to Peterson, lies beyond the
ozonosphere at aheight of about 60 km above the earth’s
surface. At this level the ionization atmospherebegins to
occur. Above ozonosphere, the temperature falls again
reaching a minimumof about 1000C at a height 80 km.
above earth’s surface. Beyond this level thetemperature
increases again due to the absorption of short wave solar
radiator by theatoms of O & N in this ionosphere.0
C/km. The maximumtemperature recorded in the
ozonosphere is higher thanthat at the earth’s
surface.Because of the preponderance if chemical processes,
this sphere is sometimes called aschemosphere.
5. Exosphere:
The outer most layer of earth’s atmosphere is known as
the exosphere, which liesbetween 400 and 1000
kilometers. At such great height density of atoms in
theatmosphere is extremely low. Hydrogen and helium
gases predominate in the outermost regions. Kinetic
temperature may reach 5568 d.Celsius.
5. Exosphere:
The outer most layer of earth’s atmosphere is known as
the exosphere, which liesbetween 400 and 1000
kilometers. At such great height density of atoms in
theatmosphere is extremely low. Hydrogen and helium
gases predominate in the outermost regions. Kinetic
temperature may reach 5568d.Celsius.
Stratosphere - Stratopausec.
Mesosphere - Mesopause
Heterosphere:
The atmosphere above the homosphere is not uniform in
composition. Different layersof the atmosphere in this
part differ from one another in their chemical and
physicalproperties. In this sphere gases are said to be
arranged into the following four roughlyspherical shells,
each of which has its own distinctive composition.
1.Nitrogen layer - 200 km above earths surface molecular
N.
2.Oxygen layer - Average ht. 1120km (atomic oxygen)
3.Helium layer - Average ht. 3520km.
4.Hydrogen layer - these layer are arranged according to
the weight of the gases.
Lapse rate:
The rate of decrease of temperature with increase in
height at a given place and time iscalled Lapse rate. The
normal lapse rate is 6.5d.C per km increase in height.
Chapter–3Weather and Climate
Phenology
It indicates the coming season. It is a science, which deals
with the reoccurrence ofimportant phases of animals and
vegetable life in relation to climate during the year.
Events such as leafing, flowering, fruiting, leaf shedding,
migration of birds, occurrenceof insects etc provide
indications of the coming season.
According to Indian Meteorological Department the
flowering in mango tree takesplace by 15th
December in Chennai and Andhra Pradesh while in
northern state it is aslate as 15thof March.
Seasons:
1.Spring : January to March - Fresh leaves form in trees.
2.Summer : April to June–Flowering and fruiting takes
place.
3.Autumn : July–September.
4.Winter : October–December.
Boyle’s Law
The Volume of a given quantity of air varies inversely as
the pressure upon it, providedthe temperature remains
constant.
Charle’s Law
The volume of a given quantity of air varies directly as
the absolute temperature,provided the pressure remains
constant.
Weather
The condition of atmosphere at a given time defined as
weather and it is highlyvariable. I t is a heat or moisture
exchange for a shorter period of time over a smallerarea
particularly respect to wind, temperature, cloudiness,
relative humidity, andpressure etc. Weather and climate
are the important factors determining the success or
failure of agriculture. Weather influences agricultural
operations from sowing of a cropto the harvest and
depends on the mercy of the weather particularly rain
fedagriculture. In India every year there is a considerable
damage by floods in one part ofthe country and a severe
drought causing famines in another part. The total annual
preharvest losses for the various crops are estimated from
10 to 100 per cent; while, thepost harvest losses are
estimated to range between 5 and 15 per cent. Hence,
study ofweather element is essential. Weather is the
condition of atmosphere at a given time. Itis the day to
day interplay of temperature, humidity, pressure, rainfall
etc. The weatherconditions of Coimbatore on a particular
day at a particular time may not be the sameas that of
Annamalainagar
weather.Eg: Weather data for Annamalainagar during 200
5Maximum temperature was observed on ---------------
Maximum rainfall was received on -----------------------
Maximum relative humidity was recorded on ---------
Climate
The state of atmosphere over the period of time is known
as climate. It is the synthesisof these various elements of
the weather. The word climate refers to the mean or
normalconditions over a long period such as 20-30 years
or more; where as the cold weatherrefers to the mean or
normal conditions over a long period such as 20-30 years
or more.Where as the word weather refers to more or less
instantaneous conditions in theatmosphere or the trend of
there conditions over a relatively short period of time.
BASIS FOR
WEATHER CLIMATE
COMPARISON
Represents What are the condition of atmosphere In what way atmosphere acts
in a geographical location, over short over typically long period.
period.
Longitude
It is the distance east or west on the earth’s surface
measured as an arc of the equator (indegrees up to 180d.
or by the difference by time ) between the meridian
passing througha particular place and a standard of prime
meridian, usually the one passing throughGreenwich,
England.
Meridian
Meridian is a great circle of the earth passing through the
geographical poles at anygiven point on the earth’s
surface.
Equator
It is an imaginary circle of around the earth, equally
distance at all points from both the North Pole and the
South Pole. It divides the earth’s surface into the northern
hemisphere and the southern hemisphere like dividing the
coconut fruit at the centre horizontally.
1.Latitude:
Latitude is the angular distance, measured in degrees,
north or south from the equator.It is the main factor in
determining the climatic zones such as torrid, temperate,
tropical,subtropical and polar zones. It is found that the
quality of grains is better in higherlatitudes than that of
lower latitudes.
For Example:
1. Canadian wheat is of better quality than Egyptian
wheat.2. Italian rice is superior to Indian rice.The latitude
of a place in question for its depends on the angle of
incidence of theincoming radiations from the sun, the
length of the day and night, the length of theseasons, the
amount of incoming radiations
etc.,Distance from East to West : 2933 kmDistance from
North to South : 32144 kmLand frontiers : 15200 kmCoas
t line : 6083
Zenith
Zenith is defined as the time at which part of the sun is
directly overhead
02.Altitude
It is the elevation of a place, the metrological elements
vary rapidly with height abovethe sea level and it has a
profound influence on a climate. Even in the tropical
climate,the high mountains have temperate climate. The
temperature decreases by 0.6d.forevery 100 m from the
sea level. Generally there is a decrease in pressure and
increasein precipitation and wind velocity. The important
effects of altitudes are
3. Precipitation
As the height increases the precipitation also increases
and hence rainfall is more inmountainous regions. The
quantity and distribution of rainfall decides the nature
ofvegetation and the nature of the cultivated crops. The
crop region is classified on thebasis of average rainfall,
which is as follows:
Rainfall (mm) - Name of the climatic region
Less than 500 - Arid
500-700 - Semi arid
750-1000 - Sub humid
More than 1000 - Humid
Marine Continental
1. Rainfall More and well distributed Less and ill distributed
2. Temperature Variation is less Variation is more
3. Land and Sea Sea breeze is regular No sea breeze
Breeze
5. Topography (Relief)
The surface of landscape (levelled or uneven surface
areas) produces marked change sin the climate. This
involves the altitude of the place, steepness of the slope
and exposure of the slope to light and wind. The frost
occurrence will be mostly in the valleys rather than the
hills. Besides these, soils and vegetation as physical
factors also affect climate to a smaller extent.
i) Soil type
Soil is product of climatic action on rocks as modified by
landscape and vegetation over a long period of time. The
colour of soil surface affects the absorption, storage and
re-radiation of heat. White colour reflects while the black
absorbs more radiation. Due to the differential
absorption of the heat energy, variations in temperature
are created at different places. In black soil areas the
climate is hot while in red soil areas it is comparatively
cooler due to lesser heat absorption
E.g. Tirunelveli and Ramnad District.
ii) Vegetation
Kind of vegetation characterizes the nature of climate.
Thick vegetation is found intropical regions where
temperature and precipitation are high. General types
ofvegetations present in a region indicates the nature of
climate of that region. Thickforest areas with more
vegetation will be cooler than the desert because the
forest treesand by the surrounding environment becomes
cooler. The black soil type regions generally a hot climate
exists because of more absorption of by the black soil.
Other factors that influence the weather and climate
marginally are
i.Semi permanent high and low pressure systems.
ii.Winds and air masses.
iii.Atmospheric disturbances or storms.
iv.Oceans currents.
v.Mountain barriers
Classification of Climate:
Mr. Koppen has classified the climate into eleven
principal types as follows:
3. Steppes
The steppes continue for into the interior continent where
the dryness is in part due to the large distance from the
coast and lack of moisture bearing winds. The equatorial
part and eastern part of the steppe region has light
summer rainfall chiefly because of summer showers, and
the portion indicated by WR (winter rainfall) has dry
summer and slight winter rainfall. The steppe climate is
characterized by
a.Temperature varying within wide limits.
b.Lack of rainfall, evaporation-exceeding precipitation
most of the rain at rare intervals and the amount
varying considerably.
c.Vegetation adapted to high temperature large
temperature variation and long day periods.
4. Deserts
Here the descending air in the subtropical anticyclones
causes extreme dryness. The deserts are characterized by:
a.High summer temperature, large diurnal variation and
moderate annualvariation in temperature.
b.Cloudy sky, extreme dryness, dust and sand storms,
rains squalls at rareintervals.
c.Very sparse vegetation of steppe type.
10.Tundra Climate
In the northern permanent most part of the continent. The
mean temperature of thewarmest winter is below
10d.C. Subsoil is frozen throughout the year and there are
no forests.
11. Ice climate
The polar cap of /snow and ice with mean temperature of
the warmest month is below 0d.C (32.5d.F)Thornthwaite
establishes five climatic provinces that correspond closely
to natural plant covers.
Transfer of heat:
The atmosphere is a poor absorber and the earth’s surface
is good absorber of incomingradiation, and the
atmosphere receives most of the heat energy via the earth
surface.
The heat received in one place may be transported to
other places by the followingmechanism
1.Conduction
2.Radiation
3.Turbulence
4.Advection
5.Convection
1. Conduction
Conduction is the process of heat transfer through matter
by molecular activity. In this process heat is transferred
from one part of a body to another or between two object
touching each other. Conduction occurs through
molecular movement.
2. Radiation
Radiation is the process of transmission of energy by
electromagnetic waves and is themeans by which energy
emitted by the sun reaches the earth.
3. Turbulence
The wind is never a steady current. It consists of a
succession of gusts and lulls of short period (Gust refers
to sudden blast of wind and Lull refers to become calm).
This irregular motion is called Turbulence is made up of
number of small eddies that travel with general air
current, super imposed on it. These eddies carry heat,
moisture, dustetc, with them as they travel from one place
to other. The turbulence transfer of heat ismost effective
in the vicinity of earths surface is distributed through air
column,through mixing of neighboring air masses.
5. Convection
Convection is the process of transfer of heat, through
movement of a mass or substance from one place
to another. Convection is possible only in gases or fluids, for
they alone have internal mass motions. In solid substance
this type of heat transfer is impossible.The instability is
created in the lower layer of the atmosphere either
through the diurnal heating of the earth’s surface by the
sun or through heating of the air when it travel towards
warmer regions. Gustiness, cumulus clouds, showers and
thunderstorms are directly caused by instability. As soon
as the temperature lapse rate near the earth exceeds the
dry adiabatic slightest disturbance will upset the
stratification. Air from earth’s surface rises and air from
higher levels sinks to replace the ascending masses.This
process of overturning of unstable air is
called“Convection”
. If the rising currentsreach the condensation level, clouds
will form. The descending air surrounding therising
masses will be heated adiabatically the R.H. Will be
lower and the sky will bebroken clouds of the cumulus
type. The weather phenomena that convection
willproduce depend on the depth of the unstable layer, the
height of the condensation leveland the distribution
of temperature aloft.
Heat Budget
Of the total solar radiation reaching the outer limit of the
atmosphere, about 25 per cent is reflected by clouds and 7
percent is scattered back to space by suspended partic
lesand it is not used to heat air. The earth surface reflects
2 percent pf radiation to the pace. About 19 per cent of
solar radiation is absorbed by gases and water vapour in
the atmosphere. About 47 per cent is absorbed by
the earth. Out of which 23 percent is absorbed by the
earth from scattering of clouds and atmosphere. And 24
percent is received directly from the sun. Thus
approximately two-thirds of the total radiation is effective
in heating the earth. The total energy coming to the earth
over a consider able period of time is equal to the total
outward losses. In order to maintain the terrestrial heat
balance, the 66 percent of solar radiation gained must be
balanced by the same amount of energy radiated back to
space in the form of long-wave terrestrial
radiation(transferred by conduction and convection). In
this way the overall heat budget of theearth is balanced. If
this were not so, the earth would soon become either very
hot orvery cold. Actually there is a deficit of heat at
higher latitudes and surplus in lowlatitudes.
Latent heat
Normally, when heat is given to a substance, its
temperature rises. However, the heat which changes the
physical state of a substance but not raise its temperature
is called latent heat of that substance. The latent heat of a
substance is thus the amount of heat obsorbed (or given
out) by a unit mass of the substance to change its state
with out change of temperature. The latent heat is used up
in overcoming the force of attraction between the
molecules of the substances.
Sensible heat flux
It is same as enthalpy and the product of heat capacity
times the Kelvin temperature, at constant pressure for a
perfect gas. This is used in meteorology in contrast to
latent heat.In crop canopies the heat energy utilized in
raising the temperature is referred to assensible heat.
Sensible heat advection
The process in which warm dry air passing over a field
supplies energy for transpiration.
Solar Constant
It is the amount of solar energy incident on a unit area at
right angle to the sun’s rays at the earth’s mean distance
per unit time in the absence of atmosphere. Solar constant
is 2cal /cm2/ minute. The sun is the source of more than
99 per cent of the thermal energy required for the physical
processes taking place in the earth atmosphere
system. Every minute, the sun radiates approximately
56x1026 calories of energy. In terms of the energy
per unit area incident on a spherical shell with a radius of
1.5x1013cm (the meandistance of the earth from the sun)
and concentric with the sun, this energy is equal to
56 x 1026 cal. Min-1
S= ------------------------- = 2.0 langely min-1
.4(1.5x1013cm)2
Solar constant
is defined as the rate at which solar radiation is received
out side the earth’s atmosphere on a surface perpendicular
to the sun’s rays when the earth is at an average distance
from the sun. The Smithsonian Institute, USA has come
to the conclusion that the standard value of solar constant
is 1.94g cal. cm-2min-1.
Since there is fluctuation in the amount of radiant energy
emitted by the sun due to periodic disturbances on the
solar surface, the amount of solar constant, there
fore,registers a slight increase or decrease. However, this
hardly exceeds 2-3 per cent.The amount of insolation
received on any date at a place on the earth is governed by
1.The solar constant which depends on (a) energy output
of the sun and(b) distance from the earth to sun.
2.Energy out put of the sun.
3.Distance from the earth to sun.
4.Transparency of the atmosphere.
5.Duration of the daily sunlight period.
6.Angle at which the sun’s rays strike the earth.
2. Quality of Light
When a beam of white light is passed through a prism, it
is dispersed into different colours with their wavelengths
partitude. This is called the visible part of the solar
spectrum
The different colours and their wavelength are as follows:
Violet & Indigo 400-435nm
Blue 435-490nm
Green 490-574nm
Yellow 574-594nm
Orange 594-626nm
Red 626-750nm
Visible rays 390-760 mill micron /m/nm
1
Micron = ------------- meter or 10-6m
10,00,000
1
= ---------- mm = 10-3mm
1000
Milli micron: 10-9m = nanometer
The Principal wavelengths absorbed and used in
photosynthesis are in the violet-blue and the orange-red
regions. Among this, red light is the most faovrable light
for growth followed b violet-blue. Ultra violet and shorter
wavelengths kill bacteria and many fungi.
3. Duration of light
The duration of light has greater influence than the
intensity. It has a considerable importance in the selection
of crop varieties. The response of plants to the relative
length of the day and night is known as photoperiodism.
The plants are classified based on the extent of response
of day length as follows.
Diurnal variation
The difference between the maximum and minimum
temperature on a day is called diurnal range. It is smaller
in the wet season than in the dry season and smaller in
coastal areas in the interior place.
Annual Variation
The difference between the temperatures in a year is
annual variation. The temperature is more in May
and June and lesser in November, December in
Tamilnadu.The amount of the daily range of variation
varies widely with many factors like cloudiness and
humidity of the air, nature of earth’s surface, the vertical
lapse rate of temperature, wind, elevation and latitude and
is discussed below.
Cloudiness:
Cloudiness influences the penetration of insolation to
earth’s surface by day and retardation of net loss of heat
by terrestrial radiation at night.
Humidity of air
There is only very small diurnal variation of temperature
over the ocean; on land, after heavy rains where soil is
moist and water stands on the surface, temperature ranges
are less than during dry weather, because of the humidity
of the air. The average range of temperature increases
with distance from water sources.
Air with Steep Lapse-Rate
Heating during the day is accompanied by deep
convection where by energy absorbed by air near the
earths surface is distributed through a thick layer of air.
Similarly at night steep lapse rates are often accompanied
winds and turbulent mixing that keep the lower layers
warmer than in conditions of still stable air with steep
lapse-rate. Diurnal ranges of temperature are usually
smaller at in the station than nearly valleys. Daily range
of temperature increase with latitude up to subtropical
latitude. Maximum daily ranges have been recorded in
subtropical deserts where clear air & dry land surface
prevails. But in the same latitude along foggy coasts
parallel by cool ocean current, sea,breeze chop off
maximum temperature, fog interferes with terrestrial
radiation at night and hence daily range are the lowest in
the world. In middle latitudes, daily ranges very less with
latitude than with distance from the sea. In high altitudes
diurnal range decrease again, owing to the lessened
effectiveness of the daily successive of the sunlight and
darkness.
Vertical distribution of temperature
(Altitude)
As a general rule throughout the troposphere, the
temperature decreases with elevation. The rate of decrease
with altitude this condition is reversed at certain level sso
that temperature temporarily increases with altitude is not
uniform; it varies with time of the day, season and
location. The average decrease is approximately0.65d.
C/100m. (6.5d.C/km). This is known as normal
lapse rate or vertical temperature gradient.
Temperature Inversion
Although normally, the lower several miles of atmosphere
show a decrease intemperature with increasing altitude
when the colder air lies below warmer air andcloser to
earth’s surface the normal lapse rate is reversed and this is
called temperature inversion.
ardinalTemperature0C
Plant Minimum Optimum Maximum
1 Rice 10-12 30-32 36-38
2 Sorghum 8-10 32-35 40-42
3 Maize 8-10 32-35 40-44
4 Wheat 3-4.5 25 30-32
5 Barley 3-4.5 20 38-40
6 Sugar beat 4-5 25 28-30
7 Tobacco 13-14 28 35
8Carrot 4-5 8 25
9 Peas 12 32-34 40
10 Oats 4-5 25 28-30
11 Lentil 4-5 30 36
In General
Cool season crops 0-15 25-31 31-37
Hot season crops 15-18 31-37 44-50
3. Suffocation
In temperate regions, usually during the winter season, the
ice or snow forms a thick cover on the soil surface. As a
result the entry of O2 is prevented and plants suffer for
want of O2. Ice coming in contact with the roots prevents
the diffusion of CO2 Outside the root zone. This prevents
the respiratory activities of roots leading to accumulation
of harmful substances.
4. Heaving
This is a kind of injury caused by lifting up of the plants
along with soil from its normal position. This type of
injury is common in temperate regions. The presence of
ice crystals increases the volume of soil. This causes
mechanical lifting of the soil.
Heat injuries
1. Sun clad
Injury caused by high temperature on the sides of bark is
known as sun clad, this isnothing but exposure of barks of
the stems to high temperature during daytime and low
temperature during night time.
2. Stem girdle
It is another injury associated with high temperature. High
temperature at the soil surface scorches the stems at
ground level. This type of injury is very common in
young seedlings of cotton in sandy soil where the after
noon soil temperature exceeds 60d.C to65d.C. The stem
girdle injury is first noticed through a dis colored band a
few millimetres wide. This is followed by shrinkage of
the tissues, which have been discoloured. The stem girdle
causes the death of the plant by destroying the conductive
and cambial tissues or by the establishment of pathogens
in the injury. As direct effects on crop plants high
temperature causes sterility in flowers. The general effects
of excessive heat are defoliation, pre-mature dropping of
fruits. In extreme cases, death of the plants may also
occur.
Temperature aberrations Heat Wave
A region is considered to be in the grip of moderate heat
wave when it recorded maximum temperature exceeds the
normal by 5d.to 8d.C. Heat wave is common in the state of
Uttar Pradesh (54%Probablity) in the month of June.
Incidences are maximumin western UP. Persistence is 5-6
days particularly more in June.
Significance of pressure
The pressure are forms the cyclones. Whenever the
atmospheric pressure of a place drops from the normal
conditions, depression occurs and cyclone may be
formed.The barometer reading is the best indication of the
possible occurrence of cyclone or storm as well as rain in
area.
Hail
Precipitation in the form of balls or irregular lumps of ice
is referred as hail.
Hail Strom
Small round pieces of ice hail that sometimes fall during
thunder storms (frozen raindrops, hail storms) is referred
as hail storm and its features are
-Hails may be sometimes greater in size than a large
marble.
-It falls from cumulonimbus clouds.
-Hails are destructive to crops to crops that cause
mechanical damage, structures.
Hurricane
A violent tropical cyclone with wind speed of 73 or more
miles per hour or 134 and more km/h usually
accompanied by torrential (very heavy fall) rain,
originating usually in West Indian regions.
Tornado
Tornado is coined from a Spanish word
–Torn as means,“to turn”and itscharacteristics are as
follows.
-The smallest vortex (whirlpool, whirl or powerful eddy
of air, whirl wind - awhirling mass of water forming a
vacuum at its center, into which anythingcaught in the
motion are drawn).
-Eddy - current of air, water, etc., moving against the
main current and worthcircular motion.
-But most powerful one.
-The intense rotation is confined normally to diameter of
kilometer or less.
-But its wind speed can reach even 300 km/h
Water spouts
The tornado occasionally forms over water and because of
high moisture content of theair, the funnels are heavily
laddened with water drops, so they look somewhat like
astream of water pouring from the base of the cloud.
For this reason they are calledwaterspouts.
Dust Devil
A whirlwind that frequently forms on very hot days
especially over desert is the dustdevil. Normally there are
no clouds associated with it.
Cyclone
It is a system of winds blowing around the center of low
barometric pressure i.e., meansclosed circulation about a
low-pressure center, which is anti clockwise in the
Northernhemisphere the characteristics are
-Cyclonic whirls are the“Storms”of middle latitude.
-In the temperate latitude they produce much of the winter
precipitation.
-Around the low-pressure centers.
-Air circulates anti clockwise direction in Northern
Hemisphere.
-The air is heterogeneous in relation to temperature and
moisture.
Anticyclone
It is a condition in which the atmospheric pressure
distribution where central pressure is high relative to the
surroundings. Circulation is a clockwise in northern
hemisphereand anti clockwise in Southern hemisphere.
-The whirling speed reduces @ 10-15 cm/sec. and fair
weather generally prevail.
-The air masses are homogenous with respect to
temperature and moisture.
Typhoon
Any violent tropical cyclone originating in the western
Pacific especially in the SouthChina Sea
Plant growth
It is the resultant of all the environmental factors-climatic,
physiographic, edaphic and biotic factors. For a particular
field it is primarily a function of climate with temperature
and height being the most important factors. A very close
relationship exists between plant phenology and both
latitude and altitude.
Chapter–7
Wind
Wind is defined as the moving air of atmosphere parallel
to earth’s surface air in horizontal motion. All other
masses of air in motion (vertical) should be called as Air
Currents. Wind is an invisible weather element but the
effect of wind can be seen from the movement of tree
branches, dust particles and by feeling. The pattern and
intensity of wind is affected by various factors.
Advantages of wind:
1.Fresh wind is useful for renewing the environment.
2.Wind is useful for effecting pollination in the crops.
3.It is useful for cleaning for agricultural produces.
4.It is used as a force in certain machines such as
windmills, winnowing machinesetc.
Disadvantages of wind
1.High-speed wind accelerates the drying of moisture
from the soil and also itincreases the rate of transpiration
in plants thereby necessitating frequent irrigation.
2.High-speed wind results in lodjing of many crops such
as Banana, Sugarcane andother fruit trees.
3.Heavy wind will affect the fruit set and also the
available fruits to fall or to bewithered.
4.Heavy wind also results in soil erosion.
Effect of high wind can be prevented to some extent by
means of the followingpractices.
1.Properly oriented and designed shelterbelts.
2.In temperature conditions wind breaks save plants from
freezing and mechanicaldamage caused by cold winds.
3.Windbreaks also reduce soil erosion caused by wind.
4.Tall crops such as Corn, Sorghum, Sunflower etc are
used as temporary wind barriers to protect crop viz.,
Sugar beat, Soy bean, Tomato, Brinjal etc.