Construction Safety Notes

NOTES FOR
ADVANCE DIPLOMA IN INDUSTRIAL SAFETY
SUBJECT : CONSTRUCTION SAFETY (23110)
SAHYADRI COLLEGE OF FIRE

ENGINEERING & SAFETY MANAGEMENT
Kalpataru , Kanda Batata Upadak Sahkari Sangh ,
Mumbai Agra Road, Dwarka , Nashik – 422011
Tel: (0253) 6450401, 9960322824,
E-mail: info@sahyadrieducation.org Web: www.sahyadrieducation.org
Index
Sahyadri College of Fire Engineering & Safety Management, Nashik 1
Chapter Content Page No.
No.
1.1 Safety in Construction Industry:
Hazards in construction sectors and their preventive measures :
Basic philosophy ,peculiarities and parameters governing the safety in
construction site planning and design layout , safe access, good
housekeeping , safety in the use of construction machinery and
transport equipment ,signs and indication liaison for safety with local
1 authorities , structural soundness. Safety in the use of construction
3
machinery:
Heavy/long items earth moving equipment, Railway wagons, motor
trucks, material vehicles etc. Hazardous materials, material handling
equipment, seismic structural soundness and structural stability.
Good safety practices / initiatives in construction safety
2.1 Types of Construction activity :
Working below ground level: Excavation, drilling and blasting,
pneumatic, trenching, excavation equipment, shoring, strutting,
tunneling, piling and safety in using and operating machinery and
equipment relating in the above works, Foundation, plant and
2 machinery and structure. Working at height: Scaffolding, shuttering/
26
form work, ladders, concrete, cofferdams and special operation
connected with irrigation work .safety in use and portion related
machinery and equipment, safety on working on fragile roof,
precautions on tower cranes, temporary installation and structures.
General safety measures: At ground level: Housekeeping,
electrical hazards, handling and storage of construction material at
site, safety precaution in storage handling and staking of material.
3 Underwater portion: well sinking, caissons underwater concreting, 115
cofferdams and special operations connected with irrigation work
.safety in use of machinery and equipment related to underwater
portions.
Special works: High rise buildings, bridges and tunnels, roads,
railways, asphalting, pneumatic caissons, electrical installations and
lifts, safety in prevention and protection at work site including the
4 collapsing of the structure.Project management in construction 138
safety: Introduction, manpower and material utilization equipment
and tools. Safety in uses and handing of explosive: Open cost
machinery, quarrying.
Safety Precaution for Works of Engineering Construction: Like
distilling / fractionating columns, chimney, silos oil and gas
5 installation, transmission and communication lines, cooling tower ,
164
cable car installations air fields.
Safety in demolition operations : Planning and permit sequence of demolition,
6 safety precautions to be taken for during demolition carrying our repairs. 187

CHAPTER: 1
-: SAFETY IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY:-
 SCOPE OF SAFETY IN CONSTRUCTION WORK
Basic Philosophy: Construction activity is not only an oldest industry but also the largest one in
many parts of the world. It started with the basic human need ‘shelter, home or dwelling house’
and is ever expanding with the growing population and their growing needs of residential and
commercial buildings, shops, offices, factories, roads, bridges, dams, railways, power transmission
lines, communication lines, towers, columns, chimneys, silos, oil and gas installations, air fields,
hoists, lifts, many types of underground, under-water and aboveground works and works of
excavation, foundation, construction, alteration, renovation, repair, maintenance, demolition,
dismantling, erection, fabrication etc. After agriculture, construction seems to be the second largest
economic activity. If mining and quarrying are considered as a part of or inclusive of construction
industry, it becomes the largest of all industrial activities. Basic philosophy to improve their
working conditions is the safety philosophy. It should be realized that construction is inherently
hazardous industry, , contract based industry, demands heavy work load, contributes high
frequency and severity of accidents, less protected by law, movable and needs continuous efforts to
maintain safety at all levels. It may not be possible to completely eliminate the hazards, but it is
certainly possible to minimize them by enforcing certain safety precautions. The working and
service conditions of the workers need to be improved. Peculiarity of accidents is well known.
Falling from height, struck by falling body including landslide, material and equipment, striking
against object, falling on the flat or into pit, sump, gutter etc., occupational diseases of lung, skin,
locomotors and nervous system, electrical and pneumatic tools, unguarded machinery, heavy
vehicles and working without safety equipment are the major causes of accidents. Mechanization
can eliminate some manual work hazards. Work permit system, prompt supervision and first-aid,
use of personal protective equipment and proper tools, training and education and project safety
committee are some of the remedial measures.
Safety philosophy for construction work should be based on the following points:
1. Safety policy statement and strict adherence to it.
2. Safety cannot be delegated. It is a line function.
3. Safety is everybody’s responsibility.
4. It is an integral part of all project activities.
5. Good planning and advice, and discussion with contractor and subcontractors are
essential at design or initial stage.
6. Safety ensures success with satisfaction.
7. Work permit system is desired for all hazardous works.
8. All construction accidents should be recorded, reported and investigated for the purpose of
safety and costing.
9. Standards, Codes and Statutory provisions must be followed. Safety manuals should be
prepared for contractors, workers and supervisors, and
10. Education, training and supervision for safe work methods and use of safe tools and
equipment play an important role.
 Parameters of Safety in Construction :
Peculiarities and parameters governing safety in construction industry are, now,
discussed in the following paragraphs.
 Studies, Statistics and Results:

Statistics and studies on construction accidents are not much available as factory
accidents. This is mainly because of no exclusive authority, late and poor administration, Non
report- ability and no complete compilation of such data. In one study which lasted for 15 years,
Levitt (1987) highlighted the hidden costs of construction accidents. He concluded that these
accident costs mostly exceeded the gross-profit of most of the firms in construction industry.
He also found that all managers who had good safety records do three things:
1. Motivate their subordinates to attend to safety.

2. Provide training for managers and workers at all levels, and
3. Insist that work is carefully planned. Champoux et. al. (1987) studied 357 accidents in
construction industry and identified the higher risk areas of work and organization as targets for
prevention. High risk tasks are crucial to ergonomist and all those working for safety in
construction. National Institute of Training for Industrial Engineering (NITIE), Bombay conducted
a study (1989) and after interviewing site engineers, safety officers and labourers on site, it was
concluded that the reasons for health and safety problems were -
1. The absence of safety rules and regulations.
2. The unorganized nature of work.
3. Almost total lack of any need for safety felt by engineers and contractors and
4. Absence of trade unions for welfare and health.
The main safety measures suggested were -
1. Compulsory use of safety helmets.

2. Use of safety belts for working at heights greater than 1.5 m.
3. Provision of canvas around the scaffolding to prevent falling objects from striking people.
4. Good and tidy housekeeping.
5. Provision of proper tools and
6. Adequate training to new workers.
Occupational health diseases were studied by Englund, Triebig, Duivenbooden and

Husmark (1987). Diseases of the skin, loco motor, circulatory, respiratory and nervous system
were noticed amongst construction workers. A few occupations handling asbestos, showed
respiratory cancer in plumbers and insulators. Fatal occupational injuries in Construction,
by type of event or exposure, in USA, 1995 are reported as under (Accident Facts, 1997) :
Out of total 6210 fatal accidents in all occupations in 1995, 1043 i.e. 16.79% fatal accidents took
place in construction and comparatively it is the highest in this industry.
Its cause wise breakup is as under:

1 . Fall to lower level - 324
2. Electric current - 163
3 Traffic accidents - 117
4 Struck by object - 104
5 Struck by vehicle, mobile equip. - 079
6 Caught in or crushed in collapsing materials - 052
7 Caught in or compressed by equipment or object - 033
Other 171
Total 1043
One study of construction accidents in our country gives following figures.

Type of Accident Temporary Total Permanent Partial Permanent Total
Disablement Disablement Disablement
% % %
Handling of Materials 24.3 20.9 5.6
Falls 18.1 16.2 15.9
Falling object 10.4 8.4 18.1
Machines 11.9 25.0 9.1
Vehicles 8.5 8.4 23.0
Hand tools 8.1 7.8 1.1
Electricity 3.5 2.5 13.4
others 15.2 10.8 13.8
Total 100 100 100
Following figures were published in Industrial Safety Chronicle, Oct-Dec, 1996, as ILO data for
Construction Sector:
Accident Rate per 1000 Fatality Rate
Country workers per 1000 workers
Austria 142 25
France 125 30
Germany 120 16
Mauritius 70 15
Mexico 70 24
Spain 138 38
Sweden 48 9
United States 70 25
To compare with this, Accident Rates for the year 1992 and 1993, given by Construction
Wing of NPC (Nuclear Power Corporation, India) are reported as 10.05 and 12.06 respectively.
This indicates that our construction accidents are 5 to 14 times less than those of foreign
(developed) countries. Similarly Fatality Rates for 1992 and 1993, given by the same NPC, India
are 0.124 and 0.120 respectively and again these figures when compared with ILO figures, indicate
that fatal construction accidents in our country are 75 to 320 times less than those in western
countries.
The reasons of this anomaly, as stated in the article are as under:
1. Gross under-reporting of accidents by Indian industry.
2. ILO figures include first aid injuries while ours are reportable (48hours absence) accidents.
3. ILO figures are old when safety efforts in western countries were poor.
Now some figures of recent construction accidents in our country are given below. Some 30000
workers were employed at one place in Gujarat constructing various plants during 1991 to 1997.
The large civil construction and structural steelworks including fabrication and erection of
buildings were carried out through competent contractors and subcontractors. Safety Officers and
safety supervisors were also employed exclusively for contract workers. Record of all accidents,
reportable or not reportable, was maintained, studied and used in further prevention of accidents.
Its summary is as under: From March 1994 to July 1997, total fatalities were 39.
Its cause-wise percentage break-up is as under:
1 Struck by falling objects, structures, plant, mobile construction equipment etc. 37.5 %
2 Fall 32.5 %
3 Electrical 12.5 %
4 Traffic accidents 07.5 %
5 Others 10.0 %
Total 100 %

Comparing above figures with the same causation figures of USA, UK, Germany, Sweden, Japan
and Canada (from Safety & Health Journal of USA - 1994), it is deduced that, all over the world,
the first two major causes of fatal accidents in construction activity are :
(1) Fall from height and
(2) Struck by falling objects.
• Site Planning and Layout :

In construction activities, scope of site selection is less though not zero. Mines are at
fixed places and cannot be shifted. Builders or organisers generally purchase the site where
land is available at low price and where contractors and workers have to work. In a fixed factory
premises, construction is to be carried out in a limited space. In dense population, construction of
high rise (multi-storeyed) building needs working at height. Gutters and underground piping have
fixed tracks available. Underwater work has fixed destinations and long pipelines are passed
through the shortest possible distance for economic reasons. Therefore in a limited scope of site
selection, planning and layout becomes most essential on the available site. First plan for the whole
and then for the detail. Plan site layout, plot layout and equipment layout as per requirement.
Alternate layouts should be prepared for selecting the best one. Process flow diagram and stages or
sequence of work should be decided. Each work should be subdivided in steps accounting for
safety precautions and responsibilities. Facilities for water, Firefighting, first-aid, tools and
equipment availability, roads, vehicle movement, parking, smoking booths, sanitary blocks, crèche,
canteen, control room, safe entry, exit and escape route etc. should be properly planned.
Topography, geology, weather, environment, separation distances, service corridors, overhead
work (pipe bridges, tanks, slabs etc.), segregation etc. should also be considered. Special
precautions should be encountered for working at heights or depths Planning, layout and designing
of steel structure, tall towers, metal tanks, vessels,
reactors, utilities, piping etc. need Hazop, hazard identification, risk and reliability assessment,
strength and stability criteria, inventory reduction, process safety, fail-safe design, emergency shut-
down procedure and emergency planning.
Appointment of safety and health personnel, trained supervisors and requirement of adequate first-
aid and firefighting facilities and personal protective equipment should be considered at the stage
of planning and budgeting for safety at work.
• Safe Access :
For the safety of workplaces and avoiding risk of injury to workers, safe means of
access to and egress from all workplaces should be provided, maintained and indicated where
necessary. Section 32 of the Factories Act requires that all floors, steps, stairs, passages and
gangways shall be of sound construction and properly maintained and shall be kept free from
obstructions and substances likely to cause persons to slip and where it is necessary to ensure
safety, steps, stairs, passages and gangways shall be provided with substantial handrails. Safe
means of access are required at all working places. To prevent fall, fencing or other devices are
required. Rule 66A of the Gujarat Factories Rules specifies access for Firefighting and requires
unobstructed layout of plants and building and doors and windows on external walls for easy
access inside the building. Means of access may be a ladder-portable or fixed, ramp, runway or
stairway. They should conform to the code or standards prescribed.
• Good Housekeeping :
Good housekeeping Program should include –

1. Speedy removal of scrap, waste, debris, loose and unused materials at regular intervals.
2. Proper storage of materials, tools and equipment. Removal of nails from lumber before stacking.
3. Cleaning of floors, passageways, stairs etc. to remove oil, water, dust etc. Sand, ash, sawdust
and proper absorbers can be used.
4. Containers should be provided for collection and separation of waste. Flammable/ hazardous
waste should be covered and safely disposed off.

5. After completion of any job, excessive materials, tools and equipment should be lifted and
placed in their proper place.
6. Piles of materials should be stable and properly supported.
7. Throwing of material should be avoided. If it is to be thrown, warning signals should be given.
8. Proper painting and colour-coding should be followed.
9. At least at the beginning and end of a shift, supervisors.
• SAFETY CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY:

Construction machinery can be classified into three categories as under –
1 Lifting Appliances and Gear : Pulleys, chain pulley blocks, winches, hoists, derricks, gin poles,
cranes (fixed and mobile), lifting ropes, slings etc.
2 Transport, Earth-moving and Material Handling Equipment: Power shovels (excavators),
bulldozers, scrapers, pavers, road rollers, pile drivers, mobile asphalt layers and finishers.
3 Plant machinery, Equipment and hand tools: Concrete mixers and vibrators, pneumatic
compressors, pneumatic tools, cartridge operated tools, electric tools, hand tools, conveyors,
crusher plants, power generators, engines and silos.
Some salient safety features of these machines/equipment are explained below:
• Lifting Appliances and Gear :
 Pulleys: Select the pulleys as per requirement. Steel and nylon rope should not be used
together. Grooves should be uniform and smooth and the rope (wire or fibre) should run free.
Sheaves, shafts, hooks and pins (with locking) should be checked before use and lubrication shall
be provided where necessary. Sheaves should rotate freely on the shaft. The shaft should be free
from any defect or crack. Worn out shafts should not be used. Anchorage should be firm and
strong. Anti-twister should be used to prevent rubbing of the ropes with one another.
 Chain Pulley Blocks : Refer Sec. 29 of the Factories Act. Select the lifting capacity
depending on the maximum load to be lifted. Verify its test certificate. Check for slipping of load,
jamming of links and free operation. The chain should not come out of pulleys. It is better to
lubricate before every use. It should be tested periodically by a competent person (see Rule 60, and
Form No. 10, GFR). The anchorage should be strong and rigid. It should be checked for cracks,
wear and tear, elongation etc. Opened out hooks and tampered block/puller should not be used. No
cannibalising should be done on chain pulley blocks. See Chapter-VIII, Rule 55, 56, 74, Schedule-
I and Forms V to X of the BOC Workers Central Rules, 1998, for statutory details.
Winches: Safe working load with gear arrangement should be marked on the winch stand. A
winch should be placed on a firm base, properly anchored and should not be overloaded. Brake,
ratchet arrangement, gear and pinion, meshing, wire rope and its clamping, rope drum and tie rods
should be checked before every use. Tie rod should be adjusted to prevent clutch arrangement to
slip. Ratchet arrangement should be kept in position while hoisting a load. See Rule 59 of the BOC
Workers Central Rules, 1998, for statutory details.
 Hoists: Refer Sec. 28 of the Factories Act. Design should be as per standard code. Outdoor
hoist towers should be erected on firm foundation, securely braced, guyed and anchored. Ladder
way should extend from bottom to top. Hoist shaft (way) should be enclosed with rigid panels or
fencing at all landing platforms, access or where any person is liable to be struck by any moving
part. The shaft enclosure, except at approaches, should be of 2 mt (minimum 1 mt) height above
the floor or platform to prevent any person falling down the hoist way. Hoisting engine or motor
should be capable of controlling the heaviest load. When the cage or platform reaches its highest
point, it should be stopped automatically (no overrun). Hoist platform or cage should be capable to
carry the maximum load. It should have a safety gear to hold it if the rope breaks. At the ground
floor coil springs should be provided to arrest any accidental fall. Cage or platform should have
toe-boards or enclosures to prevent fall of material inside. Counterweights should run in guides.
Interlock door should be provided where any worker has to enter the cage. Notices of carrying
capacity (weight/ persons) should be displayed. Factory hoists/lifts should be thoroughly examined

by a competent person at least once in 6 months with report in Form No. 9 (Rule 58, GFR). See
Rule 65 & 78, Form VI of the BOC Workers Rules, 1998 for more details.
 Derricks: They are of two types: Stiff-leg derricks and Guy derricks. Stiff-leg derricks
should be erected on a firm base to withstand the weight of the crane structure and the maximum
load. Masts should be prevented from lifting out of their seating. The jib length should not be
altered without consulting the manufacturer. Counterweights should be so arranged that they do
not subject the backstays, sleepers or pivots to excessive strain. Electrically operated derricks
should be properly earthed. In case of wheels-mounted derricks the correct wheel distance should
be maintained by a rigid member and struts should be provided to give support if a wheel brake
fails or the derrick is derailed. The mast of guy derricks should be supported by six equidistance
top guys and the guy spread angle from the mast should be less than 450 from the horizontal. The
restraint of the guy ropes should be ensured by fitting stirrups or anchor plates in concrete
foundations. Guy ropes should have a device to regulate tension. Pins and bearings should be
lubricated frequently. When not in use, the derrick boom should be anchored to prevent it from
swinging. The derrick should be tested by a competent person and should not be overloaded. The
mast, guy ropes, wire ropes, swivel hook, rope clamps etc. should be checked before erecting the
derrick. Welded or bolted joints/parts should be checked for crack, defect and tightness. See also
Rules 67 & 68 of the BOC Workers Rules, 1998.
 Gin Poles: They should be straight, made of sound metal or straight timber without knots,
of sufficient strength and adequately guyed and anchored. They should be adequately fastened at
their feet to prevent displacement. Before their re-erection, the pole, ropes, guys, blocks etc. should
be inspected and tested under load.
 Cranes (Fixed & Mobile): Refer Sec. 29 of the Factories Act and Rule 60, GFR. The
crane capacity should be ascertained and brakes checked before lifting a load. Mobile crane should
be parked on hard soil and not near any pit or excavation. Safe working load of any crane depends
on (a) condition of the ground (b) boom length (c) inclination of boom to the vertical (d) radius of
rotation while lifting the load (e) out rigger blocked or free and (f) operator’s skill. The safe
working load should be displayed in the crane. It should be de rated (lowered) due to defects in
welding, bend in angle, bracing and conditions of clutch, brake etc. Devices should be provided to
prevent load being moved to a point where the corresponding safe working load of the crane would
be exceeded. Standard signaling code, understood by the operator and trained signalman, should be
followed. The crane operator shall respond to signals only from the appointed signaler, but shall
obey a stop signal from anybody. Tag lines should be used while hoisting heavy and bulky load.
The crane and its parts (brakes, boom, hook, wire ropes, pulleys etc.) should be checked regularly
and maintained in good condition. The load should not touch the boom and the boom should not
touch any live electric line or structure. Quality of packing should be checked before lifting.
Nobody should stand below the boom or load. The operator should be able to see the hook and the
load, should keep his wind shield clean for clear vision and deck clean of any oil, mud or dust.
When the hooks are lowered to the lowest point, at least two dead coils should remain on the rope
drum. Makeshift methods to increase the capacity of a crane are unsafe. During storm, the hook
block should be anchored firmly and swing lock be released. At the end of work, the load should
be removed from the hook and the hook should be raised to the maximum height. The mobile
crane should have horn, headlights, side lamps, rear and stop lights and flashing direction
indicators. Jib crane should keep the job lowered while travelling without load. While travelling up
a slope, the load radius should be decreased and while travelling down, that radius should be
increased. Constant watch on the radius is necessary while travelling on uneven surfaces. Air
pressure in the tyres should be equal, otherwise tilting is possible as shown in fig. 22. While
operating tower cranes, wind loads should be considered and trained operators should be employed
to sit in cabs at height. Wind speed indicator should be provided in the driver’s cab. Where two or
more cranes work side by side, direct communication system should be provided in the cab to alert
the other driver about danger zone. Minimum distance between two approaching cranes should be

maintained by limit switches. See Rule 57, 58, 63, 64, 74, 80 & 81 of the BOC Workers Rules,
1998 for other details.
 Lifting Ropes, Slings etc. : Safe working capacity of the lifting ropes must be known
beforehand. Ropes, slings, rings, shackles, tackles, chains, hooks, swivels etc. should be installed,
maintained and inspected as per Sec.29 of the Factories Act and Rule 60, GFR. Repaired ropes
should not be used in hoists. Where multiple independent ropes are used to lift a load, each rope
should be capable of carrying the load independently. See also Rule 71 of the BOC Workers Rules,
1998.
• Transport, Earth-moving and Material Handling Equipment:
All vehicles and earth-moving and material handling equipment should have following
general provisions. They should be of good design, sound material and construction, adequate
strength and maintained in good working order. Principles of safety and ergonomics should be
considered in design and operation. Operators/drivers should be well trained, medically examined,
physically fit and above 18 years of age. They should be competent, reliable and follow the
signaling code. Help of authorized signaler must be taken while driving backwards or the view is
restricted. They should be protected against weather, dust, load being lifted and possible accidents.
All vehicles should be equipped with proper lights, horns, silencers, power and hand brakes and
reversing alarm. Their motors, engines, brakes, gears, chassis, blades, tracks, wire ropes, sheaves,
transmission parts and pneumatic, hydraulic systems should be checked daily before use. The
vehicle or machine should not be left unattended with the engine running. Deck plates and steps
should be kept free from oil, grease, mud etc. The cab should be kept at least 1 m away from a face
being excavated. Bucket excavators should not be used at the top or bottom of earth walls with a
slope exceeding 600. Gross laden weight, tare weight, maximum axle weight and ground pressure
in case of caterpillar should be indicated. When not in use, the boom should be in the direction of
travel and scoop, shovel or bucket be raised and without load. Safe parking place should be
provided where more vehicles have to work. Nobody should be allowed to rest or sleep under the
vehicle.
 Power Shovels (Excavators): They should be equipped with emergency stop device and
two independent locking devices for brake pedals. The bucket teeth should not come nearer the
boom than 40 cm. Safe working load of the lifting gear should be displayed in the cabin and its
indicator should be fitted. The boom should be prevented from swinging during transport. The
boom should not be pulled tight against the emergency stop while supporting a load. The wire
ropes should be of specified diameter and construction. The safe operating radius shall not be
exceeded. The shovels should be so operated as not to loose their stability. The driver should see
that no person is under or near the raised bucket or grab. When not in use, the bucket shall be kept
resting on the stable ground and not hanging. Truck to be loaded should be stationed at 60 cm. or
more from the excavator even when it turns. Earthing and fire extinguisher should be provided
where necessary.
 Bulldozers: While moving uphill, the blade should be kept low. The blade should not be
used as brake except in emergency. The blade suspension arrangement, wire rope or hydraulic
system should be inspected weekly. At the close of work, the bulldozer should be left on level
ground and before leaving it, the operator should apply the brakes, lower the blade and ripper and
put the shift lever in neutral.
 Scrappers: The tractor and scrappers should be connected by a safety line when in
operation. Scrappers moving downhill should be left in gear. Scrapper bowls should be propped
when blades are being replaced.
 Pavers: Guards should be provided to prevent workers from walking under the skip.

 Road Rollers: The land should be checked for bearing capacity and general safety before
using a road roller. While moving downhill the engine should be in gear. When it is not in use, the
brakes should be applied, the wheels should be blocked, the contact should be switched off and the
engine should be in bottom gear if the roller is facing uphill and in reverse gear if it is facing
downhill.
 Pile-drivers: All pile-driving equipment should be of good design and construction and
properly maintained. Ergonomic principles should be considered. Pile-driving should be carried
out under the supervision of a competent person. Underground services should be located and
rendered safe before starting piling. Pile drivers should be firmly supported on sound foundation.
If necessary, they should be guyed also. If two pile-drivers have to work nearby, they should be
separated by a distance at least equal to the longest leg. If electrical conductors are in proximity,
they should be made dead. When leads have to be inclined, they should be counterbalanced and
tilting device should be secured against slipping. The hoses of steam and air hammers should be
securely lashed to the hammer so as to prevent them from whipping if a connection breaks.
Overturning of a pile-driver has to be prevented. Out coming of the rope from the top pulley or
wheel and missing of hammer from the pipe should also be prevented. Pile lines and pulley blocks
should be inspected before the beginning of each shift. Only trained operators should be employed.
Use of suitable signals, ear protectors and safety helmet is necessary. Piles should be prepared at a
distance at least equal to twice the length of the longest pile from the pile driver. When not in use,
the hammer should be blocked at the bottom of the leads. When pile-drivers are working over
water, a suitable boat should be kept readily available at all times. Whistle, siren, signals,
firefighting equipment and sufficient sheaves should be provided, the weight of machinery should
be evenly distributed and water-tight compartments should be provided with siphons to remove
water seepage.
 Mobile Asphalt Layers and Finishers: The mixer elevator should be within a metal
enclosure with a window for observation, lubrication and maintenance. Bitumen scoops should
have covers. The sprayer should have fire resistant shield with an observation window. Non-
foaming products are preferable. Reflective jackets should be provided to workers working on
public roads. The fire extinguishers are necessary near spreader and others in readiness. No naked
flame should be used to see the level of asphalt in the tank. Thinners should not be heated on open
flame. Inspection doors should not be opened if there is any pressure in the boiler. If a burner
flame is extinguished, the fuel supply should be cut off and the heating tube should be thoroughly
blown out by the fan to prevent backfire.
 Signs and indication liaison for safety with local authority:
This guidance is for employers, duty holders and others who have responsibility for the control of
workplaces, sites and premises. It is also for those operating equipment that requires verbal and/or
non-verbal communications.
It sets out what you should do to comply with the Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals)
Regulations 1996.
Safety signs and signals are required where, despite putting in place all other relevant measures, a
significant risk to the health and safety of employees and others remains.
Signs must be clear and legible, and should be used to identify actions that are prohibited (eg. no
access), safeguards that must be followed (eg .ear protection must be worn), warning of a hazard
(eg. corrosive material) and to direct towards fire exits/equipment or first-aid equipment.
You should avoid using too many signs which may cause confusion.

The Regulations enact in UK law an EU Directive designed to harmonise signs across the EU so
that signs across the member states will have the same meaning whichever country they are used
in. Details of BS EN ISO 7010 are also included in the guidance.
This edition brings the document up to date with regulatory and other changes, including those
relating to the Classification, Labelling and Packaging of Chemicals (Amendments to Secondary
Legislation) Regulations 2015. The version of the Regulations included in the document has been
amended to reflect those changes.
 Structural Soundness of Buildings:
 ABSTRACT: This paper deals with methods of estimating the soundness of existing
structures whose life has crossed the age of 30 years. As we know concrete is widely used
as a construction material because of its high strength-cost ratio in many
applications. Concrete constructions are generally expected to give trouble free service
throughout its intended design life. However, these expectations are not realized in many
constructions because of structural deficiency, material deterioration, unanticipated over
loadings or physical damage and thus Civil structures like buildings, dams, bridges et care
subjected to continuous deterioration over the years. This extent of damage or deterioration
greatly depends on the quality of work at the construction stage. The deterioration of
buildings can be a result of various factors including fire damage, frost action, chemical
attack, corrosion of steel etc during the life span of the structure. The investigation
of soundness is thus essential for finding the present serviceability of the structure and
its scope for future developments or for the change in its utilization. Such an investigation
can be carried out using the following methods: a) Visual examination b) Non Destructive
Testing c) Partial Destructive Testing. Soundness estimation becomes essential
for buildings hit by an earthquake, a bomb blast or any other calamity.
 KEY WORDS : Concrete, soundness, deterioration, Non Destructive testing, structural

audit.
 INTRODUCTION
In India there are many old structures and some of the mare of great importance. The
strength of these old structures reduces in the due course of time because of its usage, input
of poor quality construction materials, environmental conditions, improper practice or
poor workmanship. Also several factors such as plastic deformation, interaction with the
environment, initial design, construction flaws and natural disasters develop distress in the
structure which may result in development of cracks, corrosion in reinforcement, leakage
and seepage. The final soundness of a building can vary due to numerous reasons and thus,
only proper precautions at the initial stage and good maintenance in the later lifespan of the
structure can result in a technically sound building. To ensure if buildings are sound
requires the active participation of building safety and fire preventionofficials, architects,
builders, engineers, and others in the construction industry, as well as property owners.
Determining the root cause of the defect directly depends on the areas of the building that
have been affected. Defects in the foundation, floor, or wall can be the direct result of soil
issues, water issues, or even workmanship issues. Earthquakes, tropical cyclones, and other
natural disasters can also damage the structure of the building and cause it to collapse. This
paper deals with the study of the principal problems like the degree of deterioration of the
structural members which is one of the governing factors for
poor performance of the structure, their likely causes, and approaches to their remedies. If
the further use of such deteriorated structures is continued it may endanger the lives of the
occupants and the surrounding habitation. As demolition and re-construction of these
structures may be a very costly affair and strengthening the existing structure may be a

favorable option. Faulty concrete repair can worsen structural problems therefore remedial
work should only be undertaken by an expert.
 NEED TO EVALUATE SOUNDNESS OF EXISTINGSTRUCTURES
It is generally carried out on existing structures for the following reasons, for:
1.Assessing the load carrying capacity of building.

2.Feasibility of change in occupancy.
3.Feasibility for construction of additional floors.
4.Assessment of earthquake resistance (As per revised codal provisions) in old structures.
5.Feasibility for structural modifications.
6.Feasibility for placing higher capacity equipment on building.
7.Assessment of structural soundness periodically.
Structural failure can occur from many types of problems, most of which are unique to
different industries and structural types. However, most can be traced to one of five main
causes.
 Types of failure :
 The first is that the structure is not strong and tough enough to support the load,
due to either its size, shape, or choice of material. If the structure or component is
not strong enough, catastrophic failure can occur when the structure is stressed
beyond its critical stress level.
 The second type of failure is from fatigue or corrosion, caused by instability in the
structure’s geometry, design or material properties. These failures usually begin
when cracks form at stress points, such as squared corners or bolt holes too close
to the material's edge. These cracks grow as the material is repeatedly stressed and
unloaded (cyclic loading), eventually reaching a critical length and causing the
structure to suddenly fail under normal loading conditions.
 The third type of failure is caused by manufacturing errors, including improper
selection of materials, incorrect sizing, improper heat treating, failing to adhere to
the design, or shoddy workmanship. This type of failure can occur at any time and
is usually unpredictable.
 The fourth type of failure is from the use of defective materials. This type of
failure is also unpredictable, since the material may have been improperly
manufactured or damaged from prior use.
 The fifth cause of failure is from lack of consideration of unexpected problems.
This type of failure can be caused by events such as vandalism, sabotage, or
natural disasters. It can also occur if those who use and maintain the construction
are not properly trained and overstress the structure.
Hazardous Materials Handling and Disposal:
Hazardous waste (general):
Contractor shall make every effort to minimize the amount of hazardous waste generated from
construction activities. The University reserves the right to require substitution of products that
generate toxic waste (e.g. paint strippers, degreasers, etc.) with products of lesser toxicity.
 Unless otherwise specified, all generated hazardous waste shall be

disposed of through the EH&S Environmental Protection Program (EPP).
 Contractor shall properly contain and label such waste as it is generated.

 Contractor shall notify the Project Manager at least one week in advance to
request waste containers and/or labels, if necessary.
 Contractor shall not begin generating hazardous waste until proper waste
containers and labels are on site.
 Contractor shall store waste containers in a secure location on the job site
with lids closed.
 Contractor shall notify the Project Manager to request pickup of hazardous
wastes.
Universal waste recycling :
 Contractor shall comply with California DTSC regulations pertaining to universal waste.
 Unless otherwise specified, Contractor shall carefully remove regulated devices and
building components scheduled for demolition intact and segregate them from other
construction debris.
 Contractor shall arrange for packaging, labeling, pickup, transport, and recycling of all
universal wastes identified in this subsection, and shall submit to the University receipt(s)
that document compliance with this provision.
 Contractor shall only use recycling vendors that have been pre-approved by the University.
Light tubes, bulbs, and lamps:
Fluorescent light tubes and bulbs, high intensity discharge (H.I.D.), metal halide, sodium, and neon
bulbs contain mercury vapor.
Mercury-containing devices
Thermostats, fire alarm pull stations, switches, thermometers, pressure, and vacuum gauges may
contain mercury. All mercury-containing devices scheduled for demolition shall be removed intact,
segregated from other construction debris, and recycled through AERC.com Inc.
Batteries
Batteries may contain lead, mercury, lithium, cadmium, and other toxic metals. Contractor shall
remove batteries from devices scheduled for demolition, including emergency lighting and alarms,
communication systems, security systems, etc. Batteries shall be removed intact, segregated from
other construction debris, and recycled through a vendor pre-approved by the University.
Electronic devices (e-waste):
Electronic devices and components, including televisions and computer monitors, computers,
printers, VCRs, CD and DVD players, telephones, radios, microwave ovens, communication,
security, fire protection, lighting, and mechanical system components may contain heavy metals
such as lead, mercury, chromium, and cadmium. Electronic devices and components scheduled for
demolition shall be removed intact and recycled through a vendor pre-approved by the University.
Treated wood waste (TWW):
‘‘Treated wood’’ is wood that has been treated with a chemical preservative for purposes of
protecting the wood against attacks from insects, microorganisms, fungi, and other environmental
conditions that can lead to decay of the wood, where the chemical preservative is registered
pursuant to the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act .
Treated wood includes wood treated with alkaline copper quaternary (ACQ), copper azole (CA-B),
copper boron azole (CBA-A), chromated copper arsenate (CCA), ammoniacal copper zinc arsenate
(ACZA), creosote, pentachlorophenol, and copper naphthenate.

Contractor shall manage, handle, store, label, transport, track, and dispose of treated wood waste
(TWW) in accordance with DTSC requirements.
Contractor shall not reuse TWW, and shall store TWW on-site as follows:
 Covered and off of the ground, in a secured area

 In closed, water-resistant containers
 Inside a weather-tight structure
 Covered on a pad that is protected from run-off
Contractor shall ensure that any size reduction of TWW is conducted in a manner that prevents the
uncontrolled release of hazardous constituents to the environment, and that conforms to applicable
Cal/OSHA worker health and safety requirements. All sawdust and other particles generated during
size reduction shall be captured and managed as TWW.
Disposal of TWW is restricted to landfill(s) pre-approved by the University. Contractor shall

provide to University a bill of lading or other documentation with an acceptance signature by the
landfill for all TWW shipments.
Asbestos-containing materials:
If applicable, University shall provide to Contractor a facility survey report that contains an
inventory of confirmed asbestos-containing materials (ACMs) known to be present at the project
site.
ACMs that will be impacted (disturbed) by renovation or demolition shall be removed prior to, or
phased with, other construction activities. No one shall remove, repair, disturb, or handle any
asbestos-containing materials, except University approved, registered Asbestos Abatement
Contractors working in compliance with the University’s Asbestos Abatement Specification.
Contractor may encounter hidden ACMs during demolition activities, such as asbestos-insulated
pipes or ducts inside wall cavities, etc. If Contractor observes such ACMs in poor or damaged
condition, or if Contractor inadvertently damages or disturbs previously identified ACMs or
suspected ACMs, the Project Manager shall be notified immediately.
Contractor shall post asbestos warning signs or labels upon discovery of hidden ACMs. Contractor
may request assistance with posting asbestos warning signs or labels from the University.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs):
Fluorescent light ballasts -

All fluorescent light fixture ballasts manufactured prior to 1978 are assumed to contain PCBs and
shall be disposed of as hazardous waste. With the exception of electronic ballasts, all ballasts
manufactured after January 1, 1978, and specifically labeled "No PCBs," may be disposed of as
non-hazardous construction debris. All ballasts that do not contain a "No PCBs" label shall be
removed from light fixtures, segregated from other construction debris, and disposed of as
hazardous waste.
Insulating oils:
Insulating oils associated with high-voltage equipment may contain PCBs. Equipment containing
PCB-insulating oils shall be decontaminated prior to demolition. Extraction of PCB-containing oils
and decontamination of equipment shall be performed in accordance with Cal/OSHA worker
protection requirements. Recovered oil containing PCB shall be disposed of as hazardous waste.

Lead:
Paint and other surface coatings

Unless otherwise determined by approved testing methods, all paints and surface coatings (e.g.
varnish, shellac, stain, lacquer, etc.) applied to University structures are presumed to contain some
amount of lead.
Contractor shall take all necessary precautions to protect Contractor employees, subcontractors,
students, visitors, University employees, and the environment from exposure to lead-containing
dust and debris. Contractor shall comply with the Cal/OSHA lead standard for the construction
industry, which applies to any construction activity that may release lead dust or fume, including
manual demolition, manual scraping, manual sanding, heat gun applications, power tool cleaning,
rivet busting, abrasive blasting, welding, cutting, or torch burning of lead-based coatings.
The University shall provide existing lead analysis data of surface coatings, where available.
However, these data are not intended, and do not represent, an evaluation of all potential lead-
containing coatings at the project site, and Contractor is solely responsible for determining lead
content for purposes of Cal/OSHA compliance.
Painted debris resulting from demolition may qualify as hazardous waste and must be evaluated by
EH&S prior to transport and disposal.
Where feasible, Contractor shall clean sheet plastic used for regulated work area isolation
(containment) or drop cloths and discard as non-hazardous waste.
Power washing:
Contractor shall protect soil and storm drains from paint chip debris during power washing of
building exterior surfaces. All paint chips shall be collected and disposed of as hazardous waste.
Contractor shall be responsible for all direct and indirect costs associated with remediation of soils
found to be contaminated with lead-containing paint chips resulting from non-compliance with this
provision.
Elemental lead:
Products containing lead metal, such as plumbing components, lead bricks, counterweights, and
sheet goods (e.g. roof flashing, X-ray shielding, drain pans, etc.) may be encountered during
demolition. Unless otherwise specified, Contractor shall remove and segregate lead metal
scheduled for demolition from other construction debris and transport it to a scrap metal recycling
facility pre-approved by the University.
Mechanical system fluids:
All fluids associated with mechanical systems and equipment scheduled for demolition or retrofit
shall be removed and recycled, or disposed as hazardous waste. Contractor shall arrange for
recycling of petroleum-containing fluids, such as hydraulic fluids, lubricating oils, and non-PCB-
containing insulating oils.
Refrigerants shall be removed from equipment and managed by a certified refrigerant technician,
pursuant to 40 CFR 82.161 (Type I for small appliances, Type II for high-pressure equipment).
Venting of refrigerant to the atmosphere is not allowed. All refrigerant removed must be reclaimed,
recovered, or recycled, in accordance with 40 CFR 82.150-166 and Appendices.
Laboratory decommissioning and closure:

The University’s laboratory decommissioning protocols require removal of all hazardous chemical,
radioactive and bio hazardous materials and associated wastes, followed by decontamination of
surfaces and equipment, prior to transfer of such project areas to Contractor. Facilities that have
housed radioactive material, or that contain materials activated by radiation beams, must be
surveyed and cleared by the University prior to release to Contractor.
A hazardous materials closure permit is required prior to the renovation or demolition of any
designated (permitted) chemical use or storage area, which includes both laboratory and non-
laboratory facilities. Depending on project location, closure permits are issued either by the PAFD
Hazardous Materials Compliance Bureau or the Santa Clara County Department of Environmental
Health. The University is responsible for securing and managing all closure permits, and
Contractor shall not start work until notified that a closure permit has been obtained.
Laboratory sink P-traps are presumed to contain mercury contamination as a result of thermometer
breakage. P-traps scheduled for demolition shall be removed by Contractor, placed in leak-tight
containers, and transferred to the University for disposal.
Unless otherwise specified, Contractor shall not demolish or disturb building components used for
chemical transport, treatment, or storage, unless such systems have been inspected and released by
EH&S. Such building components may include fume hood and local chemical exhaust ducts, acid
vent and neutralization piping, lab waste piping, toxic gas system equipment and piping, and
chemical or chemical waste storage tanks. If Contractor encounters potentially hazardous materials
on the project site, such as abandoned chemical reagents, containers or equipment with radioactive
labels, biohazard (red) disposal containers, or syringes, Contractor shall contact the Project
Manager immediately.
Radioactive building materials:
Emergency exit signs scheduled for demolition may contain tritium, a radioactive material.
Contractor shall carefully remove such signs intact and transfer them to the University for disposal.
A label on the lower edge of the sign that features a radiation symbol can be used to identify
tritium exit signs.
Smoke detectors may contain small amounts of Americium, a radioactive element. Contractor shall
carefully remove smoke detectors scheduled for demolition intact and transfer to the University for
disposal.
Mold:
Unless otherwise specified, if Contractor encounters significant quantities (greater than ten square
feet) of mold growth on the project site, Contractor shall report such condition to the Project
Manager.
Contractor shall protect the project site and new construction products from exposure to excess
moisture and shall ensure that construction products are adequately dry prior to installation.
Contractor shall remove and replace all porous building materials and replace or disinfect all non-
porous building materials that display visible mold growth resulting from moisture intrusion,
unless such moisture intrusion was caused by circumstances outside of Contractor’s control.
Miscellaneous hazardous materials:

If Contractor encounters potentially hazardous materials or waste on the project site not previously
addressed under this section, such as abandoned paint containers, pesticides, compressed gas
cylinders, etc., or if Contractor encounters any unusual odors or colors (staining) during drilling or
excavation of soils, Contractor shall report such conditions to the Project Manager.
 Material vehicles:
Safe vehicles
This section provides guidance on health and safety aspects of selecting and
maintaining construction vehicles.
a. Vehicle selection:
The design of some vehicles presents hazards, such as restricted visibility and lack of driver
protection from the effects of overturning, noise and vibration. Some old designs of site dumpers
allowed the vehicle to be knocked easily into gear as
the driver dismounted.
Choosing the right vehicle for the job is an essential part of effective vehicle
management. The vehicle selected needs to be capable of performing its
designated tasks safely.
The following are important factors to consider:
■ stability under all foreseeable operating conditions;

■ safe access to and from the cab and other working locations on the vehicle;
■ effective braking systems;
■ adequate visibility for the driver all around the vehicle;
■ headlights, a horn, windscreen wipers and warning devices, eg reversing alarms;
■ physical guards to protect dangerous parts such as power take-off shafts,
chain drives, trapping points and exposed exhaust pipes;
■ protection for the driver from work hazards, eg working at height and falling
from the vehicle, falling objects and the effects of the vehicle overturning; and
■ protection for the driver from the weather, noise, vibration, noxious fumes and
dusts.
Vehicle inspection and maintenance:
Construction vehicles work in harsh environments and require effective maintenance regimes to
avoid them developing defects. A programme of daily visual checks, regular inspections and
servicing schedules should be established according to the manufacturer’s instructions and the
risks associated with the use of each vehicle. A worker was crushed to death by a vehicle which ran
away down a slope because the parking brake failed. Plant hire companies need to provide
information with all plant and equipment they supply to enable it to be used and maintained safely.
Contractual arrangements between user and hirer should set out who is responsible for
maintenance and inspection during the hire period and these should be made clear to all parties.
Vehicles should have a maintenance log to help manage and record vehicle maintenance
operations. Employers should establish procedures designed to encourage drivers to report defects
or problems, and ensure that problems with vehicles are put right.
Planned inspection and maintenance needs to follow manufacturer’s instructions and

include, where appropriate:

1. braking systems;
2. seat belts;
3. tyres, including condition and pressures;
4. steering;
5. convex mirrors, CCTV and other visibility aids;
6. lights and indicators;
7. safety devices such as interlocks;
8. warning signals;
9. windscreen washers and wipers;
10. firefighting equipment;
11. condition of cab protection devices, eg ROPS and FOPS;
12. functional checks on the vehicle, including controls and starting systems;
13. correct location of guards and panels on the vehicle; and
14. other accessories, such as quick couplers and (if applicable) their locating pins,are
correctly fitted and in place.
 MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS AND MEN
Construction materials being heavy, long or varying in size, pose hazards in handling, loading,
unloading and transportation. Railway wagons, motor trucks, tractors, trailers etc. are used
depending on the weight, size and distance to be travelled. Training of handling of such materials
and use of lifting appliances for them is a basic requirement.
Some general precautions are as under:

1. For selecting transportation by railway wagons, the route should be surveyed. The material
should not foul with any fixed structure object or another wagon while negotiating bend or
turn. The material should not project outside and height should not reach electromagnetic
field of overhead traction line. Railway rules should be followed. Identification, marking
and proper packing are necessary.
2. Motor trucks must have valid RTO permits and efficient brakes, lights, horns, side and
reverse signals, jacks, tools etc. They should be in good working condition. Only trained
and licensed driver should drive and not the helper or cleaner. While driving an Ethylene
oxide tanker by a cleaner, it was dashed against a structure resulting into breaking of the
main valve and the whole factory shed and the tanker were burnt into ashes.
3. Drivers should strictly follow the speed limit on highway and inside any factory premises.
They should observe utmost care while turning, overtaking, crossing railway level crossing
and applying brakes. They should have ‘tremcard’ while carrying hazardous chemicals.
4. The transport vehicle should not be overloaded. No material should project above or
beyond the side panels. Backward projection should not be more than a meter. Bending
bars (rods) should not touch the road. Liquid should not be leaking. Lime, cement, gravel
or dusty material should not throw continuous dust. They should be covered. Red signals
(flag or light) should be displayed on the projected end.
5. Material should be properly loaded considering weight, dimension, centre of gravity of the
load, carrier capacity, safety distance and working clearance. Load should be properly
packed and lashed. In rainy season, waterproof cover should be provided.
6. Men should not sit on the load or side panels or on the driver’s cabin. They should not walk
on a moving vehicle. Necessary Fire Fighting arrangement should be kept ready. Engine
exhausts shall not open near any flammable material. Vehicles carrying highly flammable

liquids or gases must have spark arrester on their exhaust pipe. Explosives, detonators and
combustible material shall be separately stored with safety precautions. It should not be
piled over 2.5 mt height.
 Plant Machinery, Equipment and Hand Tools:
All such machinery, equipment and tools should be of good, ergonomic and safe
design, maintained in good working order and operated by trained operators with necessary
personal protective equipment. Safety instructions from manufacturer and safe operating
procedure should be followed. Power driven equipment should be properly earthed, stop
switch provided in close proximity, adequately guarded, speed regulated and when not in
use, switched off (De energized) and isolated before any major adjustment.
 Concrete Mixtures: All gears, chains, rollers and open revolving blades should be
guarded or fenced. Hopper should be protected by side railing to prevent workers
from passing under the skip. Hopper hoisting wire rope, brake, skip hoist clutch and
blocking (fixing when raised) device should be checked and adjusted regularly.
Double earthing and insulation of electrical part is necessary. Before allowing a
person to enter the drum for cleaning or repair, electrical connections (fuses) should
be removed. Concrete bucket towers and masts with pouring gutters or conveyor
belts should be erected by competent persons and inspected daily. The winch
operator should be able to see the filling, emptying and lowering of bucket,
otherwise a banks-man should direct the operator. Guides for bucket should be
correctly aligned to prevent the bucket from jamming in the tower. Structure or
scaffold carrying a pipe for pumped concrete should be strong enough (factor of
safety 4 or more) to support a filled pipe and all workers on it. Such concrete
carrying pipes should be securely anchored at the ends and at curves, provided at
top with air release valves and securely attached to the pump nozzle.
 Concrete Vibrators : Vibrating unit should be completely enclosed and belt be

guarded. Electrical vibrator should be protected by overload relays and earthed.
Cable length should be sufficient. Needle load should be firmly locked. Needle
inner core should be lubricated. See Chapter-XI, Rules 96 to 107 of the BOC
Workers Rules, 1998 for Concrete Work. Pneumatic Compressors: Testing by a
competent person is necessary. Air receivers should be equipped with a safety
valve, pressure gauge, drain cock and openings for inspection and cleaning. It is
safer to provide a PRV, a stop valve and an oil separator between the air receiver
and the compressor. Compressors should be equipped with an automatic device to
control the safe discharge pressure, a quick release valve and suitable arrangements
to prevent or remove contamination in a confined space. Where explosive gas
mixture may be formed in compressor, it should be protected against sparking.water
flow should be ensured in water cooling jackets. Inter and after coolers should be
able to withstand the maximum pressure in the air discharge piping. Such piping
should be provided with a fusible plug and insulation to protect workers against
burns and fire risks. Where stop valves are installed in air discharge piping, they
should be easily accessible for inspection and cleaning and one or more safety
valves should be installed between the compressor and the stop valve.
 Pneumatic Tools : Operating triggers on portable pneumatic tools should be so

placed as to minimize the risk of accidental starting of the machine and so arranged
as to close the air inlet valve automatically when the pressure of the operator’s hand
is removed. Air hoses and their connections should be equipped with safety clips or
retainers to prevent dies and tools from being accidentally expelled from the barrel.

Before any adjustment or repair, power should be disconnected and pressure in hose
lines be released.
 Cartridge-operated Tools: Preferably low velocity tool should be used. Such tools
should have a cover (guard) which cannot be opened without rendering the tool
inoperative, devices to prevent from accidental firing, to prevent firing if the muzzle
is not pressed and to prevent firing if it is not perpendicular to the working surface.
The recoil should not be capable of injuring the user. The tool should be inspected
for all safety devices and to see that the barrel is unobstructed. Cartridge-operated
tools should not be stored or operated in explosive atmosphere. When not in use, it
should be kept in its special container for the purpose of safety.
 Electric Tools: Portable electrical tools should be operated at low voltage and with
ELCB to avoid risk of shock. The tools should be properly earthed with metallic
cases. All insulated or double insulated tools need not be earthed. Periodic
inspection and maintenance should be carried out by a competent electrician. Proper
fuse and insulated handle are necessary.
 Hand Tools: They should be tempered, dressed or repaired by a competent person.

Cutting edges should be kept sharp. Heads of hammers and other shock tools should
be dressed or ground as soon as they begin to mushroom or crack. When not in use
or while carrying or transporting, they should be kept in suitable containers.
Insulated or non-conducting tools should be used near live electrical installations.
Non sparking tools should be used near flammable vapours.
 Conveyors: Conveyors should be smooth running. Nip between tight belt and
pulley/roller and other transmission parts should be guarded. If they are not entirely
enclosed, at cross over places, bridge with hand railing should be provided.
Emergency stop devices (e.g. cord or cable) should be easily accessible. Stop
buttons should be provided at drive and take-up ends. Where two or more
conveyors operate together, control devices should be so arranged that no conveyor
can feed on to a stopped conveyor. When a conveyor is discharging into a bunker or
hopper, the feeding conveyor should be provided with an overload switch. Screw
conveyors should always be kept covered. The cover should not be opened without
stopping the conveyor.
 Crusher Plants : They should be located away from construction area to keep
away dust, sand, gravel, noise and vibrations. Extra isolation switch should be
provided to prevent accidental starting during repair or maintenance. Electrical
motors, switches and instrumentation should be dust and moisture proof. Access
roads to the crusher hopper and screens should be cleaned by water spraying. Power
cables should be laid underground or at safe elevation. All equipment, plant and
machinery should be cleared daily of dust and sand.
 Power Generators: They should be housed in a concrete room or insulated area to

minimize noise effects. Silencers and exhaust pipes should be provided. Extra
isolation switch should be provided to avoid accidental starting during maintenance.
 Engines: Maximum safe speed should not be exceeded. Remote control device
should be provided to stop or limit the speed. For internal combustion engines,
exhaust ventilation should be provided and while fuelling, spark should be avoided
and fire extinguisher should be kept ready. Secondary fuel tank should be provided
outside the engine room.

 Silos : Silos should be erected on sound foundation and capable of withstanding
stresses without any deformation of walls, floors and other load-bearing parts. Safe
means of access (stairs, fixed ladders or hoists), quantity/level indicator, notices,
blockage remover and fire extinguishers should be provided. In silos where
explosive mixtures are possible, all electrical equipment and hand lamps should be
flameproof, non-sparking tools should be used and explosion vents should be
provided in the walls at safer points. Before allowing workers in a silo, work permit
should be made, charge (filling) opening should be closed and safety belt with
lifeline in the hands of another person outside should be provided if they have to
work on loose material.
 Seismic structure soundness and structural stability:

Seismic analysis is a subset of structural analysis and is the calculation of the
response of a building (or Non building) structure to earthquakes. It is part of the process
of structural design, earthquake engineering or structural assessment and retrofit (see structural
engineering) in regions where earthquakes are prevalent. As seen in the figure, a building has the
potential to ‘wave’ back and forth during an earthquake (or even a severe wind storm). This is
called the ‘fundamental mode’, and is the lowest frequency of building response. Most buildings,
however, have higher modes of response, which are uniquely activated during earthquakes. The
figure just shows the second mode, but there are higher ‘shimmy’ (abnormal vibration) modes.
Nevertheless, the first and second modes tend to cause the most damage in most cases. The earliest
provisions for seismic resistance were the requirement to design for a lateral force equal to a
proportion of the building weight (applied at each floor level). This approach was adopted in the
appendix of the 1927 Uniform Building Code (UBC), which was used on the west coast of the
United States. It later became clear that the dynamic properties of the structure affected the loads
generated during an earthquake. In the Los Angeles County Building Code of 1943 a provision to
vary the load based on the number of floor levels was adopted (based on research carried out
at Caltech in collaboration with Stanford University and the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey,
which started in 1937). The concept of "response spectra" was developed in the 1930s, but it wasn't
until 1952 that a joint committee of the San Francisco Section of the ASCE and the Structural
Engineers Association of Northern California (SEAONC) proposed using the building period (the
inverse of the frequency) to determine lateral forces. The University of California, Berkeley was an
early base for computer-based seismic analysis of structures, led by Professor Ray Clough (who
coined the term finite element). Students included Ed Wilson, who went on to write the
program SAP in 1970, an early "Finite Element Analysis" program. Earthquake engineering has
developed a lot since the early days, and some of the more complex designs now use special
earthquake protective elements either just in the foundation (base isolation) or distributed
throughout the structure. Analyzing these types of structures requires specialized explicit finite
element computer code, which divides time into very small slices and models the actual physics,
much like common video games often have "physics engines". Very large and complex buildings
can be modeled in this way (such as the Osaka International Convention Center).
 Equivalent static analysis:

This approach defines a series of forces acting on a building to represent the effect of earthquake
ground motion, typically defined by a seismic design response spectrum. It assumes that the
building responds in its fundamental mode. For this to be true, the building must be low-rise and
must not twist significantly when the ground moves. The response is read from a design response
spectrum, given the natural frequency of the building (either calculated or defined by the building
code). The applicability of this method is extended in many building codes by applying factors to
account for higher buildings with some higher modes, and for low levels of twisting. To account
for effects due to "yielding" of the structure, many codes apply modification factors that reduce the
design forces (e.g. force reduction factors).

 Response spectrum analysis:
This approach permits the multiple modes of response of a building to be taken into account (in
the frequency domain). This is required in many building codes for all except very simple or very
complex structures. The response of a structure can be defined as a combination of many special
shapes (modes) that in a vibrating string correspond to the "harmonics". Computer analysis can be
used to determine these modes for a structure. For each mode, a response is read from the design
spectrum, based on the modal frequency and the modal mass, and they are then combined to
provide an estimate of the total response of the structure. In this we have to calculate the
magnitude of forces in all directions i.e. X, Y & Z and then see the effects on the building.
Combination methods include the following:
 absolute - peak values are added together

 square root of the sum of the squares (SRSS)
 complete quadratic combination (CQC) - a method that is an improvement on SRSS for
closely spaced modes
The result of a response spectrum analysis using the response spectrum from a ground motion is
typically different from that which would be calculated directly from a linear dynamic analysis
using that ground motion directly, since phase information is lost in the process of generating the
response spectrum.
In cases where structures are either too irregular, too tall or of significance to a community in
disaster response, the response spectrum approach is no longer appropriate, and more complex
analysis is often required, such as non-linear static analysis or dynamic analysis.
 Linear dynamic analysis:

Static procedures are appropriate when higher mode effects are not significant. This is generally
true for short, regular buildings. Therefore, for tall buildings, buildings with torsional irregularities,
or non-orthogonal systems, a dynamic procedure is required. In the linear dynamic procedure, the
building is modeled as a multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) system with a linear elastic stiffness
matrix and an equivalent viscous damping matrix.
The seismic input is modeled using either modal spectral analysis or time history analysis but in
both cases, the corresponding internal forces and displacements are determined using linear elastic
analysis. The advantage of these linear dynamic procedures with respect to linear static procedures
is that higher modes can be considered. However, they are based on linear elastic response and
hence the applicability decreases with increasing nonlinear behavior, which is approximated by
global force reduction factors.
In linear dynamic analysis, the response of the structure to ground motion is calculated in the time
domain, and all phase information is therefore maintained. Only linear properties are assumed. The
analytical method can use modal decomposition as a means of reducing the degrees of freedom in
the analysis.
 Nonlinear static analysis:

In general, linear procedures are applicable when the structure is expected to remain nearly elastic
for the level of ground motion or when the design results in nearly uniform distribution of
nonlinear response throughout the structure. As the performance objective of the structure implies
greater inelastic demands, the uncertainty with linear procedures increases to a point that requires a
high level of conservatism in demand assumptions and acceptability criteria to avoid unintended
performance. Therefore, procedures incorporating inelastic analysis can reduce the uncertainty and

conservatism. This approach is also known as "pushover" analysis. A pattern of forces is applied to
a structural model that includes non-linear properties (such as steel yield), and the total force is
plotted against a reference displacement to define a capacity curve. This can then be combined
with a demand curve (typically in the form of an acceleration displacement response
spectrum (ADRS)). This essentially reduces the problem to a single degree of freedom (SDOF)
system. Nonlinear static procedures use equivalent SDOF structural models and represent seismic
ground motion with response spectra. Story drifts and component actions are related subsequently
to the global demand parameter by the pushover or capacity curves that are the basis of the non-
linear static procedures.
 Nonlinear dynamic analysis:

Nonlinear dynamic analysis utilizes the combination of ground motion records with a detailed
structural model, therefore is capable of producing results with relatively low uncertainty. In
nonlinear dynamic analyses, the detailed structural model subjected to a ground-motion record
produces estimates of component deformations for each degree of freedom in the model and the
modal responses are combined using schemes such as the square-root-sum-of-squares.
In non-linear dynamic analysis, the non-linear properties of the structure are considered as part of
a time domain analysis. This approach is the most rigorous, and is required by some building
codes for buildings of unusual configuration or of special importance. However, the calculated
response can be very sensitive to the characteristics of the individual ground motion used as
seismic input; therefore, several analyses are required using different ground motion records to
achieve a reliable estimation of the probabilistic distribution of structural response. Since the
properties of the seismic response depend on the intensity, or severity, of the seismic shaking, a
comprehensive assessment calls for numerous nonlinear dynamic analyses at various levels of
intensity to represent different possible earthquake scenarios. This has led to the emergence of
methods like the Incremental Dynamic Analysis.
 Good safety practices/ initiatives in construction safety :

These recommended practices reflect current conditions in the construction industry:
 New construction techniques, materials, and equipment have come into common use.
 Greater diversity in the construction workforce means that people from different
backgrounds and cultures are working alongside each other, often speaking different
languages.
 An aging workforce and the rise of sedentary lifestyle means that some workers are at
higher risk for work-related musculoskeletal disorders.
 Increased temporary and contract employment means that traditional relationships between
workers and employers are shifting, and changes in safety programs and policies will be
required to ensure the safety and health of all workers at worksites characterized by these
newer and more fluid relationships. These practices also reflect what we have learned from
best-in-class programs and what makes them effective. In particular, these recommended
practices place greater emphasis on involving workers, and include a more robust program
evaluation element to help drive continuous improvement. These practices also stress the
need for communication and coordination on worksites involving more than one employer.
 THE BENEFITS OF IMPLEMENTING THESE RECOMMENDED

PRACTICES:
Responsible employers know that the main goal of a safety and health program is to prevent work-
related injuries, illnesses, and deaths, as well as the suffering and financial hardship these events
can cause for workers, their families, and their employers. Employers may find that implementing
these recommended practices brings other benefits as well. The renewed or enhanced commitment

to safety and health and the cooperative atmosphere between employers and workers have been
linked to:
• Improvements in production and quality.
• Better employee morale.
• Improved employee recruiting and retention.
• A more favorable image and reputation (among customers, suppliers, and the community).
 HOW TO USE THE RECOMMENDED PRACTICES:
Each section of the recommended practices describes a core program element (see page 7),
followed by several action items. Each action item is an example of steps that general contractors,
subcontractors, managers, supervisors, and workers can take to establish, implement, maintain, and
improve safety and health programs. A general self-evaluation tool can be found on the
recommended practices Web page. It can be tailored to your construction site to track your
progress and document how you have implemented (or will implement) each action item. Seven
interrelated elements The seven core elements are interrelated and are best viewed as part of an
integrated system. Actions taken under one core element can(and likely will) affect actions needed
under one or more other elements. For example, workers must be trained in reporting procedures
and hazard identification techniques in order to be effective participants. Thus, the “Education and
Training” core element supports the “Worker Participation” core element. Similarly, setting goals
(as described under “Management Leadership”) will be more effective if you routinely evaluate
your progress in meeting those goals (see “Program Evaluation and Improvement”). Progress in
each core element is important to achieve maximum benefit from the program. One size does not
fit all While the action items under each core element are specific, they are not prescriptive. The
process described in these recommended practices can, and should, be tailored to the needs of each
construction company and/or job site. Likewise, your safety and health program can and should
evolve. Experimentation, evaluation, and program modification
are all part of the process. You may also experience setbacks from time to time. What is important
is that you learn from setbacks, remain committed to finding out what works best for you, and
continue to try different approaches. Injuries and illnesses occur in all construction trades. The
preventive approaches described in these recommended practices work equally well for small and
large organizations in the construction industry. Small employers may find that they can best
accomplish the actions outlined in these recommended practices using informal communications
and procedures. Larger employers, who have more complex work processes and hazards, may
require a more formal and detailed program. They may also wish to integrate their safety and
health program with other programs that they are using to manage production, quality control, and
environmental protection or sustainability. The importance of worker participation Through Out
these recommended practices, OSHA emphasizes the importance of worker participation in the
safety and health program. For a program to succeed, workers (and, if applicable, their
representatives) must participate in developing and implementing every element of the safety and
health program. This emphasis on worker participation is consistent with the OSH Act, OSHA
standards, and OSHA enforcement policies and procedures, which recognize the rights and roles of
workers and their representatives in matters of workplace safety and health. Several action items
described in these recommended practices rely on perspectives, expertise, and input that can come
only from workers and their representatives. When more than one employer is involved Employers
and workers on “multiemployer” worksites should pay particular attention to the “Coordination
and Communication for Employers on Multiemployer Worksites” section. This section describes
actions that controlling employers such as general contractors, prime contractors and construction
managers, subcontractors, and temporary staffing agencies (and their workers) should take to
ensure protection of everyone on the job site.
 NINE EASY THINGS TO GET YOUR PROGRAM STARTED :

If these recommended practices appear challenging, here are some simple steps you can take to
get started. Completing these steps will give you a solid base from which to take on some of the
more structured actions presented in the recommended practices.
1. ALWAYS SET SAFETY AND HEALTH AS THE TOP PRIORITY Tell your workers that
making sure they finish the day and go home safely is the way you do business. Assure them that
you will work with them to find and fix any hazards that could injure them or make them sick.
2. LEAD BY EXAMPLE Practice safe behaviors yourself and make safety part of your daily
conversations with workers.
3. IMPLEMENT A REPORTING SYSTEM Develop and communicate a simple procedure for

workers to report any injuries, illnesses, incidents (including near misses/close calls), hazards, or
safety and health concerns without fear of retaliation. Include an option for reporting hazards or
concerns anonymously.
4. PROVIDE TRAINING Train workers on how to identify and control hazards using, for
example, OSHA’s Hazard Identification Training Tool.
5. CONDUCT INSPECTIONS Inspect the job site with workers and ask them to identify any
activity, piece of equipment, or material that concerns them. Use checklists and other resources,
such as OSHA’s Construction Industry Digest, to help identify problems.
6. COLLECT HAZARD CONTROL IDEAS Talk with workers about ideas on safety
improvements throughout the project.
7. IMPLEMENT HAZARD CONTROLS Assign workers the task of choosing, implementing,

and evaluating the solutions.
8. ADDRESS EMERGENCIES Identify foreseeable emergency scenarios and develop

instructions on what to do in each case. Meet to discuss these procedures and post them in a visible
location at the job site.
9. MAKE IMPROVEMENTS Set aside a regular time to discuss safety and health issues, with
the goal of identifying ways to improve the program.

CHAPTER: 2
-: TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY:-
 WORKING BELOW GROUND LEVEL :

Underground work includes excavations in surface soil or rock,
drilling, blasting, trenching, shoring, strutting, tunneling, piling, shaft sinking, haulage and
underground pipelines. It requires due considerations of underground lighting, ventilation,
electricity, dust control, inrush of water, oil or gas and continuous safety of people at work. Some
provisions are explained below : Rules 119 to 168 of the BOC Workers Rules, 1998, for excavation
and tunneling works including warning signs and notices, illumination, stability of structure,
pilling, shoring and bracing, safe access, trenches, tunneling operation, shafts, pneumatic tools,
inflammable oils, coupling and hoses, storing of oil and fuel underground, use of gases
underground, water for firefighting, flooding, steel curtains, exposure limits of chemicals,
ventilation, air locks, man-locks, medical lock, emergency generators etc.
 Excavation:
Foundation or underground support is required for most of the constructions and

method of reaching earth or rock stratum suitable for foundation is excavation. It may be with or
without dewatering the site and out of many methods a suitable method of excavation should be
selected.
 General precautions for any excavation or underground work are:

survey of hazards of fall of persons, soil, material etc., inrush of water, oil, gas etc.,
adequate lighting and ventilation to supply fresh air inside, controlling gas, vapour, dust etc. within
safe limits, fire precaution, safe means of access, stability of the ground, position of public utility
services such as electric or telephone cables, water, gas or sewers line etc., effect on adjoining
building, structure, roadways, bridges etc. A competent person should make this survey and give
permission to work. If necessary, isolation of underground utility services should be effected by
due permission or otherwise be protected. Chemical waste and contamination should be safely
removed. No load, vehicle or material should be moved or stacked near the edge of excavation
unless shoring or piling is done to prevent the sides from collapsing. All support work such as
props, wedges etc. should be regularly checked for deflection or distortion. All sides should be
fenced by barrier at least up to 1 m and a danger notice and red signal and light be provided. Sides
of all excavation must be sloped to a safe angle not steeper than the angle of repose of a particular
soil. Cutting shall be done from top to bottom. No undercutting of side shall be allowed. In narrow
trenches a ladder should be extended from bottom to top and 1 m above the ground surface.
Erosion of soil over excavated pits, trenches etc. should be prevented from running water by
dewatering pumps etc. Road-barrier at a distance should be provided if road is to be blocked.
Helmets and gum-boots should be given to all workers working inside. In large scale excavations
for dams, huge buildings, highways, railways etc., accidents occur mostly due to the vehicles,
dumpers, trucks etc. Therefore such vehicles must be checked for warning sirens, horns, lights,
signals, reverse alarm etc. Rules of driving should be enforced. Sufficient lighting should be
provided for night work.
 Drilling, Loading and Blasting: Drilling and loading are required before blasting. Before
starting drilling, any presence of unfired explosives should be carefully checked. No

drilling should be allowed in the butts of old holes. Before drilling, loose or disintegrated
rock should be removed by hand tools or pneumatic jack hammers to protect drillers
against falls of material. Where this is not possible, a protective canopy or overhead screen
should be provided. Holes are drilled by pneumatic hand-hold drills to a specific pattern.
Compressed air hoses should have Self Locking couplings. Drillers should wear helmet,
hand gloves and gumboots. After checking the drilling pattern and depth, the drilling crew
is withdrawn from the site with all drilling equipment and accessories.
The blasting foreman will check all the holes to be loaded by explosives and detonators for
blasting. Transportation, storage, handling and use of explosives are governed by the
Explosives Act and Rules. No smoking or open flame is allowed in explosive loading area. All the
workers from this area are withdrawn to a safe place. Only suitable battery lamps should be used
during loading shot holes. No holes should be loaded except those which are to be fired in the next
round of blasting. Holes loaded during one shift should be fired in the same shift. Diameter of the
hole should be at least 3 mm more than the dia. of the cartridge. To avoid misfires, the detonator
should be completely inserted length-wise in the cartridge and fastened in such a manner that it
cannot be pulled out accidentally. The cartridges are not forced into the holes. Cap crimpers of
proper design should be used for crimping the blasting caps into fuse. A knife or teeth shall not be
used for this purpose. Intensity of charge to be loaded must be well calculated and safe enough to
prevent damage to nearby structures due to shock and vibration resulting Form explosion. Tamping
of cartridge in the hole is done by a wooden (or non-sparking metallic) stick gently. If dynamite is
to be removed from cartridge, loose dynamite should not be tamped. Primer shall never be tamped.
During tamping care should be exercised to avoid injury to fuse or cap wires. The holes are filled
with clay and sand sticks at the top. Detonators’ wires should not be damaged or pulled out. Then
the continuity of the entire circuit is checked by a blasting circuit tester and the resistance of the
circuit is also measured. No other electric circuit should be allowed in that area or it should be de-
energized. Radio, TV and Radar transmitters can detonate electric cap. Hence minimum safe
distance should be maintained. The lead wires are connected to the exploder whose firing switches
are kept ‘open’, locked and keys with the blasting foreman. The surplus explosives/detonators are
returned to the magazines. Then follows the warning procedure. ‘Warning’ and ‘All clear’ signals
should be established and made known to all concern. Trained persons are posted at all approaches
with red flags to stop all traffic and by passers. The blasting foreman, then, sounds a warning siren
to drive away all persons from the danger area and not to allow anybody to enter in the blasting
area. After being satisfied with the readiness of blasting, the blasting foreman will fire the shots by
closing the switch of the exploder. After dispersion of gases and dusts, the foreman will return to
the area and check for any misfire. Misfire can be minimized by using good quality explosives,
testing each electric cap with a blasting galvanometer before loading or by testing the complete
circuit before firing. The safest way to deal with misfire is to re shoot it by new primer. If there is
no misfire, then he gives ‘All Clear’ signal and allows the removal of blasted materials. Loose rock
should be scaled down. Haulage i.e. pulling and shifting of material after blasting is carried out
manually or mechanically. Vehicles (train or trucks) should have head-lights, tail-lights and loud
horns. Hauling by winch should be done under the supervision of a competent person. Workers
should not be transported along with the material. Blasting record should be maintained. Date and
time of blast, number of holes, type of explosives and detonator used, amount of charge per hole,
firing pattern and sequence should be recorded.
 Shoring and Underpinning: Shoring and underpinning are required to stop settlement of a
weak foundation, to strengthen the foundation to carry added loads, to provide support
because of adjacent operations and to prevent deterioration of the foundation materials.
Shoring refers to removal of temporary supports after completion of job and underpinning
refers to providing permanent supports which remain in place even after completion of job.
Shoring requires skilled workers and cordoning off the area due to hazardous nature of the
job. It is to be carried out under constant supervision and control of qualified and
experienced engineer. The jack, needles and temporary supports should be of adequate
capacity and strength to raise the structure. Types of shores available are raking, flying,

needle beam and post. The shores and needles to be underpinned must be designed to
withstand the anticipated load. Underpinning is useful to stop settlement of the structure, or
to give more support by new foundations to withstand added load of the structure. This
work is to be done rapidly, in a limited space and with great care, to the existing structure.
Adequate lateral bracing helps obviate the need of underpinning interior walls or columns.
If damage results during underpinning and repairs required, it is best to wait till all
settlement and lateral movement are ceased.
Generally two methods are available for underpinning –
The pit method and the steel cylinder or caisson method. The pit method is used where
new foundation is not to be very deep. In the other method, the steel cylinders of caissons are
placed under the existing footings and sunk to the rock. Skilled workers are required due to
restricted availability of working space and headroom. The shoring of the column is removed at the
end.
 Tunneling and Shaft Sinking:

Tunnels are required for road-ways and railways through mountain, hydropower
station underground, irrigation of water, drainage, mining of minerals, storage of hazardous wastes
and defence installations (underground shelter) etc. Tunneling may be in soft ground (clay, sand,
gravel or soft earth) or in rock. Soft ground tunneling is carried out by fore poling, needle-beam
and timber, liner plates, shield and liner plates and plenum process or compressed air-lock. Rock
tunneling is carried out by drilling, blasting, mucking or by machines which may be full face
boring machine or the header with rotary milling head on a telescopic boom.
Safety measures include well maintained equipment and tools, their testing by competent persons,
speedy removal of debris, refuse and trash, safe and adequate walkway, proper drainage and water
pumping if required, good lighting, use of helmet, gumboots and goggles by the workers, jumbo
platform with guard rails and toe-guards to work near the entire face of the tunnel to be drilled,
pneumatic drills with pusher legs, wet drilling for dust control, pneumatic coupling with Self
Locking couplings, separate transport vehicles for explosives and detonators and their separate
magazines, safe handling of explosives and detonators, avoidance of spark, no smoking in
explosive area and all precautions mentioned in foregoing. For Drilling, Loading, blasting and
haulage. After blasting, rock falls can cause major accidents. Therefore inspection of walls and
roofs, scaling of loose rock, bolting and supporting of weak spots, checking of weak seams and
planes by a hand hammer and supporting of roof and sides are essential. Mechanical loading of
muck and haulage are required for speedy construction in tunnel. Muck (dirty thing) cars should be
loaded evenly and not piled above the sides. Vehicles in tunnel should not run overloading and
over speeding. Rail-tracks should be safe and sound. Smokeless locomotives should be used.
Dump cars should be with locking device to prevent accidental tipping. When tunneling is done
through a shaft (vertical rod or stem), the tunnel musk is hoisted through the shaft and brought to
surface for disposal. Hoisting machines should have automatic brakes to stop and hold the
conveyance (cage or car) if the hoisting power fails. It should have a depth indicator. Rules for
hoist/lift should be followed as mentioned in foregoing. Mechanical ventilation is necessary in all
tunneling work to supply fresh air to the working crew and removal of dust, fumes and gases
including methane, CO2 etc. Rock dust containing silica and quartz may cause silicosis.
Ventilation ducts should be airtight and should have reversible duct blowers to operate in both
directions. The tunnels are lined with plain or reinforced concrete or steel forms to support the
surfaces and to prevent any rock fall. Scaffolding carrying pipeline of pumped concrete should be
strong enough. The workers should wear face shield or safety goggles. Safety precautions for shaft
sinking are mostly same as stated above. The shaft which is not sunk through solid rock should be
cased, lined or otherwise made safe. Workers should be provided with cradles from which they can
work safely. The shaft top should be protected by fencing or guard-rails, toe-boards and gates.
Means of escape and ladder from bottom to top should be provided in addition to any mechanical
means of ingress and egress. Winches at shaft tops should provide easy replacement of bucket. All
landings in shaft should have gates that close the opening to a height of at least 2 mt. All shafts of
over 30 mt in depth should have an adequate head frame strong enough to withstand the maximum

load. It should be open steel work, fire-resistant and protected against lightening. Shafts should
have a signaling system that warns the hoisting man when a conveyance passes beyond the safe
limit of travel. The signal code should be posted in the hoisting machine room and at each landing.
No combustible material or structure should be allowed within a shaft, tunnel mouth, engine house
or fan house. Lubricating oils, grease and rope dressings should be kept in closed metal containers
and away from shafts. Electrical installations in shafts and tunnels should comply with rules and
regulations. Lightening arresters should be provided on the surface. Emergency lighting to
function for a long time (to escape safely) should also be provided.
 EXCAVATIONS: HAZARD RECOGNITION IN TRENCHING AND SHORING
DEFINITIONS.
A. ACCEPTED ENGINEERING PRACTICES are procedures compatible with the standards of

practice required of a registered professional engineer.
B. ADJACENT STRUCTURE STABILITY refers to the stability of the foundation(s) of

adjacent structures whose location may create surcharges, changes in soil conditions, or other
disruptions that have the potential to extend into the failure zone of the excavation or trench.
C. COMPETENT PERSON is an individual who is capable of identifying existing and

predictable
hazards or working conditions that are hazardous, unsanitary, or dangerous to employees, and
who has authorization to take prompt corrective measures to eliminate or control these hazards
and conditions.
D. CONFINED SPACE is a space that, by design and/or configuration, has limited openings for
entry and exit, unfavorable natural ventilation, may contain or produce hazardous substances,
and is not intended for continuous employee occupancy.
E. EXCAVATION. An Excavation is any man-made cut, cavity, trench, or depression in an earth

surface that is formed by earth removal. A Trench is a narrow excavation (in relation to its
length) made below the surface of the ground. In general, the depth of a trench is greater than
its width, and the width (measured at the bottom) is not greater than 15 ft (4.6 m). If a form or
other structure installed or constructed in an excavation reduces the distance between the form
and the side of the excavation to 15 ft (4.6 m) or less (measured at the bottom of the
excavation), the excavation is also considered to be a trench.
F. HAZARDOUS ATMOSPHERE is an atmosphere that by reason of being explosive,

flammable, poisonous, corrosive, oxidizing, irritating, oxygen-deficient, toxic, or otherwise
harmful may cause death, illness, or injury to persons exposed to it.
G. INGRESS AND EGRESS mean "entry" and "exit," respectively. In trenching and excavation
operations, they refer to the provision of safe means for employees to enter or exit an
excavation or trench.
H. PROTECTIVE SYSTEM refers to a method of protecting employees from cave-ins, from

material that could fall or roll from an excavation face or into an excavation, and from the
collapse of adjacent structures. Protective systems include support systems, sloping and
benching systems, shield systems, and other systems that provide the necessary protection.
I. REGISTERED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER is a person who is registered as a professional

engineer in the state where the work is to be performed. However, a professional engineer who is
registered in any state is deemed to be a "registered professional engineer" within the meaning of
Subpart P when approving designs for "manufactured protective systems" or "tabulated data" to be
used in interstate commerce.
J. SUPPORT SYSTEM refers to structures such as underpinning, bracing, and shoring that
provide support to an adjacent structure or underground installation or to the sides of an
excavation or trench.
K. SUBSURFACE ENCUMBRANCES include underground utilities, foundations, streams,

water tables, transformer vaults, and geological anomalies.
L. SURCHARGE means an excessive vertical load or weight caused by spoil, overburden,

vehicles, equipment, or activities that may affect trench stability.
M. TABULATED DATA are tables and charts approved by a registered professional engineer and
used to design and construct a protective system.
N. UNDERGROUND INSTALLATIONS include, but are not limited to, utilities (sewer,
telephone, fuel, electric, water, and other product lines), tunnels, shafts, vaults, foundations, and
other
underground fixtures or equipment that may be encountered during excavation or trenching
work.
O. UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH is the load per unit area at which soil will
fail in compression. This measure can be determined by laboratory testing, or it can be estimated in
the field using a pocket penetrometer, by thumb penetration tests, or by other methods.
P. DEFINITIONS THAT ARE NO LONGER APPLICABLE.

For a variety of reasons, several terms commonly used in the past are no longer used in revised
Subpart P.
These include the following:
1. Angle of Repose Conflicting and inconsistent definitions have led to confusion as to the
meaning of this phrase. This term has been replaced by Maximum Allowable Slope.
2. Bank, Sheet Pile, and Walls Previous definitions were unclear or were used
inconsistently in the former standard.
3. Hard Compact Soil and Unstable Soil The new soil classification system in revised
Subpart P uses different terms for these soil types.
OVERVIEW: SOIL MECHANICS.
A number of stresses and deformations can occur in an open cut or trench. For example, increases
or
decreases in moisture content can adversely affect the stability of a trench or excavation. The
following diagrams show some of the more frequently identified causes of trench failure.
A. TENSION CRACKS. Tension cracks usually form at a horizontal distance of 0.5 to 0.75
times the depth of the trench, measured from the top of the vertical face of the trench. See
the accompanying drawing for additional details.
B. SLIDING or sluffing may occur as a result of tension cracks, as illustrated below

C. TOPPLING. In addition to sliding, tension cracks can cause toppling. Toppling occurs
when the trench's vertical face shears along the tension crack line and topples into the
excavation.
D. SUBSIDENCE AND BULGING. An unsupported excavation can create an unbalanced

stress in the soil, which, in turn, causes subsidence at the surface and bulging of the vertical
face of the trench. If uncorrected, this condition can cause face failure and entrapment of
workers in the trench.
E. HEAVING OR SQUEEZING. Bottom heaving or squeezing is caused by the downward

pressure created by the weight of adjoining soil. This pressure causes a bulge in the bottom of
the cut, as illustrated in the drawing above. Heaving and squeezing can occur even when
shoring or shielding has been properly installed.
F. BOILING is evidenced by an upward water flow into the bottom of the cut. A high water
table is one of the causes of boiling. Boiling produces a "quick" condition in the bottom of the
cut, and can occur even when shoring or trench boxes are used.
G.UNIT WEIGHT OF SOILS refers to the weight of one unit of a particular soil. The weight
of soil varies with type and moisture content. One cubic foot of soil can weigh from 110
pounds to 140 pounds or more, and one cubic meter (35.3 cubic feet) of soil can weigh more
than 3,000 pounds.
 BENCHING:
There are two basic types of benching, simple and multiple. The type of soil determines the
horizontal to vertical ratio of the benched side. As a general rule, the bottom vertical height of the
trench must not exceed 4 ft (1.2 m) for the first bench. Subsequent benches may be up to a
maximum of 5 ft (1.5 m) vertical in Type A soil and 4 ft (1.2 m) in Type B soil to a total trench
depth of 20 ft (6.0 m). All subsequent benches must be below the maximum allowable slope for
that soil type. For Type B soil the trench excavation is permitted in cohesive soil only.
 Key principles of machinery and equipment safety:-
Machines have moving parts. The action of moving parts may have sufficient force
in motion to cause injury to people. When reviewing machinery and equipment for possible
mechanical hazards, consider:
 machinery and equipment with moving parts that can be reached by people
 machinery and equipment that can eject objects (parts, components, products or
waste items) that may strike a person with sufficient force to cause harm
 machinery and equipment with moving parts that can reach people such as
booms or mechanical appendages (arms)
 mobile machinery and equipment, such as forklifts, pallet jacks, earth moving
equipment, operated in areas where people may gain access.
hazard Risk
Rotating shafts, pullies, sprockets and Entanglement
gears
Hard surfaces moving together Crushing
Scissor or shear action Severing
Sharp edge – moving or stationary Cutting or puncturing
Cable or hose connections Slips, trips and falls (e.g. oil leaks)
 Risk control of machinery and equipment hazards :
Where exposure to machinery and equipment hazards cannot be eliminated or substituted for
machinery and equipment of improved design, risk control(s) must be applied to the hazards that
prevents or reduces the risk (chance) of injury or harm. Health and safety laws require the highest
order control be applied so far as is reasonably practicable.
Higher order machinery and equipment risk controls are preventative by nature, are effective and
durable for the environment it is used in, and deal directly with the hazard at its source. Lower
order machinery and equipment risk controls, such as personal protective equipment (PPE), can
prevent injuries, but are generally not as effective as higher order controls, as they rely more on
employee behaviour, maintenance programs and supervision. Administrative controls use systems
of work to reduce risk by providing a framework of expected behaviours. Examples are rotation of
staff to reduce exposure to a hazard, or a documented safe system of work, such as ‘lock out-tag
out’. These types of controls rely on extensive instruction, information, training and supervision. In
terms of time and ongoing administration by managers and employers to ensure the desired
behaviour occurs, administrative controls can be the most expensive and least effective form of
hazard control.
Note: The use of PPE and administrative controls are low or last order controls used to deal with
any residual risk associated with the hazard. As such, these last resort controls can be used in
support of higher order controls that deal with a hazard at its source and should not be considered
as the sole means of control. These types of risk controls require constant monitoring and
reinforcement.
Effective machinery and equipment risk controls reflect some or all of the following
characteristics:
1. the hazard is controlled at its source

2. contact or access to the hazard is prevented
3. sturdy construction (correct materials with few points of potential failure)
4. fail-safe (failure of the control system to be effective will result in machinery shut-
down)
5. tamper-proof design (as difficult as possible to bypass)
6. presents minimum impediment to machinery and equipment operator
7. easy to inspect and maintain
8. does not introduce further hazards through action of the risk control.
Risk control of mechanical hazards:

Separation is a simple and effective machinery and equipment risk control. Separation may be
achieved by distance, barrier or time.
• Distance separation means a person cannot reach the hazard due to distance.
• Barrier separation means an effective barrier or guard denies access and controls ejection
of parts, products or waste.
• Time separation means at the time of access, the machinery or equipment is disabled.
Examples include:
• physical barriers and guards such as fences, screens or fixed panels of
various materials
• various forms of guarding and interlocking (as described in Australian Standard AS 4024,
part 1601 and part 1602, Safety of Machinery)

• making the hazard inaccessible by reach (where the distance between a person and the
hazard forms an effective barrier).
Note: When considering the suitability of distance guarding, also consider the safe access
requirements of maintenance people who gain access by ladder, scaffold or elevated work
platform.
Guarding:
A guard can perform several functions: it can deny bodily access, contain ejected
parts, tools, off-cuts or swath, prevent emissions escaping or form part of a safe
working platform.
Guarding is commonly used with machinery and equipment to prevent access to:
1. rotating end drums of belt conveyors
2. moving augers of auger conveyors
3. rotating shafts
4. moving parts that do not require regular adjustment
5. machine transmissions, such as pulley and belt drives, chain drives, exposed drive
gears
6. any dangerous moving parts, machines or equipment.
Where access is not anticipated, a fixed guard can be permanently applied by

bonding agent, welding or secured with one-way screws. If access is generally
not required, a permanently fixed barrier is the preferred option.
Where access to the hazard is infrequent, the installation of a fitted guard that
can be removed by use of a tool may be an acceptable control, where the tool
to remove the barrier or guard is not normally available to the operator.
Adjustable guarding incorporates movable sections or panels of the guard and

allows for material or parts to be fed into the guarded area while still preventing
bodily contact.
Tunnel guards provide a tunnel, aperture or chute in which material can be inserted into the
machinery and equipment, but due to the restrictive design and depth of the opening, fingers,
hands, arms or the entire person is prevented from intruding into the danger area. Where frequent
cleaning is required, the guard may be constructed of mesh that prevents intrusion of body parts
but allows for hosing. Food production workplaces that use conveyors in areas where hygiene or
food safety is an integral part of the operation use fixed mesh guarding of conveyor end rollers.
Interlock guarding occurs when the act of moving the guard (opening, sliding
or removing) to allow access stops the action of the hazardous mechanism.
Interlock guarding works by:
a) mechanically disconnecting the drive mechanism (applies a brake or disengages

a clutch or geared mechanism)
b) isolating the power source of the drive mechanism (stops the motor)
c) a combination of mechanical and power disconnection.
Interlock guarding is generally achieved via mechanical or electrical means, but may also
include hydraulic or pneumatic control systems. The energy stored in moving parts (momentum)
can cause the mechanism of the machine or equipment to run on for some time after the source of
driving energy has been removed. For access panels or doors supporting an interlocking device

that allows access to mechanical parts that move for periods after the energy source is removed, a
separate mechanism to delay release of the retaining or locking mechanism
may be incorporated.
Captive key systems rely upon a single key that is shared between the control panel (‘on’ switch)
and the access gate lock of the physical barrier to the danger area. Removal of the key from the
control panel can only occur when the switch is in the off position, and the gate will only release
the key when in the locked position. Captive key systems do not provide full isolation of the power
source, but may provide limited temporary access under controlled conditions. Effective
supervision, instruction and training are required as administrative controls to ensure that only one
key is available for the system, and the key is not removed from the access gate or guard by a
second operator while a person is exposed to the danger area of the plant. Operations such as
maintenance, repair, installation service or cleaning may require all energy sources to be isolated
and locked out to avoid accidental start-up.
 Working at height :
Providing people with a suitable work platform for the task being undertaken
reduces the risk of injury from falling from machinery and equipment.
Often ‘safe access’ equipment made available during installation of machinery or
equipment is removed after commissioning. Workplace managers may not have
considered or recognised the need to provide similar means to gain safe access
to parts of machinery and equipment at height or in awkward locations for
maintenance, repair, service or cleaning activities.
Safe access at height can be broken into three categories. Each category has in
common the need to provide a stable, safe platform suitable for the work to be
undertaken, and to be equipped to support and retain a person within the confines
of the platform.
1. Fixed or permanently installed access platforms:
a) Gantries
b) mezzanine floors
c) fixed platforms
d) stairways.
2. Mobile elevated work platforms (EWPs):
a) scissor lifts
b) knuckle booms.
Note: Safe work practices must take into account the risk of trapping an
operator between the EWP and a fixed structure, e.g. overhead beams,
electrical cables, pipes.
3. Temporary platforms:
a) scaffolding
b) ladders.
Where safe working platforms are used and the risk of a fall remains, travel restraint and fall arrest
harnesses can be used where a suitable point of attachment exists. Harness systems, anchor points
and shock absorbing lanyards must be compatible at each point of attachment from the anchor
point to the harness, with approved and rated latching devices to ensure the integrity of the system.
When using fall arrest systems, specialist assistance may be necessary to select appropriate
equipment, provide effective training in use and inspection, and develop an emergency retrieval
plan to recover a person suspended in a fall arrest harness. People suspended by a harness for short
periods of time may suffer serious health effects or may have incurred injury during the fall prior
to the fall arrest device deploying. Emergency retrieval plans should allow for immediate local
response in safely retrieving people to avoid fatalities.
• THE FUNCTION OF FOOTINGS AND FOUNDATIONS:

To put it simply, the function of a structure is to do nothing. The most successful structures stay
still. That’s the goal of the exercise. Getting slightly more technical, we can look at footings and
foundations as having two functions:
Transfer Loads: 1.To transfer the live and dead loads of the building to the soil over a large
enough area so that neither the soil nor the building will move
Resist Frost: 2.In areas where frost occurs, to prevent frost from moving the building Dead loads
are the weight of the building materials and the soil surrounding the foundations. Live loads
include the weight of people, furniture, snow, rain, and wind. Wind may be a vertical force
downward, a horizontal force, or an uplift force. A live load may also be exerted by water in the
soil around the foundations (Figure 1.1). Wet soil exerts much more force than dry soil. Frozen soil
exerts much more force than wet soil.
Direction of Loads: The weight of objects is caused by gravity and results in a vertical downward
load. Wind can be in any direction, as mentioned earlier. The soil exerts forces in all directions, but
foundations usually see the horizontal thrust of the soil on the outside of the foundation wall. The
forces of frost are also in all directions. Most frost failures in buildings include horizontal
movement (foundation walls cracking, bowing, or collapsing inward) and frost heaving (upward
movement of the building as the soil under the building expands due to frost)
• SOILS:
Soil Quality Is the Key: Buildings rely on the soil beneath them to stay put. If the soil under the
house moves up, down, or sideways, the house is in trouble. Designers of homes may know quite a
bit about the soil conditions at a site and may design the building exactly for those conditions.
More commonly, soil conditions are assumed to be a certain type, and footings and foundations are
designed with a margin of safety to account for adverse soil conditions, within reasonable limits.
Occasionally we guess wrong and the building moves, but for an average site, it costs more to find
out how good the soil is over the whole site than to design a system that will work
on most soils.
 Soil Types: While we won’t be talking about any soils engineering or geology, and we
certainly don’t encourage you to offer soil testing as part of your home inspection, let’s just give
you some very crude rules and rank soil types in order of their bearing capacity (Figure 1.3). You
should understand that many soils are a combination of these types, and many building sites
contain more than one soil type. The soil profile can change as you move across a site from side to
side, and it can change as you go down into the soil. With all those qualifiers, here is a ranking of
soil types from strongest to weakest.
o Strong :
1. Bedrock
2. Gravel
3. Coarse sand
4. Fine sand
5. Clay
6. Silt
Organic material With the exception of organic material, all of the soil types can be built on,
given appropriate consideration for the soil type. Again, while it’s beyond our scope to get specific,
the soil-bearing capacity changes with moisture levels for most soil types, in some cases
dramatically.
o Function depends on: The function of footing and foundation systems varies with
location. Perimeter Location foundations have to resist the lateral thrust of soil outside the

foundation wall. Interior foundations and footings under columns, for example, see more purely
vertical loads.
• FROST:
The Strategy Varies : Have you ever wondered why there are basements in houses in the northern
part of North America but not in the southern parts? Many of you probably know that the answer
lies in one word: frost. Frost expands soil and exerts tremendous pressure.
Frost-induced pressures can lift houses up or push foundation walls in. If you are building in the
north, you have to dig down far enough to get below the frost line the depth to which frost
penetrates into the soil. That’s where the footings should be.
Basements Where There’s Frost:
The foundations have to be tall enough to extend up through the soil above the grade so that we
can put the house on top of the foundation. Since we have There’s Frost to dig a trench for the
footings and foundations, we may as well create a hole and use the below-grade space. That’s how
basements were invented.
Slab-on-Grade or Crawlspaces:
If the building is not likely to see frost to any great depth, there’s little risk of Where There’s No
Frost the building heaving. As a result, the weight of the building can be spread out on footings
near the surface. Adding a basement becomes quite expensive. Most of the living space is above
grade in areas where frost is not an issue. Incidentally, when we build at grade level in southern
climates, we remove the organic soil (topsoil) from the surface, since it is not very stable. While
we might scrape off the surface, that’s different from digging holes to get below the frost line.
Exceptions:
Since this is home inspection, there are always exceptions to the rule .If you build on bedrock in
frost areas, frost is not an issue and you don’t have to put footings down below the frost line.
Similarly, if you build on gravel or coarse.
No Frost in Cold Areas:

Sand that is free draining , and the water table is far enough down, frost isn’t likely to be a
problem. Free-draining soils allow the water from rain and melting snow to fall through very
quickly, and as long as the water doesn’t stick around, it doesn’t matter how cold the sand and
gravel gets; it won’t expand if there’s no water in it.
Homes with Basements Need Heat:

For those of you who live in frost areas, it’s important to understand that once you dig a hole and
make a basement, you’ve got to keep the building heated. We’re trying to stop the frost from
getting under the building. As long as we keep the inside of the building heated, frost can’t get
down under the basement floor. As long as the foundations are deep enough to extend below the
frost line outside, the frost can’t get under the building from the outside either.
Unheated Houses Can Heave A problem arises when we have a house with a basement that is left
unheated over the winter. If the frost depth in an area penetrates 3 to 4 feet into the soil, the
footings have to be at or below that depth. An unheated house allows frost to penetrate the soil 3 to
4 feet under the basement floor. If there is adequate moisture in the soil, it will heave, picking the
whole house up with it, or more commonly, parts of the house .Very serious structural damage can
result.

• BASEMENTS, CRAWL SPACES, AND SLAB-ON-GRADE CONSTRUCTION
We’ve just been talking about basements, one of the common foundation configurations.
Crawlspaces are another, which you can think of as short basements. Crawlspaces are used in areas
where holes have to be dug to a slight depth to get below organic material or frost depth, but the
area is not tall enough to create a basement, or basement space is not desirable. Crawlspaces may
be built very similar to basements. They may have continuous perimeter foundations or they may
have piers. The third common configuration is slab-on-grade construction. A concrete floor slab is
poured at grade level. These slabs may be supported on continuous foundations, piers or piles and
grade beams, or grade beams directly on isolated footings, for example. These foundations often
serve as the building floor, as well
as the support for the house loads. footings, for example. These foundations often serve as the
building floor, as well as the support for the house loads.
Floor slabs may be—
 Floating 1. Floating—supported by the ground and independent of perimeter foundations

 Supported 2. Supported—with the floor slab integrated into the foundation system for
the building, in which case the foundations support the slab.
 Monolithic 3. Monolithic—with the slab an integral part of the footing . Slabs are
typically concrete and may be reinforced, depending on how they’re built. They may be thickened,
typically on the underside, to support the weight of interior load-bearing members such as
columns. Alternatively, the column may go through the slab, and a separate footing may be
provided for the column.
• FOOTING AND FOUNDATION TYPES
 Spread Footings: This leads us to the configuration of footings. Houses may have spread
footings (strip footings) that support the perimeter walls. These footings are wide pads that are
continuous around the perimeter of the house. In some cases, the pads may be widened and/or
thickened to accommodate concentrated loads from fireplaces, pilasters, etc.
 Pilasters :A pilaster is a thickening of a foundation wall. It may be thickened to receive

the concentrated load of a beam resting on top of the pilaster, or it may be acting as a stiffener to
prevent the foundation wall from bowing inward.
 Pad Footings: Pad footings are similar to continuous footings except they are usually
under a single pier or column. Pad footings spread the load out, usually in a square, with the
column or pier sitting in the middle of the square. It’s common for houses to have strip footings
around the perimeter and pad footings on the building interior under columns.
 Piles: Piles are typically used instead of footings where the soil quality is poor. They
are, generally speaking, more expensive to install and have to be driven into the
ground with specialized equipment.
They can work one of two ways
o End Bearing 1. Piles can be driven down to a point where they bear on bedrock or other
sound substrate.
o Friction 2. Piles can be driven into soil far enough that the friction of the soil against the
sides of the pile is enough to resist any downward movement. Incidentally, if a house is supported
on piles, they probably won’t be visible and you may not know it.
 Piers: Piers are columns that may be completely concealed in the soil or may project above
it. Most of you will be familiar with the piers that are commonly used to build exterior wood decks
and porches. These piers may be poured concrete, often with the concrete poured into a cardboard
cylinder in a hole dug in the ground. Piers usually, but not always, have footings (Figure 1.11).

Piers can either be thought of as posts or columns, or can be thought of as short piles that bear on
their ends.
 Grade Beams Grade beams are usually concrete beams that are supported on footings,
piles, or piers and are located at grade. In some cases they extend below grade; usually they extend
only slightly above grade. Grade beams transfer the loads from the building down to the footings
or piles.
 Caissons: Caissons are foundation systems created by drilling holes and filling them with
concrete. A caisson pile is a cast-in-place pile that has a hollow tube driven into the ground. The
earth is excavated from the tube, and concrete is poured into the tube. Some caisson piles are flared
out at the bottom to create a larger bearing surface. These are sometimes called bell caissons.
By now it should be clear that footings and foundations are—
_ important to the stability of the house

_ expensive
_ mostly out of sight
Materials Footings and foundations should be strong so they can transfer loads and durable with
respect to exposure from air, water, soil, and insect attack. Most modern footings are concrete
(sometimes reinforced). Footings on older buildings may be brick or stone. While we won’t talk
much about preserved wood foundation systems, these systems sometimes employ a wood footing.
Foundations may be concrete, concrete block, cinder block, brick, hollow clay tile (terra cotta),
stone (either dry laid or laid in mortar), or Wood was common on very old buildings and has
become common again to the extent that preserved wood foundations are used. Piles are typically
concrete, steel, or wood. Again, you likely won’t see these. Piers might be wood, concrete,
concrete block, brick, or stone.
SPECIAL FOUNDATIONS
Raft or Mat Foundations: Raft or mat foundation systems are not common, and you would not
usually know that is what you’re looking at in the field. Their construction materials and failure
modes are the same as what we will be looking at, in any case. So we won’t go into more detail.
Preserved Wood Foundations: Preserved wood foundations have become popular in some areas
over the last few years .Wood in a below-grade, damp soil environment has historically not had a
long life, particularly as a structural member. As a result, there are several design challenges with
respect to wood foundations. They are more likely to be successful in dry soils than in wet soils.
For the most part, their modes of failure will be similar to what we will look at on most other
foundation systems, with a couple of exceptions. Since wood is less brittle or more flexible than
concrete, for example, cracking is likely to be less common and Rot and Insects bowing may be
prevalent. Rot and insect damage are obviously possibilities with wood foundations, while these
are not issues with most other foundation and footing
materials. In most cases, the interiors of preserved wood foundations are finished as living space,
and it may be difficult to identify the foundation system, let alone inspect it.
Post-Tensioned Foundations: Some areas have expansive soils that make it risky to use
conventional footings and foundations. A special reinforcement technique for concrete grade
beams and floor slabs is sometimes used to resist the forces of the soil and to prevent differential
movement of the structure.
Post-tensioned slabs and grade beams use steel cables or tendons that are laid in place before the
concrete is poured. The cables are most often surrounded by a Cables or Tendons plastic sheathing:
After the concrete is poured, jacks are used to pull the cables tight, strengthening the assembly.
You may be able to see the anchors and cable ends on the exterior of foundations near grade level.

These post-tensioned cables sometimes snap, and in some cases they shoot out from the foundation
or come up through floor slabs. Fortunately, this problem is rare, at least so far.
INSPECTION TIPS:
No Access into Crawlspaces: If there is no access to a part of a house structure that you ordinarily
would see, this should be a red flag. You should document the limitations to your inspection and
make your client understand that you couldn’t do everything you normally do. This is important
because problems in living spaces or highly visible areas tend to get addressed, whereas those that
are concealed tend to get ignored. If you can’t get into the crawlspace, chances are no one has been
in there. There may be considerable damage or distress that has developed over time. If you fail to
make it clear to clients that you couldn’t get into a crawlspace, which is important, you’ll probably
regret it eventually.
Macro and Micro: It’s very important to look at the structure from far away and up close. Step
back from the house and look at it from every angle. Where possible, line up the walls of the house
you’re looking at with adjacent houses or structures. Do the corners line up, or is one of the
buildings leaning?
Look Inside and Out: You have to look at the outside and inside to complete your structure
inspection.
In many cases, after having looked outside, you’ll see something inside.
There is nothing wrong with going back outside to have a second look.
• Pile Foundations:
Friction 2.: Piles can be driven into soil far enough that the friction of the soil against the sides of
the pile is enough to resist any downward movement. Incidentally, if a house is supported on piles,
they probably won’t be visible and you may not know it. Piers Piers are columns that may be
completely concealed in the soil or may project above it. Most of you will be familiar with the
piers that are commonly used to build exterior wood decks and porches. These piers may be
poured concrete, often with the concrete poured into a cardboard cylinder in a hole dug in the
ground. Piers usually, but not always, have footings .Piers can either be thought of as posts or
columns, or can be thought of as short piles that bear on their ends. Grade Beams Grade beams are
usually concrete beams that are supported on footings, piles, or piers and are located at grade. In
some cases they extend below grade; usually they extend only slightly above grade. Grade beams
transfer the loads from the building down to the footings or piles. Caissons Caissons are
foundation systems created by drilling holes and filling them with concrete. A caisson pile is a
cast-in-place pile that has a hollow tube driven into the ground. The earth is excavated from the
tube, and concrete is poured into the tube. Some caisson piles are flared out at the bottom to create
a larger bearing surface. These are sometimes called bell caissons.
By now it should be clear that footings and foundations are
■ important to the stability of the house

■ expensive
■ mostly out of sight Materials Footings and foundations should be strong so they can transfer
loads and durable with respect to exposure from air, water, soil, and insect attack. Most modern
footings are concrete (sometimes reinforced). Footings on older buildings
There are different types of foundation for building construction and their uses depends on soil
condition and loads from the structure. It is advisable to know suitability of each types of
foundation before making any decision for their selection in any construction project.

Types of Foundation and their Uses:
1. Spread footings and wall footings:

Spread footings are those whose base is more wider than a typical load bearing wall foundations.
This is used in case of buildings. The wider base of this footing type spreads the weight from the
building structure over more area and provides better stability.
Fig: Spread Footing
Spread footings and wall footings are generally used for individual columns. walls and bridge
piers. These footings are used where the bearing soil layer is within 3m (10 feet) from the ground
surface. The soil bearing capacity must be sufficient to support the weight of the structure over the
base area of the structure.
These foundations should not be used on soils where there is any possibility of ground flow of
water above bearing layer of soil which may result in scour or liquefaction.
Mat Foundations:
Mat foundations are the types of foundation which are spread across the entire area of the building
to support heavy structural loads from columns and walls.
 Mat Foundation:
The use of mat foundation is for columns and walls foundations where the loads from the
structure on columns and walls are very high. This type of foundation is used to prevent
differential settlement of individual footings, thus designed as a single mat (or combined
footing) of all the load bearing elements of the structure.This type of foundation is suitable
for expansive soils whose bearing capacity is less for suitability of spread footings and wall
footings. This type of footing is economical generally when one-half area of the structure is
covered with individual footings and wall footings is provided.
These foundations should not be used where the ground water table is above the bearing
surface of the soil. Use of foundation in such conditions may lead to scour and liquefaction

Fig: Mat Foundation
3. Pile Foundations:
Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation which is used to transfer heavy loads from the
structure to a hard rock strata much deep below the ground level.
Fig: Pile Foundation

Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy loads of structures through columns to hard soil strata
which is much below ground level and where shallow foundations such as spread footings and mat
footings cannot be used. This type of foundation is also used to prevent uplift of structure due to
lateral loads such as earthquake and wind forces.

Pile foundations are generally used for soils where soil conditions near the ground surface is not
suitable for heavy loads. The depth of hard rock strata may be 5m to 50m (15 feet to 150 feet) deep
from the ground surface.
The pile foundations resists the loads from structure by skin friction and by end bearing. Use of
pile foundations also prevents differential settlement of foundations.
4. Drilled Shafts:
Drilled shafts is also a type of deep foundation and has action similar to pile foundations discussed
above, but are high capacity cast-in-situ foundations. It is also called as caissons. It resists loads
from structure through shaft resistance, toe resistance and / or combination of both of these. The
construction of drilled shafts or caissons are done using an auger.
Fig: Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation (Source: Hayward Baker)
This foundation can transfer column loads larger than pile foundations. It is used where depth of
hard strata below ground level is location within 10m to 100m (25 feet to 300 feet).Drilled shafts
or caisson foundation is not suitable when deep deposits of soft clays and loose, water-bearing
granular soils exists. It is also not suitable for soils where caving formations are difficult to
stabilize, soils made up of boulders, artesian aquifer exists.
What are the different types of plant machinery?
If you work in the construction industry, chances are you would benefit from investing in plant
machinery and equipment, such as excavators, cranes and dumpers, to enable your staff to work
more effectively.
But with a wide range of machinery, all designed to carry out specific jobs, it can be difficult to
know which is best suited for your purposes and environment. Have a read through our quick

guide below to discover more about the commonly utilised plant machines in the construction
industry:
 180 Degree Backhoe Loader
A backhoe loader features powerful hydraulics to provide exceptional digging, trenching, back-
filling and material-handling functions. Their versatile and robust build means that they are utilised
throughout the construction industry for digging foundations for some of the largest building
projects, as well to assist with breaking asphalt and road surfacing, and with demolition and
excavating projects. They are also heavily relied on in the landscaping industry, as they can shift a
lot of material in a very short space of time.
Backhoes provide great power alongside precise handling and performance, allowing you to work
in areas of restricted size, where a larger machine may not be able to gain access or safely operate.
Ultimately, their smaller size and versatility makes them a more effective and productive tool to
invest.
 360 Degree Excavator
An excavator, sometimes known as a digger or mechanical shovel, is a huge piece of heavy

construction equipment. Its versatility means that it is a very common piece of equipment and is
used for everything from trenching, material handling and digging foundations to forestry,
landscaping, mining and even river dredging.
The cab of the machine is situated on a rotating platform, the ‘house’, which features a boom, stick
and bucket, all on top of the carriage which either has wheels or tracks for manoeuvring.
Loading Shovel A loading shovel is a heavy duty vehicle used throughout the construction
industry. Because it is a wheeled vehicle it is extremely versatile and has been specifically
designed to assist with an array of tasks. They are most commonly utilised in the moving and
loading of materials in a range of applications, such as quarrying, ground clearance, block
handling, waste and recycling handling and agriculture.
 Overhead Gantry Crane
Overhead gantry cranes (bridge cranes, suspension cranes or overhead travelling cranes) are large
pieces of machinery featuring a crane that can lift heavy objects via a hoist system which is
attached to a trolley.
The ends are supported by a gantry beam which rests on wheels and runs along rails. Gantry cranes
are usually installed on the side walls of a factory or large building, as well as docks and outdoor
construction areas, meaning the crane can lift and carry objects the entire length of the building.
Most commonly utilised in the manufacturing of large equipment and vehicles, loading and
materials handling.
 Lorry Loader:
A lorry loader crane, or articulating crane, is a hydraulic articulated arm fitted to a truck or lorry
that is most commonly used for loading and unloading materials from the vehicle, popular because
the transport and movement of the load only requires one vehicle, rather than a lorry to transport
and a separate crane to load/unload.
The ‘arm’ is made up of sections that can be folded away when not required, and can have a
telescopic section fitted for higher lifting capabilities. Most cranes allow the operator to see the
load from the cab of the vehicle, but because of the positioning of the arm, the operative would
either need a fully trained banks man to direct the movement or would need to operate the crane
from a remote or cabled control panel that allows them to leave the cab and view the operation.
 Forward Tipping Dumper:
A forward tipping dumper is smaller, but an incredibly useful piece of onsite machinery. It is
usually a 4-wheeled vehicle, with a load skip situated at the front, allowing the driver to keep an
eye on the load whilst transporting it around site.Commonly used to transport waste and materials,
the front skip can be tipped to dump the load when the driver reaches the required location. As a
robust and sturdy vehicle, it can also be utilised as a towing vehicle to move other equipment or
vehicles around the site.
 Ride On Road Roller

A ride on roller (sometimes known as a roller-compactor or roller) is a compacting
engineering vehicle, used to compress soil, gravel or asphalt. Ranging in size to suit
different applications, they use the weight of the large drum at the front of the vehicle to
compress the surface beneath. They are most commonly utilized in construction and road
works, or to prepare ground foundations for building projects, but are also used in
agriculture and at landfill sites to compact waste materials into smaller spaces.
• Construction Structure :
Definition: Within the context of the built environment , the term ‘structure’ refers to
anything that is constructed or built from different interrelated parts with a fixed location on the
ground. This includes buildings, but the term structure can also be used to refer to any body of
connected parts that is designed to bear loads, even if it is not intended to be occupied by people.
Engineers sometimes refer to these as 'non-building' structures.
Common examples include:
1. Aqueducts and viaducts.
2. Bridges.
3. Canals.
4. Cooling towers and chimneys.
5. Dams.
6. Railways.
7. Roads.
8. Retaining walls.
9. Tunnels.
Structural engineers design, assess and inspect structures to ensure that they are efficient and
stable. Structural engineers work on a very wide range of structures, including; buildings, bridges,
oil rigs and so on.
Civil engineers design, construct, maintain and improve the physical environment, including;
bridges, tunnels, roads, railways, canals, dams, coastal defences, and so on. The term ‘civil’
engineer is a more broad one than ‘structural’ engineer that can include infrastructure such as
pipelines, transportation, environmental engineering, maritime engineering and so on. It was
originally coined to distinguish it from military engineering. Structural engineering was initially
considered a sub-discipline of civil engineering, however it has developed into an important and
complex specialism and is now be considered an specific engineering discipline in its own right.
According to William R Spillers 'Introduction to Structures', structural analysis ‘…is for the most
part concerned with finding the structural response (the lateral deflection of a building under wind
load, the reaction of a bridge to a moving train,…) given external loads. In all but the most trivial
cases, real structures, that is structures without the simplifications commonly associated with
analysis, turn out to be impossibly complex. And what is finally analyzed – the structural model –
may appear at first glance to be quite different than the real structure’.

In their most simple form, structural elements can be classified as:
a) One-dimensional: Ropes, struts, beams, arches.

b) Two-dimensional: Membranes, plates, slab, shells, vaults.
c) Three-dimensional: Solid masses.
Structural building engineering includes all structural engineering related to the design of
buildings. It is a branch of structural engineering closely affiliated with architecture. Structural
building engineering is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms and
the underlying mathematical and scientific ideas to achieve an end which fulfills its functional
requirements and is structurally safe when subjected to all the loads it could reasonably be
expected to experience. This is subtly different from architectural design, which is driven by the
creative manipulation of materials and forms, mass, space, volume, texture and light to achieve an
end which is aesthetic, functional and often artistic. The architect is usually the lead designer on
buildings, with a structural engineer employed as a sub-consultant. The degree to which each
discipline actually leads the design depends heavily on the type of structure. Many structures are
structurally simple and led by architecture, such as multi-storey office buildings and housing,
while other structures, such as tensile structures, shells and gridshells are heavily dependent on
their form for their strength, and the engineer may have a more significant influence on the form,
and hence much of the aesthetic, than the architect.
The structural design for a building must ensure that the building is able to stand up safely,
able to function without excessive deflections or movements which may cause fatigue of structural
elements, cracking or failure of fixtures, fittings or partitions, or discomfort for occupants. It must
account for movements and forces due to temperature, creep, cracking and imposed loads. It must
also ensure that the design is practically buildable within acceptable manufacturing tolerances of
the materials. It must allow the architecture to work, and the building services to fit within the
building and function (air conditioning, ventilation, smoke extract, electrics, lighting etc.). The
structural design of a modern building can be extremely complex, and often requires a large team
to complete.
Structural engineering specialties for buildings include:
1. Earthquake engineering
2. Façade engineering
3. Fire engineering
4. Roof engineering
5. Tower engineering
6. Wind engineering
 Machinery safety:
The following parts of machinery -

(a) every flywheel and moving part of prime mover;
(b) every part of transmission machinery; and
(c) every dangerous part of other machinery (whether or not driven by mechanical power)
are effectively guarded unless they are in such a position or of such construction as to be as safe
to every workman on the construction site as they would be if they were effectively guarded.
Effective guarding can be achieved by one or more of the following methods-
(a) an automatic guard;

(b) a fixed guard;
(c) an interlocking guard;
(d) a trip guard;

(e) a two-hand control device.
 No young person (aged 15 to 17) shall be permitted to clean any dangerous part of a
machinery or plant while the machinery or plant is in motion by the aid of any mechanical
power.
Mechanical equipment shall only be operated by a workman who is –
(a) at an age of 18 years or above; and

(b) trained and competent to operate it, or if the workman is not so qualified, he is
operating it under the supervision of another worker who is so qualified.
No person under 18 years of age is employed to give signals to the operator of the
equipment.
What are the common hazards when working at or below ground level?
Although obviously hazardous, working at or below ground level should create no hazards for
anyone on a construction project. Spend 10 minutes thinking about why hazards arise, and list
ten possible causes.
Causes of hazards when working at or below ground level:
Many of the hazards that do arise have the following causes:
a) Inadequate site investigation

b) Poor technical design leading to collapse under load or working conditions
c) Poor mechanical design of plant & equipment (breaks in use, not powerful
enough, components fracture or malfunction)
d) Failure to control groundwater
e) Poor workplace design
f) Poor general super vision
g) Signaling systems (manual, mechanical, electronic) malfunction
h) Misuse of plant & equipment (not used as designed)
i) Collisions with moving plant & equipment
j) Poor maintenance (breaks or emits noxious gases)
These cause the following hazards:
a) Earthworks collapse or cave in

b) Exposure to ‘unexpected’ risks in excavations
c) Vehicles fall into excavations
d) Loads fall from vehicles
e) Crushing due to impact of moving or toppling plant and equipment
f) Impact from release of pressure
g) Falling from plant and equipment
h) Falls caused by swinging loads, plant and equipment
i) Limbs or bodies caught in machinery
j) Poor ergonomics
k) Physiological and psychological damage through repetitive work
l) Physiological and psychological damage caused by poor environment (wet conditions,
noise, heat, poor ventilation, chemicals, noxious gases)

 WORK AT HEIGHT:
 Scaffolding: Scaffold foundation should be verified before erection. Loose or friable

packing like bricks should not be used as support. For height more than 15 mt, steel
scaffold should be preferred and not a wooden one. Inspection after 7 days and after every
damage is necessary. Points to be checked include: stability, ties and fixing, alignment of
members, bending, tightness of lashing or couplers, planks, platforms, guard rails, toe
boards and condition of ladders. Warning notice should be displayed near incomplete or
damaged scaffold. Dismantling should be carried out in the reversed order to erection.
Materials should not be thrown from heights and should not be left lying here and there.
They should be properly collected. After completion of work, all scaffold materials should
be stored in a dry protected place using racks, boxes or trays. The damaged parts should be
replaced or repaired, cleaned, treated with preservative or paint. Couplers and other fittings
should be lubricated. Chapter-XIX (R.188 to 205) of the Building and Construction
Workers Central Rules, 1998 gives provisions regarding scaffold.
Main hazards with scaffolding are:
1. Unsuitable or faulty material of construction.

2. Inadequately supported scaffold boards.
3. Improper platform width and thickness.
4. Non-securing or bracing scaffold to the structure. Damaged or wrong couplers.
5. Unsecured ladders slipping.
6. Omission of guard rails or toe boards.
7. Overloading the scaffold.
8. Erected on uneven ground.
• Scaffolding :
General Requirements:
A scaffold is a temporary structure that provides support for workers, plant
and materials used in building, construction, maintenance, repair and demolition work. The
scaffold serves two purposes. One is to provide a convenient platform for persons to work
at height and the other is to provide a safe means of access to all places where any person
may be required to work at any time. Accidents at scaffolds are generally caused either due
to direct collapse of the scaffold or as a result of persons or material falling off the scaffold.
The scaffolds should be of sound material, sufficient strength (4 times the expected load)
and properly designed. Their erection, alteration and dismantling should be done under the
supervision of a competent person. They should be securely supported or suspended and
should be properly strutted or braced to ensure stability. Normal size is 4 cm thick x 23 cm
wide x 3-4 m long. Steel components of tubular (normally 5 cm dia) scaffolds should
conform to IS:2750 and 4014 for Steel Scaffoldings. Wood and bamboo should meet the
specifications laid down by the Forest Research Institute and College, Dehra Dun.
Overhead protection, not more than 3 m above the work platform of the scaffold becomes
necessary if overhead work is going on. Similarly for the persons working or passing under
a scaffold, at least 30 cm projected canopy or screen should be provided at the scaffold
working level. In high wind or storm work on scaffold should be avoided. No hot work
should be carried out on wooden platform. Fire Fighting facility should be kept nearby.
Means of Access: Failure to provide such access has caused serious accidents. The safe
means of access may be ladders, portable or fixed, ramps, runways, gangways or stairways.
It is recommended that portable ladders should not be used as a means of access where the
height of the scaffold platforms exceeds 3.75 m. Slope of the ladder should be 4 vertical to
1 horizontal. It should rise 1 m above landing platform and securely fixed at upper end. The
use of cross braces or framework of the scaffold as a means of access should not be
permitted.
Width of working platforms:
The following minimum widths are recommended as a general rule.
1. If the platform is used as a footing only 0.7 m
2. If the platform is used for the deposit of material 0.9 m
3. If the platform is used for support of any higher platform 1.1 m
4. If the platform is one upon which stone or bricks are dressed or roughly shaped 1.3 m
5. If the platform is used for support of any higher platform and is one upon which stone or
bricks are dressed or roughly shaped 1.5 m

Railings and toe-boards: A common cause of accidents at scaffolds is the failure to
provide railings at the exposed sides of the scaffold platforms. Often, the failure is when
the scaffolding is erected for jobs of short duration. Where materials are stacked on a
platform, the height of the toe-board may have to be raised; or it may even be necessary to
cover the entire space between the top rail and the toe-board with wire netting or planks.
Normal height of railing is 1 m and toe board 15 cm.
Boards and planks in working platforms, gangways and ramps:
For platforms of wooden planks, in general, the spacing should not exceed the following:
Planks 32 mm thick 1 m
Planks 38 mm thick 1.5 m
Planks 50 mm thick 2.6 m
Boards or planks which form part of a working platform, gangway or ramp should
not project beyond their end supports to a distance exceeding four times the thickness of
the board or plank. 50 mm projection is desirable. Overlapping of boards is unsafe.
• Hazards and Safety measures: Scaffolds should never be loaded in excess of the
working load for which they are designed. Wood scaffolds are not generally painted.
However, in case of ladders and certain permanent types of scaffolds such as the mobile
scaffold, protection is generally provided by periodically treating them with a coating of
linseed oil.
• Types of Scaffold :
Some common types of scaffold are as follows:
1. Pole type scaffolds: It may be an independent structure or the putlog type erected and supported
near wall or another structure. The uprights (vertical poles) should rest on strong foundation to
support load without settlement. They should not be kept more than 3 mt apart. Tubular uprights
have steel base plates placed on wooden sole plates. Soft ground should be well rammed and
levelled. Fixings like steel bolts, nails or fibre rope of approved size, joint pins and couplers should
be properly fitted. For load bearing right-angled or swivel couplers should be used. Putlog couplers
are useful for putlog members only. Putlog members (horizontal) should at least 10 cm be inserted
in wall. Bracing (diagonal connection) should be tied to ensure structural stability and prevent

buckling. To prevent overturning the scaffold should be secured at intervals not greater than 7.6 m
vertically and horizontally.
2. Rolling Scaffolds or Mobile Towers: Such scaffolds move on rollers (wheels) or castors with
wheel locking device. They are portable and most useful for maintenance work. To prevent
overturning, height should not be more than three times the minimum width of the base. Minimum
base length should be 4 ft. While pushing or pulling the tower, persons should not ride on it. Tools
and materials should be removed before moving. The top working platform must have handrails
and toe boards. It should support 30 lb/ft2 distributed load. Rigidity of the tower is secured by
diagonal bracing on all four sides and on plan. Moving the tower by pulling at the top or leaning
sideways should be avoided.
3. Outrigger Scaffolds: It is a balcony type cantilever scaffold resting on wall. If other types of
scaffold are possible, this type should not be used. The outriggers should be passed right through
the wall and be secured on the inner side. Supporting hook between brick joints is dangerous.
Platform should not project beyond 2 mt from the wall. Guard rail and toe board should be
provided.
4. Swinging (Hanging) Scaffolds: Here the platform is hanging by two chain pulley blokes, ropes
and hooks on supporting beam. Suspended platform can be raised or lowered as per need.
Movement of both the ends should be simultaneously. The anchorage and the suspension gear
should be strong enough to withstand the load with good factor of safety. Suspension ropes should
withstand 6 times the intended load. Rope diameter shall be more than 0.75 inch. A safety rope
shall be provided in addition to the suspension ropes. The width of the platform should be more
than 50 cm and less than 90 cm. Guard rails and toe boards necessary on all the three sides open.
The platform should be lashed or secured while in use, to prevent swaying. Each person working
on swinging scaffold should wear safety belt with lifeline attached to an anchorage other than the
scaffold itself.
5. Suspended Scaffolds: Two or more platforms are suspended by ropes from overhead outriggers
anchored to the building. Such scaffolds are designed with a factor of safety 4 and shall never be
overloaded. Anchor plates should be tied with U bolts. Counter weights are used to prevent
overturning. Wire ropes (FS 6) are used to support scaffold. Hoisting drum (like winch) is used
with at least 2 dead turns. Gap between handrail and toe board should be covered by a wire mesh
of 38 mm and 16 gauge wire. Overhead protection should be provided if risk of falling objects is
possible.

1. Boatswain’s Chair: Boatswain’s chair is used for supporting and hoisting single person in
sitting position. General chair (seat) size is 60 cm x 30 cm, with 25 mm thick timber. Cleats
extending in front to at least 23 cm should be securely fixed under the chair at both ends.
The chair is supported by a suitable sling passing through the four corner holes in the chair
for proper stability. The suspension rope is fixed to an overhead support or passed through
a pulley block fastened to such support. The free end is secured to a conveniently
accessible anchorage and the person in chair must wear a safety belt, the life line of which
is secured to the tackle supporting the chair. Fibre rope slings should not be used if the
person in the chair has to do welding or cutting work.
 SHUTTERING / FORM WORK:
Types of Frmwork (Shuttering) for Concrete Construction and its Properties
Formwork (shuttering) in concrete construction is used as a mould for a structure in which fresh
concrete is poured only to harden subsequently. Types of concrete formwork construction depends
on formwork material and type of structural element.
Formworks can also be named based on the type of structural member construction such as slab
formwork for use in slab, beam formwork, column formwork for use in beams and columns
respectively etc.
The construction of formwork takes time and involves expenditure upto 20 to 25% of the cost of
the structure or even more. Design of these temporary structures are made to economic
expenditure. The operation of removing the formwork is known as stripping. Stripped formwork
can be reused. Reusable forms are known as panel forms and non-usable are called stationary
forms.
Timber is the most common material used for formwork. The disadvantage with timber formwork
is that it will warp, swell and shrink. Application of water impermeable cost to the surface of wood
mitigates these defects.
A good formwork should satisfy the following requirements:
1. It should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead and live loads.
2. It should be rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced both horizontally and
vertically, so as to retain its shape.
3. The joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage of cement grout.

4. Construction of formwork should permit removal of various parts in desired sequences
without damage to the concrete.
5. The material of the formwork should be cheap, easily available and should be suitable for
reuse.
6. The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line and levels should have plane
surface.
7. It should be as light as possible.
8. The material of the formwork should not warp or get distorted when exposed to the
elements.
9. It should rest on firm base.
Economy in Formwork
The following points are to be kept in view to effect economy in the cost of formwork:
1. The plan of the building should imply minimum number of variations in the size of rooms,
floor area etc. so as to permit reuse of the formwork repeatedly.
2. Design should be perfect to use slender sections only in a most economical way.
3. Minimum sawing and cutting of wooden pieces should be made to enable reuse of the
material a number of times. The quantity of surface finish depends on the quality of the formwork.
Formwork can be made out of timber, plywood, steel, precast concrete or fiberglass used
separately or in combination. Steel forms are used in situation where large numbers of re-use of the
same forms are necessary. For small works, timber formwork proves useful. Fibre glass made of
precast concrete and aluminium are used in cast-in-situ construction such as slabs or members
involving curved surfaces.
Types of Formwork (Shuttering) for Concrete Construction:

Timber Formwork:
Timber for formwork should satisfy the following requirement:
It should be
1. Well Seasoned
2. light in weight
3. easily workable with nails without splitting
4. free from loose knots
Timber used for shuttering for exposed concrete work should have smooth and even surface on all
faces which come in contact with concrete.

Normal sizes of members for timber formwork:
Sheeting for slabs, beam, column side and 25 mm to 40mm thick

beam bottom
Joints, ledges 50 x 70 mm to 50 x 150 mm
Posts 75 x 100mm to 100 x 100 mm
 Plywood Formwork:
Resin bonded plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make up panels of required sizes.
The cost of plywood formwork compares favourably with that of timber shuttering and it may even
prove cheaper in certain cases in view of the following considerations:
1. It is possible to have smooth finish in which case on cost in surface finishing is there.
2. By use of large size panels it is possible to effect saving in the labour cost of fixing and
dismantling.
3. Number of reuses are more as compared with timber shuttering. For estimation purpose,
number of reuses can be taken as 20 to 25.
 Steel Formwork
This consist of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stiffened along the edges by small steel
angles. The panel units can be held together through the use of suitable clamps or bolts and nuts.
The panels can be fabricated in large number in any desired modular shape or size. Steel forms are
largely used in large projects or in situation where large number reuses of the shuttering is
possible. This type of shuttering is considered most suitable for circular or curved structures.
Steel forms compared with timber formwork:

1. Steel forms are stronger, durable and have longer life than timber formwork and their
reuses are more in number.
2. Steel forms can be installed and dismantled with greater ease and speed.
3. The quality of exposed concrete surface by using steel forms is good and such surfaces
need no further treatment.
4. Steel formwork does not absorb moisture from concrete.
5. Steel formwork does not shrink or warp.
Construction of Concrete formwork:

This normally involves the following operations:

1. Propping and centring
2. Shuttering
3. Provision of camber
4. Cleaning and surface treatment
Order and Method of Removing Formwork:

The sequence of orders and method of removal of formwork are as follows:
1. Shuttering forming the vertical faces of walls, beams and column sides should be removed
first as they bear no load but only retain the concrete.
2. Shuttering forming soffit of slabs should be removed next.
3. Shuttering forming soffit of beams, girders or other heavily loaded shuttering should be
removed in the end.
Rapid hardening cement, warm weather and light loading conditions allow early removal of
formwork. The formwork should under no circumstances be allowed to be removed until all the
concrete reaches strength of atleast twice the stresses to which the concrete may be subjected at the
time of removal of formwork. All formworks should be eased gradually and carefully in order to
prevent the load being suddenly transferred to concrete.
Figure 1 to 6 shows formwork for different types of members in civil engineering construction.
Figure 1(a): Details of timber formwork for RCC beam and slab floor

Figure 1(b): Details at section (A) shown in above figure
Figure 2(a): Elevation

Figure 2(b): Details of timber formwork for circular RCC column
Figure 3(a): 150 3D View
Figure 3(b): Details of timber formwork for square or rectangular RCC

column

Figure 4: Sectional plan showing details of timber formwork for an
octagonal column
Figure 5: Details of formwork for stair

Figure 6: Timber formwork for RCC wall
Table: Period of Removal of Formwork
S. No Description of structural member Period of time

1 Walls, columns and vertical sides of 1 to 2 days
beams
2 Slabs (props left under) 3 days
3 Beam soffits (props left under) 7 days
4 Removal of props to slabs
(a) For slabs spanning upto 4.5 m 7 days
(b) For slabs spanning over 4.5 m 14 days
5 Removal of props to beams and
arches
(a) Spanning upto 6 m 14 days
(b) spanning over 6 m 21 days
Formwork Safety Checklist during Design:

1. Formwork should be properly designed for the structural element considered and its working
drawing should be available at site.
2. Design of formwork should consider all the loads it will experience during casting of concrete
structural members.
Strength of materials used for formwork should be adequate to support structural load as well as
other loads imposed on it.
4. Formwork design should indicate the rate of concrete pour, height of concrete pour, temperature
and sequence and schedule of concrete pours.
5. Working drawing of formwork should have detailed dimensions including pouring pocket size,
compaction opening and cleanouts.
6. Formwork design should consider the safe bearing capacity of soil.

Formwork Safety Checklist during Construction:
Following inspection should be carried out before starting the concreting of structural member:
1. Inspection of entire formwork system for details from bottom to top of formwork for proper load
transfer in safe manner.
2. Inspection of working scaffolds, ladders, runways, ramps and crossings.
3. Maintenance of good housekeeping around working area and passage.
4. Guarding of peripheral edges and floor openings.
5. Adequate space for safe working.
6.Safety training of workmen involved in formwork and concreting works.
7.Use of all personal protective equipment (PPEs).
8. Formwork, rigging inserts and connections checked for correct installation and periodically
checked for wear and correct position.
9. Removal of all unused and hanging forms, loose materials etc. stored on exposed floors.

10. Inspection of all props and shores for adequacy to handle all the loads.
11. Removal of defective props.
12. Alignment of props such as verticality, height and spacing between props should be inspected.
13. All props should be rested on bearing plates.
14. Props should be placed on hard bearing surface.
15. Safe nailing and firm locking of clamps on adjustable props.
16. Lateral stability of formwork and complete fixity at the joint between props when one prop is
placed on the top of the other.
17. Proper bearing below the stringers and joists at points of supports.
18. De-shuttering and removal of props below concrete slabs and beams after development of
adequate strength in concrete.
19. Construction loads not placed on freshly cast slab or beams while removal of formwork or
before concrete attaining required strength.
There can be many more checklists for formwork which has not been written here. If you think any
addition has to be made, please write those in comments.
 Formwork (Shuttering) for Different Structural Members -Beams, Slabs,

Columns, Footings:-
Concrete formworks (shutterings) are required for fresh concrete constructions such
as walls, slabs, beams, columns, footings etc. Formworks requirements for different
structural members are different and they are named based on type of structural
member. Formwork (shuttering) is a temporary mould to provide support to fresh
concrete when placed in structural member until the concrete has set. This helps the
structural member to gain sufficient strength to carry its self-load and load from
other members. There are many types of structural formwork or shuttering based on

its material, their use and the type of structural members. They can be named based
on that. However, core functioning of the formwork remains the same.
 Types of Formwork (Shuttering) Based on Structural Member: Formworks are

used in construction of reinforced concrete foundations, columns, slabs, walls etc.,
and these are named as follows:
 Footing Forms – Formworks for foundation
 Column Forms – Formwork for RCC Column construction
 Wall Forms – Formwork for RCC wall construction
 Floor Forms – Formwork for construction of RCC Slabs
Footing Forms – Formworks for Foundation
The first step for any concrete construction starts with the construction of foundation.
Foundation can be for columns or walls. So, based on type of structural member, the
shape and size of footing are designed. Thus formwork size and shape depends on the
type and dimension of the footing.

Components of Footing Forms:
Column Forms – Formwork for Concrete Column Construction
Reinforced concrete column forms are subjected to lateral pressure because of their
small cross section, large heights and relatively high rates of concrete placement. Thus
It is necessary to provide tight joints and strong tie support to the formwork.
Fig: Components of Footing Formwork – For Shallow Footing – Continuous

Footing Formwork

As the sizes of concrete column increases, the stiffness of the formwork must be increased by
either increasing thickness of sheathing or vertical stiffeners must be added to prevent sheathing
deflection.
Wall Forms – Formwork for RCC Wall Construction: Formwork for wall construction are
subjected to relatively lower lateral pressure than column forms due to their large cross-sectional
area.
The components of wall forms are:
Panel sheathing – It is used to shape the wall and retain the concrete until it sets.
Studs – to support the sheathing or Wales by forming a framework to keep the forms aligned and
support the studs.
Braces – It is used to prevent deflection of forms under lateral pressure and keep the formwork
erect.
Ties and spreaders – These are used to hold the sides of the forms at the correct spacing.
Fig: Components of a Wall Formwork
Floor Forms – Formwork for construction of RCC Slabs
Formwork for reinforced concrete slabs depends on the type of slabs to be constructed. The floor
slabs can be structural slabs supported on a steel or concrete structural frame, or slab-on-grade.
The design of formwork varies with the type of slab.

Structural Slab Formwork assembly is carried out as follows:

Positioning of the girder or beam form at the bottom.
Girder side forms overlaps the bottom form and rests on the shore heads and the sides of the
column form.
Side forms is held in place by ledger strips nailed to the shore heads with double-headed nails.
Larger girders should have the side forms vertically stiffened to prevent buckling.
When constructing the girder and beam forms each part must be removed without disturbing the
remainder of the form; strike-off formwork will commence with the beam and girder sides,
followed later by the column forms, and finally by the beam and gird bottoms.
Fig: Structural Slab Formwork Components
Slab-on-Grade Forms are forms for concrete slabs placed on grade. These slab formworks are
usually quite simple as concrete is placed on compacted earth or gravel leveled base. Thus no
support is required for concrete at the bottom.
Slab-on-Grade Formwork assembly is carried out as follows:
Plank, plywood, or steel forms are used for forming / supporting the open edges of concrete.
These forms are held in place by supporting with wooden pegs.
The reinforcement in slab (if specified in the structural drawing) should be placed on its proper
location according to the drawing on chairs, bolsters, and spacers made of either metal or concrete.
If the slab is to be casted in sections, construction joints must be provided between them, which
will transmit shear from one to the other. The details of construction joints should be followed as
per structural drawing.

Fig: Components of a Slab-on-Grade Slab Formwork
Methods of Measurement of Concrete Formworks for Payment Calculation:
Measurements of formwork (shuttering) is required for payment to the contractor for the concrete
work completed. The payment to contractor depends on whether the cost is included with the
concrete construction per unit quantity or formwork is paid separately, as mentioned in the
conditions of contract.
The formwork is measured in terms of area that is in contact with the concrete surface.
Fig: Parts of Formworks for Beams and Slabs

For example, the formwork for concrete footing will be calculated as the surface area of four sides
of foundation only. Bottom of the footing is resting on earth, there is no need of any formwork and
top of footing is open.
Fig: Pan and Elevation of RCC Footing
From the above footing plan and elevation, it can be seen that formwork area required will be
2 x (2 + 3) x 0.6 = 6 m2
Similarly, for a reinforced concrete beam, the measurement of formwork will be taken as the
combined surface area of two sides and bottom of the beam.
Issues in Formwork Measurements:
Normally, the forms are used more than once in concrete construction. But the payment is
calculated based on the total contact area of the formwork with concrete and reuse of the forms is
not taken into account. Thus, the price per unit area of formwork can be reduced for reuse of the
forms. Aluminium and steel forms are reused for many number of times than wooden forms.
Complicated shape of concrete makes the formwork installation costlier than the simple formwork
installation because of labor cost and inability to reuse these forms.
A construction plan is required to reuse the forms maximum number of times to make the
construction cost effective.
Deduction of formwork area should not be taken for:

Intersection of beams
Intersection of beams and columns and walls
Any openings or cutouts in slabs
Unit of Formwork Measurement:
Formworks are measured in terms of area. So any unit such as square meter, square foot, square
centimetre can be adopted. But generally, square meter and square foot of the contact area with
concrete is taken as the unit of measurement. The dimensions of a formwork should be measure
correct to the centimetre or inches whichever the case may be.
Formworks are measured as just contact area, not area of formwork, as shown below:
Measurements of formwork (shuttering)
Contact Area = 2h(L+B)
The measurements of formwork are carried out separately for each type of concrete works such as
following:
a) Foundations, footings, bases of columns etc. and for mass concrete and precast shelves.
b) Walls of any thickness including attached pilasters, buttresses, plinth and string courses etc.
Suspended floors, roofs, landings, shelves and their supports and balconies.
d) Lintels beams, girders and cantilevers
e) Columns, pillars, posts and struts.
f) Stairs (excluding landings) except Spiral Staircase
g) Spiral staircases (including landings)
h) Arches
i) Domes, vaults, shells roofs, archribs and folded plates
j) Chimneys and shafts
k) Well steining
l) Vertical and horizontal fins individually or forming box, louvers and bands

m) Waffle or ribbed slabs
n) Edges of slabs and breaks in floors and walls
o) Cornices and mouldings.
 Ladders:
The use of ladders to gain ready access to work sites as a means of carrying out some work
activity is a necessity on construction work. Employers, employees and others required to
use ladders should:
• Select the most suitable type of ladder for the work to be carried out.
• Provide or be provided with appropriate training in the use of ladders.
• Restrain ladders at both the top and bottom to prevent accidental displacement.
• Position ladders as close as possible to the work.
• Where a ladder is used to gain access to a working platform, ensure that it extends 1 metre
above the working platform.
• Store ladders so as to avoid sagging.
• Keep ladders clean and free from foreign materials.
• Use two people to carry heavy, long ladders.
• Place the feet of single or extension ladders 1/4 of the ladder's working length away from the
base structure.
• Use only step ladders with lockable spreader bars on both sides connected to the front and rear
stiles.
• Not allow over reaching from any ladder. Where the work cannot be accessed from the
ladder's position, the ladder should be moved to allow ease of access within the confines of
the ladder
 Concrete:
Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with a
fluid cement that hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such
as Portland cement concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic cements, such as ciment
fondu. However, asphalt concrete, which is frequently used for road surfaces, is also a type of
concrete, where the cement material is bitumen, and polymer concretes are sometimes used where
the cementing material is a polymer.
When aggregate is mixed together with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a
fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts chemically with the
water and other ingredients to form a hard matrix that binds the materials together into a durable

stone-like material that has many uses.[2] Often, additives (such as pozzolans or super plasticizers)
are included in the mixture to improve the physical properties of the wet mix or the finished
material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials (such as rebar) embedded to
provide tensile strength, yielding reinforced concrete.
Famous concrete structures include the Hoover Dam, the Panama Canal, and the Roman Pantheon.
The earliest large-scale users of concrete technology were the ancient Romans, and concrete was
widely used in the Roman Empire. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the
concrete dome of the Pantheon is the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome. Today, large
concrete structures (for example, dams and multi-storey car parks) are usually made with
reinforced concrete.
After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was
redeveloped in the mid-18th century. Today, concrete is the most widely used human-made
material (measured by tonnage).
Composition of concrete:
Many types of concrete are available, distinguished by the proportions of the main ingredients
below. In this way or by substitution for the cementitious and aggregate phases, the finished
product can be tailored to its application. Strength, density, as well chemical and thermal resistance
are variables.
Aggregate consists of large chunks of material in a concrete mix, generally a coarse gravel or
crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite, along with finer materials such as sand.
Cement, most commonly Portland cement, is associated with the general term "concrete." A range
of other materials can be used as the cement in concrete too. One of the most familiar of these
alternative cements is asphalt concrete. Other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag
cement, are sometimes added as mineral admixtures (see below) - either pre-blended with the
cement or directly as a concrete component - and become a part of the binder for the aggregate.
To produce concrete from most cements (excluding asphalt), water is mixed with the dry powder
and aggregate, which produces a semi-liquid slurry that can be shaped, typically by pouring it into
a form. The concrete solidifies and hardens through a chemical process called hydration. The water
reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together, creating a robust stone-like
material.
Chemical admixtures are added to achieve varied properties. These ingredients may accelerate or
slow down the rate at which the concrete hardens, and impart many other useful properties
including increased tensile strength, entrainment of air and water resistance.
Reinforcement is often included in concrete. Concrete can be formulated with high compressive
strength, but always has lower tensile strength. For this reason it is usually reinforced with
materials that are strong in tension, typically steel rebar.
Mineral admixtures are becoming more popular in recent decades. The use of recycled materials as
concrete ingredients has been gaining popularity because of increasingly stringent environmental
legislation, and the discovery that such materials often have complementary and valuable
properties. The most conspicuous of these are fly ash, a by-product of coal-fired power plants,
ground granulated blast furnace slag, a byproduct of steelmaking, and silica fume, a byproduct of
industrial electric arc furnaces. The use of these materials in concrete reduces the amount of
resources required, as the mineral admixtures act as a partial cement replacement. This displaces
some cement production, an energetically expensive and environmentally problematic process,
while reducing the amount of industrial waste that must be disposed of. Mineral admixtures can be
pre-blended with the cement during its production for sale and use as a blended cement, or mixed
directly with other components when the concrete is produced.
The mix design depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete is mixed and
delivered, and how it is placed to form the structure.
 Cement:
Main article: Cement
A few tons of bagged cement. This amount represents about two minutes of output from a 10,000
ton per day cement kiln.
Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic ingredient of
concrete, mortar and many plasters. British masonry worker Joseph Aspdin patented Portland
cement in 1824. It was named because of the similarity of its color to Portland limestone, quarried
from the English Isle of Portland and used extensively in London architecture. It consists of a
mixture of calcium silicates (alite, belite), aluminates and ferrites - compounds which combine
calcium, silicon, aluminium and iron in forms which will react with water. Portland cement and
similar materials are made by heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay or shale (a source
of silicon, aluminium and iron) and grinding this product (called clinker) with a source
of sulfate (most commonly gypsum).
In modern cement kilns many advanced features are used to lower the fuel consumption per ton of
clinker produced. Cement kilns are extremely large, complex, and inherently dusty industrial
installations, and have emissions which must be controlled. Of the various ingredients used to
produce a given quantity of concrete, the cement is the most energetically expensive. Even
complex and efficient kilns require 3.3 to 3.6 gigajoules of energy to produce a ton of clinker and
then grind it into cement. Many kilns can be fueled with difficult-to-dispose-of wastes, the most
common being used tires. The extremely high temperatures and long periods of time at those
temperatures allows cement kilns to efficiently and completely burn even difficult-to-use fuels.
Water:
Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of hydration.
The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and makes it flow more freely.
As stated by Abrams' law, a lower water-to-cement ratio yields a stronger, more durable concrete,
whereas more water gives a freer-flowing concrete with a higher slump. Impure water used to
make concrete can cause problems when setting or in causing premature failure of the structure.
Hydration involves many different reactions, often occurring at the same time. As the reactions
proceed, the products of the cement hydration process gradually bond together the individual sand
and gravel particles and other components of the concrete to form a solid mass.
Reaction:
Cement chemist notation: C3S + H → C-S-H + CH
Standard notation: Ca3SiO5 + H2O → (CaO)·(SiO2)·(H2O)(gel) + Ca(OH)2
Balanced: 2Ca3SiO5 + 7H2O → 3(CaO)·2(SiO2)·4(H2O)(gel) + 3Ca(OH)2 (approximately;
the exact ratios of the CaO, SiO2 and H2O in C-S-H can vary)
Aggregates:
Crushed stone aggregate

Main article: Construction aggregate
Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural
gravel, and crushed stone are used mainly for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from
construction, demolition, and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial
replacements for natural aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates,
including air-cooled blast furnace slag and bottom ash are also permitted.
The size distribution of the aggregate determines how much binder is required.
Aggregate with a very even size distribution has the biggest gaps whereas adding
aggregate with smaller particles tends to fill these gaps. The binder must fill the gaps
between the aggregate as well as pasting the surfaces of the aggregate together, and is
typically the most expensive component. Thus variation in sizes of the aggregate
reduces the cost of concrete. The aggregate is nearly always stronger than the binder,
so its use does not negatively affect the strength of the concrete.
Redistribution of aggregates after compaction often creates inhomogeneity due to the
influence of vibration. This can lead to strength gradients.
Decorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes
added to the surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish, popular
among landscape designers.
In addition to being decorative, exposed aggregate may add robustness to a concrete.
Reinforcement:

Constructing a rebar cage. This cage will be permanently embedded in poured concrete
to create a reinforced concrete structure.
Main article: Reinforced concrete
Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression
load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can
crack, allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete adds either steel reinforcing
bars, steel fibers, glass fibers, or plastic fibers to carry tensile loads.
 Chemical admixtures:
Chemical admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the
concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. In
normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement and are added to
the concrete at the time of batching/mixing. (See the section on Concrete Production,
below.)The common types of admixtures are as follows:
 Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Typical materials

used are CaCl
2, Ca(NO3)2 and NaNO3. However, use of chlorides may cause corrosion in steel
reinforcing and is prohibited in some countries, so that nitrates may be favored.
Accelerating admixtures are especially useful for modifying the properties of
concrete in cold weather.
 Retarders slow the hydration of concrete and are used in large or difficult pours
where partial setting before the pour is complete is undesirable.
Typical polyol retarders are sugar, sucrose, sodium gluconate, glucose, citric acid,
and tartaric acid.
 Air entraining agents add and entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which
reduces damage during freeze-thaw cycles, increasing durability. However,
entrained air entails a trade off with strength, as each 1% of air may decrease
compressive strength 5%.If too much air becomes trapped in the concrete as a
result of the mixing process, Defoamers can be used to encourage the air bubble to
agglomerate, rise to the surface of the wet concrete and then disperse.
 Plasticizers increase the workability of plastic or "fresh" concrete, allowing it be
placed more easily, with less consolidating effort. A typical plasticizer is
lignosulfonate. Plasticizers can be used to reduce the water content of a concrete
while maintaining workability and are sometimes called water-reducers due to this
use. Such treatment improves its strength and durability characteristics. Super
plasticizers (also called high-range water-reducers) are a class of plasticizers that
have fewer deleterious effects and can be used to increase workability more than is
practical with traditional plasticizers. Compounds used as super plasticizers
include sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensate, sulfonated melamine
formaldehyde condensate, acetone formaldehyde condensate and poly carboxylate
ethers.
 Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics.
 Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel bars in
concrete.
 Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete (typically
a type of polymer) with wide temperature tolerance and corrosion resistance.
 Pumping aids improve pumpability, thicken the paste and reduce separation and
bleeding.
Concrete production:
Concrete plant facility showing a Concrete mixerbeing filled from the ingredient silos.
Concrete production is the process of mixing together the various ingredients—water, aggregate,
cement, and any additives—to produce concrete. Concrete production is time-sensitive. Once the
ingredients are mixed, workers must put the concrete in place before it hardens. In modern usage,
most concrete production takes place in a large type of industrial facility called a concrete plant, or
often a batch plant.
In general usage, concrete plants come in two main types, ready mix plants and central mix plants.
A ready mix plant mixes all the ingredients except water, while a central mix plant mixes all the
ingredients including water. A central mix plant offers more accurate control of the concrete
quality through better measurements of the amount of water added, but must be placed closer to
the work site where the concrete will be used, since hydration begins at the plant.
A concrete plant consists of large storage hoppers for various reactive ingredients like cement,
storage for bulk ingredients like aggregate and water, mechanisms for the addition of various
additives and amendments, machinery to accurately weigh, move, and mix some or all of those
ingredients, and facilities to dispense the mixed concrete, often to a concrete mixer truck.
Modern concrete is usually prepared as a viscous fluid, so that it may be poured into forms, which
are containers erected in the field to give the concrete its desired shape. Concrete formwork can be
prepared in several ways, such as Slip forming and Steel plate construction. Alternatively, concrete
can be mixed into dryer, non-fluid forms and used in factory settings to manufacture Precast
concrete products.

A wide variety of equipment is used for processing concrete, from hand tools to heavy industrial
machinery. Whichever equipment builders use, however, the objective is to produce the desired
building material; ingredients must be properly mixed, placed, shaped, and retained within time
constraints. Any interruption in pouring the concrete can cause the initially placed material to
begin to set before the next batch is added on top. This creates a horizontal plane of weakness
called a cold joint between the two batches.[46] Once the mix is where it should be, the curing
process must be controlled to ensure that the concrete attains the desired attributes. During
concrete preparation, various technical details may affect the quality and nature of the product.
When initially mixed, Portland cement and water rapidly form a gel of tangled chains of
interlocking crystals, and components of the gel continue to react over time. Initially the gel is
fluid, which improves workability and aids in placement of the material, but as the concrete sets,
the chains of crystals join into a rigid structure, counteracting the fluidity of the gel and fixing the
particles of aggregate in place. During curing, the cement continues to react with the residual water
in a process of hydration. In properly formulated concrete, once this curing process has terminated
the product has the desired physical and chemical properties. Among the qualities typically
desired, are mechanical strength, low moisture permeability, and chemical and volumetric stability.
Mixing concrete
See also: Volumetric concrete mixer and Concrete mixer
Thorough mixing is essential for the production of uniform, high-quality concrete. For this reason
equipment and methods should be capable of effectively mixing concrete materials containing the
largest specified aggregate to produce uniform mixtures of the lowest slump practical for the work.
Separate paste mixing has shown that the mixing of cement and water into a paste before
combining these materials with aggregates can increase the compressive strength of the resulting
concrete. The paste is generally mixed in a high-speed, shear-type mixer at a w/cm (water to
cement ratio) of 0.30 to 0.45 by mass. The cement paste premix may include admixtures such as
accelerators or retarders, super plasticizers, pigments, or silica fume. The premixed paste is then
blended with aggregates and any remaining batch water and final mixing is completed in
conventional concrete mixing equipment.
Decorative plate made of Nano concrete with High-Energy Mixing (HEM)
Workability:

Pouring and smoothing out concrete at Palisades Park in Washington DC.
Main article: Concrete slump test
Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold properly with the
desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's quality. Workability depends on water
content, aggregate (shape and size distribution), cementitious content and age (level of hydration)
and can be modified by adding chemical admixtures, like superplasticizer. Raising the water
content or adding chemical admixtures increases concrete workability. Excessive water leads to
increased bleeding or segregation of aggregates (when the cement and aggregates start to separate),
with the resulting concrete having reduced quality. The use of an aggregate blend with an
undesirable gradation[49] can result in a very harsh mix design with a very low slump, which cannot
readily be made more workable by addition of reasonable amounts of water. An undesirable
gradation can mean using a large aggregate that is too large for the size of the formwork, or which
has too few smaller aggregate grades to serve to fill the gaps between the larger grades, or using
too little or too much sand for the same reason, or using too little water, or too much cement, or
even using jagged crushed stone instead of smoother round aggregate such as pebbles. Any
combination of these factors and others may result in a mix which is too harsh, i.e., which does not
flow or spread out smoothly, is difficult to get into the formwork, and which is difficult to surface
finish.
Workability can be measured by the concrete slump test, a simple measure of the plasticity of a
fresh batch of concrete following the ASTM C 143 or EN 12350-2 test standards. Slump is
normally measured by filling an "Abrams cone" with a sample from a fresh batch of concrete. The
cone is placed with the wide end down onto a level, non-absorptive surface. It is then filled in three
layers of equal volume, with each layer being tamped with a steel rod to consolidate the layer.
When the cone is carefully lifted off, the enclosed material slumps a certain amount, owing to
gravity. A relatively dry sample slumps very little, having a slump value of one or two inches (25
or 50 mm) out of one foot (305 mm). A relatively wet concrete sample may slump as much as eight
inches. Workability can also be measured by the flow table test.
Slump can be increased by addition of chemical admixtures such as plasticizer
or superplasticizer without changing the water-cement ratio. Some other admixtures, especially air-
entraining admixture, can increase the slump of a mix.
High-flow concrete, like self-consolidating concrete, is tested by other flow-measuring methods.
One of these methods includes placing the cone on the narrow end and observing how the mix
flows through the cone while it is gradually lifted.
After mixing, concrete is a fluid and can be pumped to the location where needed.
Curing:
A concrete slab ponded while curing.

A common misconception is that concrete dries as it sets, but the opposite is true - damp concrete
sets better than dry concrete. In other words, "hydraulic cement" needs water to become strong.
Too much water is counterproductive, but too little water is deleterious. Curing allows concrete to

achieve optimal strength and hardness.[52] Curing is the hydration process that occurs after the
concrete has been placed. In chemical terms, curing allows calcium-silicate hydrate (C-S-H) to
form. To gain strength and harden fully, concrete curing requires time. In around 4 weeks, typically
over 90% of the final strength is reached, although strengthening may continue for decades. [53] The
conversion of calcium hydroxide in the concrete into calcium carbonate from absorption
of CO2 over several decades further strengthens the concrete and makes it more resistant to
damage. This carbonation reaction, however, lowers the pH of the cement pore solution and can
corrode the reinforcement bars.
Hydration and hardening of concrete during the first three days is critical. Abnormally fast drying
and shrinkage due to factors such as evaporation from wind during placement may lead to
increased tensile stresses at a time when it has not yet gained sufficient strength, resulting in
greater shrinkage cracking. The early strength of the concrete can be increased if it is kept damp
during the curing process. Minimizing stress prior to curing minimizes cracking. High-early-
strength concrete is designed to hydrate faster, often by increased use of cement that increases
shrinkage and cracking. The strength of concrete changes (increases) for up to three years. It
depends on cross-section dimension of elements and conditions of structure exploitation.
[54]
Addition of short-cut polymer fibers can improve (reduce) shrinkage-induced stresses during
curing and increase early and ultimate compression strength.
Properly curing concrete leads to increased strength and lower permeability and avoids cracking
where the surface dries out prematurely. Care must also be taken to avoid freezing or overheating
due to the exothermic setting of cement. Improper curing can cause scaling, reduced strength,
poor abrasion resistance and cracking.
Curing techniques:
During the curing period, concrete is ideally maintained at controlled temperature and humidity. To
ensure full hydration during curing, concrete slabs are often sprayed with "curing compounds" that
create a water-retaining film over the concrete. Typical films are made of wax or related
hydrophobic compounds. After the concrete is sufficiently cured, the film is allowed to abrade
from the concrete through normal use.
Traditional conditions for curing involve by spraying or ponding the concrete surface with water.
The picture to the right shows one of many ways to achieve this, ponding – submerging setting
concrete in water and wrapping in plastic to prevent dehydration. Additional common curing
methods include wet burlap and plastic sheeting covering the fresh concrete.
For higher-strength applications, accelerated curing techniques may be applied to the concrete.
One common technique involves heating the poured concrete with steam, which serves to both
keep it damp and raise the temperature, so that the hydration process proceeds more quickly and
more thoroughly.
Specialty concretes:
Pervious concrete
Main article: Pervious concrete
Pervious concrete is a mix of specially graded coarse aggregate, cement, water and little-to-no fine
aggregates. This concrete is also known as "no-fines" or porous concrete. Mixing the ingredients in
a carefully controlled process creates a paste that coats and bonds the aggregate particles. The
hardened concrete contains interconnected air voids totalling approximately 15 to 25 percent.
Water runs through the voids in the pavement to the soil underneath. Air entrainment admixtures
are often used in freeze–thaw climates to minimize the possibility of frost damage.

Nano concrete :
Two-layered pavers, top layer made of pigmented HEM Nanoconcrete.

Nanoconcrete is created by high-energy mixing (HEM) of cement, sand and water. To ensure the
mixing is thorough enough to create nano-concrete, the mixer must apply a total mixing power to
the mixture of 30 - 600 watts per kilogram of the mix. This mixing must continue long enough to
yield a net specific energy expended upon the mix of at least 5000 joules per kilogram of the mix.
[57]
A plasticizer or a superplasticizer is then added to the activated mixture which can later be
mixed with aggregates in a conventional concrete mixer. In the HEM process, the intense mixing
of cement and water with sand provides dissipation of energy and increases shear stresses on the
surface of cement particles. This intense mixing serves to divide the cement particles into
extremely fine nanometer scale sizes, which provides for extremely thorough mixing. This results
in the increased volume of water interacting with cement and acceleration of Calcium Silicate
Hydrate (C-S-H) colloid creation.
The initial natural process of cement hydration with formation of colloidal globules about 5 nm in
diameter[58] spreads into the entire volume of cement – water matrix as the energy expended upon
the mix approaches and exceeds 5000 joules per kilogram.
The liquid activated high-energy mixture can be used by itself for casting small architectural
details and decorative items, or foamed (expanded) for lightweight concrete. HEM Nanoconcrete
hardens in low and subzero temperature conditions and possesses an increased volume of gel,
which reduces capillarity in solid and porous materials.
Microbial concrete:
Bacteria such as Bacillus pasteurii, Bacillus pseudofirmus, Bacillus cohnii, Sporosarcina pasteuri,
and Arthrobacter crystallopoietes increase the compression strength of concrete through their
biomass. Not all bacteria increase the strength of concrete significantly with their biomass.
[59]:143
Bacillus sp. CT-5. can reduce corrosion of reinforcement in reinforced concrete by up to four
times. Sporosarcina pasteurii reduces water and chloride permeability. B. pasteurii increases
resistance to acid.[59]:146 Bacillus pasteurii and B. sphaericuscan induce calcium carbonate
precipitation in the surface of cracks, adding compression strength.
Polymer concrete:
Main article: Polymer concrete
Polymer concretes are mixtures of aggregate and any of various polymers and may be reinforced.
The cement is more costly than lime-based cements, but polymer concretes nevertheless have
advantages, they have significant tensile strength even without reinforcement, and they are largely
impervious to water. They are frequently used for repair and construction of other applications
such as drains.
Safety: Concrete, when ground, can result in the creation of hazardous dust. The National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health in the United States recommends attaching local exhaust
ventilation shrouds to electric concrete grinders to control the spread of this dust.[60]
Properties:
Main article: Properties of concrete
Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but much lower tensile strength. For this reason
it is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension (often steel). The elasticity of
concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as
matrix cracking develops. Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion and shrinks as
it matures. All concrete structures crack to some extent, due to shrinkage and tension. Concrete
that is subjected to long-duration forces is prone to creep.
Tests can be performed to ensure that the properties of concrete correspond to specifications for the
application.
Compression testing of a concrete cylinder
Different mixes of concrete ingredients produce different strengths. Concrete strength values are
usually specified as the compressive strength of either a cylindrical or cubic specimen, where these
values usually differ by around 20% for the same concrete mix.
Different strengths of concrete are used for different purposes. Very low-strength - 14 MPa (2,000
psi) or less - concrete may be used when the concrete must be lightweight.[61] Lightweight
concrete is often achieved by adding air, foams, or lightweight aggregates, with the side effect that
the strength is reduced. For most routine uses, 20 MPa (2,900 psi) to 32 MPa (4,600 psi) concrete
is often used. 40 MPa (5,800 psi) concrete is readily commercially available as a more durable,
although more expensive, option. Higher-strength concrete is often used for larger civil projects.
[62] Strengths above 40 MPa (5,800 psi) are often used for specific building elements. For
example, the lower floor columns of high-rise concrete buildings may use concrete of 80 MPa
(11,600 psi) or more, to keep the size of the columns small. Bridges may use long beams of high-
strength concrete to lower the number of spans required.[63][64] Occasionally, other structural
needs may require high-strength concrete. If a structure must be very rigid, concrete of very high
strength may be specified, even much stronger than is required to bear the service loads. Strengths
as high as 130 MPa (18,900 psi) have been used commercially for these reasons.[63]
Building with concrete:

Concrete is one of the most durable building materials. It provides superior fire resistance
compared with wooden construction and gains strength over time. Structures made of concrete can
have a long service life. Concrete is used more than any other human-made material in the world.
As of 2006, about 7.5 billion cubic meters of concrete are made each year, more than one cubic
meter for every person on Earth.
Mass concrete structures
Main article: Mass concrete
Aerial photo of reconstruction at Taum Sauk (Missouri) pumped storage facility in late November,
2009. After the original reservoir failed, the new reservoir was made of roller-compacted concrete.
Due to cement's exothermic chemical reaction while setting up, large concrete structures such as
dams, navigation locks, large mat foundations, and large breakwaters generate excessive heat
during hydration and associated expansion. To mitigate these effects post-cooling[67] is commonly
applied during construction. An early example at Hoover Dam, installed a network of pipes
between vertical concrete placements to circulate cooling water during the curing process to avoid
damaging overheating. Similar systems are still used; depending on volume of the pour, the
concrete mix used, and ambient air temperature, the cooling process may last for many months
after the concrete is placed. Various methods also are used to pre-cool the concrete mix in mass
concrete structures.
Another approach to mass concrete structures that minimizes cement's thermal byproduct is the use
of roller-compacted concrete, which uses a dry mix which has a much lower cooling requirement
than conventional wet placement. It is deposited in thick layers as a semi-dry material then roller
compacted into a dense, strong mass.
Surface finishes
Main article: Decorative concrete
Raw concrete surfaces tend to be porous, and have a relatively uninteresting appearance. Many
different finishes can be applied to improve the appearance and preserve the surface against
staining, water penetration, and freezing. Examples of improved appearance include stamped
concrete where the wet concrete has a pattern impressed on the surface, to give a paved, cobbled or
brick-like effect, and may be accompanied with coloration. Another popular effect for flooring and
table tops is polished concrete where the concrete is polished optically flat with diamond abrasives
and sealed with polymers or other sealants. Other finishes can be achieved with chiselling, or more
conventional techniques such as painting or covering it with other materials. The proper treatment
of the surface of concrete, and therefore its characteristics, is an important stage in the construction
and renovation of architectural structures.
Prestressed concrete structures
Main article: Prestressed concrete
Prestressed concrete is a form of reinforced concrete that builds in compressive stresses during
construction to oppose those experienced in use. This can greatly reduce the weight of beams or
slabs, by better distributing the stresses in the structure to make optimal use of the reinforcement.
For example, a horizontal beam tends to sag. Prestressed reinforcement along the bottom of the
beam counteracts this. In pre-tensioned concrete, the prestressing is achieved by using steel or
polymer tendons or bars that are subjected to a tensile force prior to casting, or for post-tensioned
concrete, after casting. More than 55,000 miles (89,000 km) of highways in the United States are
paved with this material. Reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete and precast concrete are the
most widely used types of concrete functional extensions in modern days. See Brutalism.
Cold weather concreting
Extreme weather conditions (extreme heat or cold; windy condition, and humidity variations) can
significantly alter the quality of concrete. In cold weather concreting, many precautions are
observed.Low temperatures significantly slow the chemical reactions involved in hydration of
cement, thus affecting the strength development. Preventing freezing is the most important
precaution, as formation of ice crystals can cause damage to the crystalline structure of the
hydrated cement paste. If the surface of the concrete pour is insulated from the outside
temperatures, the heat of hydration will prevent freezing.
The American Concrete Institute (ACI) definition of cold weather concreting, ACI 306, is:
A period when for more than three successive days the average daily air temperature drops below
40 ˚F (~ 4.5 °C), and
Temperature stays below 50 ˚F (10 °C) for more than one-half of any 24 hour period.
In Canada, where temperatures tend to be much lower during the cold season, the following
criteria is used by CSA A23.1:
When the air temperature is ≤ 5 °C, and
When there is a probability that the temperature may fall below 5 °C within 24 hours of placing the
concrete.
The minimum strength before exposing concrete to extreme cold is 500 psi (3.5 MPa). CSA A 23.1
specified a compressive strength of 7.0 MPa to be considered safe for exposure to freezing.
Concrete roads
Concrete roads are more fuel efficient to drive on, more reflective and last significantly longer than
other paving surfaces, yet have a much smaller market share than other paving solutions. Modern-
paving methods and design practices have changed the economics of concrete paving, so that a
well-designed and placed concrete pavement will be less expensive on initial costs and
significantly less expensive over the life cycle. Another major benefit is that pervious concrete can
be used, which eliminates the need to place storm drains near the road, and reducing the need for
slightly sloped roadway to help rainwater to run off. No longer requiring discarding rainwater
through use of drains also means that less electricity is needed (more pumping is otherwise needed
in the water-distribution system), and no rainwater gets polluted as it no longer mixes with
polluted water. Rather, it is immediately absorbed by the ground.
Energy efficiency
Energy requirements for transportation of concrete are low because it is produced locally from
local resources, typically manufactured within 100 kilometers of the job site. Similarly, relatively
little energy is used in producing and combining the raw materials (although large amounts of CO2
are produced by the chemical reactions in cement manufacture). The overall embodied energy of
concrete at roughly 1 to 1.5 megajoules per kilogram is therefore lower than for most structural
and construction materials.
Once in place, concrete offers great energy efficiency over the lifetime of a building .Concrete
walls leak air far less than those made of wood frames. Air leakage accounts for a large percentage
of energy loss from a home. The thermal mass properties of concrete increase the efficiency of
both residential and commercial buildings. By storing and releasing the energy needed for heating
or cooling, concrete's thermal mass delivers year-round benefits by reducing temperature swings
inside and minimizing heating and cooling costs. While insulation reduces energy loss through the
building envelope, thermal mass uses walls to store and release energy. Modern concrete wall
systems use both external insulation and thermal mass to create an energy-efficient building.
Insulating concrete forms (ICFs) are hollow blocks or panels made of either insulating foam or
rastra that are stacked to form the shape of the walls of a building and then filled with reinforced
concrete to create the structure.
Fire safety: A modern building: Boston City Hall (completed 1968) is constructed largely of
concrete, both precast and poured in place. Of Brutalist architecture, it was voted "The World's
Ugliest Building" in 2008. Concrete buildings are more resistant to fire than those constructed
using steel frames, since concrete has lower heat conductivity than steel and can thus last longer
under the same fire conditions. Concrete is sometimes used as a fire protection for steel frames, for
the same effect as above. Concrete as a fire shield, for example Fondu fyre, can also be used in
extreme environments like a missile launch pad. Options for non-combustible construction include
floors, ceilings and roofs made of cast-in-place and hollow-core precast concrete. For walls,
concrete masonry technology and Insulating Concrete Forms (ICFs) are additional options. ICFs
are hollow blocks or panels made of fireproof insulating foam that are stacked to form the shape of
the walls of a building and then filled with reinforced concrete to create the structure. Concrete
also provides good resistance against externally applied forces such as high winds, hurricanes, and
tornadoes owing to its lateral stiffness, which results in minimal horizontal movement. However
this stiffness can work against certain types of concrete structures, particularly where a relatively
higher flexing structure is required to resist more extreme forces.
Earthquake safety
As discussed above, concrete is very strong in compression, but weak in tension. Larger
earthquakes can generate very large shear loads on structures. These shear loads subject the

structure to both tensile and compressional loads. Concrete structures without reinforcement, like
other unreinforced masonry structures, can fail during severe earthquake shaking. Unreinforced
masonry structures constitute one of the largest earthquake risks globally. These risks can be
reduced through seismic retrofitting of at-risk buildings, (e.g. school buildings in Istanbul, Turkey).
Concrete degradation:
Concrete spalling caused by the corrosion of rebar

Main article: Concrete degradation
Concrete can be damaged by many processes, such as the expansion of corrosion products of the
steel reinforcement bars, freezing of trapped water, fire or radiant heat, aggregate expansion, sea
water effects, bacterial corrosion, leaching, erosion by fast-flowing water, physical damage and
chemical damage (from carbonatation, chlorides, sulfates and distillate water).[citation needed]
The micro fungi Aspergillus Alternaria and Cladosporium were able to grow on samples of
concrete used as a radioactive waste barrier in the Chernobyl reactor; leaching aluminium, iron,
calcium and silicon.
Useful life:The Tunkhannock Viaduct began service in 1912 and was still in regular use more than
100 years later. Concrete can be viewed as a form of artificial sedimentary rock. As a type of
mineral, the compounds of which it is composed are extremely stable. Many concrete structures
are built with an expected lifetime of approximately 100 years, but researchers have suggested that
adding silica fume could extend the useful life of bridges and other concrete uses to as long as
16,000 years. Coatings are also available to protect concrete from damage, and extend the useful
life. Epoxy coatings may be applied only to interior surfaces, though, as they would otherwise trap
moisture in the concrete.
A self-healing concrete has been developed that can also last longer than conventional concrete.
Another option is to use hydrophobic concrete.
Effect of modern concrete use:
Ambox current red.svg

Parts of this article (those related to past projections) need to be updated. Please update this article
to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2017) Concrete is widely used for
making architectural structures, foundations, brick/block walls, pavements, bridges/overpasses,
highways, runways, parking structures, dams, pools/reservoirs, pipes, footings for gates, fences
and poles and even boats. Concrete is used in large quantities almost everywhere mankind has a
need for infrastructure. Concrete is one of the most frequently used building materials in animal
houses and for manure and silage storage structures in agriculture.
The amount of concrete used worldwide, ton for ton, is twice that of steel, wood, plastics, and
aluminum combined. Concrete's use in the modern world is exceeded only by that of naturally
occurring water. Concrete is also the basis of a large commercial industry. Globally, the ready-mix
concrete industry, the largest segment of the concrete market, is projected to exceed $100 billion in
revenue by 2015. In the United States alone, concrete production is a $30-billion-per-year industry,
considering only the value of the ready-mixed concrete sold each year.Given the size of the
concrete industry, and the fundamental way concrete is used to shape the infrastructure of the
modern world, it is difficult to overstate the role this material plays today.
Environmental and health:
Main article: Environmental impact of concrete
The manufacture and use of concrete produce a wide range of environmental and social
consequences. Some are harmful, some welcome, and some both, depending on circumstances.A
major component of concrete is cement, which similarly exerts environmental and social effects.
[59]:142 The cement industry is one of the three primary producers of carbon dioxide, a major
greenhouse gas (the other two being the energy production and transportation industries). As of
2001, the production of Portland cement contributed 7% to global anthropogenic CO2 emissions,
largely due to the sintering of limestone and clay at 1,500 °C (2,730 °F)Concrete is used to create
hard surfaces that contribute to surface runoff, which can cause heavy soil erosion, water pollution,
and flooding, but conversely can be used to divert, dam, and control flooding. Concrete is a
contributor to the urban heat island effect, though less so than asphalt. Workers who cut, grind or
polish concrete are at risk of inhaling airborne silica, which can lead to silicosis. Concrete dust
released by building demolition and natural disasters can be a major source of dangerous air
pollution. The presence of some substances in concrete, including useful and unwanted additives,
can cause health concerns due to toxicity and radioactivity. Fresh concrete (before curing is
complete) is highly alkaline and must be handled with proper protective equipment. Recycled
crushed concrete, to be reused as granular fill, is loaded into a semi-dump truck.
Concrete recycling:

Main article: Concrete recycling
Concrete recycling is an increasingly common method for disposing of concrete structures.
Concrete debris was once routinely shipped to landfills for disposal, but recycling is increasing due
to improved environmental awareness, governmental laws and economic benefits. Concrete, which
must be free of trash, wood, paper and other such materials, is collected from demolition sites and
put through a crushing machine, often along with asphalt, bricks and rocks. Reinforced concrete
contains rebar and other metallic reinforcements, which are removed with magnets and recycled
elsewhere. The remaining aggregate chunks are sorted by size. Larger chunks may go through the
crusher again. Smaller pieces of concrete are used as gravel for new construction projects.
Aggregate base gravel is laid down as the lowest layer in a road, with fresh concrete or asphalt
placed over it. Crushed recycled concrete can sometimes be used as the dry aggregate for brand
new concrete if it is free of contaminants, though the use of recycled concrete limits strength and is
not allowed in many jurisdictions. On 3 March 1983, a government-funded research team (the
VIRL research.codep) estimated that almost 17% of worldwide landfill was by-products of
concrete based waste.[citation needed]
World records:
The world record for the largest concrete pour in a single project is the Three Gorges Dam in
Hubei Province, China by the Three Gorges Corporation. The amount of concrete used in the
construction of the dam is estimated at 16 million cubic meters over 17 years. The previous record
was 12.3 million cubic meters held by Itaipu hydropower station in Brazil. The world record for
concrete pumping was set on 7 August 2009 during the construction of the Parbati Hydroelectric
Project, near the village of Suind, Himachal Pradesh, India, when the concrete mix was pumped
through a vertical height of 715 m (2,346 ft). The world record for the largest continuously poured
concrete raft was achieved in August 2007 in Abu Dhabi by contracting firm Al Habtoor-CCC
Joint Venture and the concrete supplier is Unibeton Ready Mix. The pour (a part of the foundation
for the Abu Dhabi's Landmark Tower) was 16,000 cubic meters of concrete poured within a two-
day period. The previous record, 13,200 cubic meters poured in 54 hours despite a severe tropical
storm requiring the site to be covered with tarpaulins to allow work to continue, was achieved in
1992 by joint Japanese and South Korean consortiums Hazama Corporation and the Samsung C&T
Corporation for the construction of the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The world
record for largest continuously poured concrete floor was completed 8 November 1997, in
Louisville, Kentucky by design-build firm EXXCEL Project Management. The monolithic
placement consisted of 225,000 square feet (20,900 m2) of concrete placed within a 30-hour
period, finished to a flatness tolerance of FF 54.60 and a levelness tolerance of FL 43.83. This
surpassed the previous record by 50% in total volume and 7.5% in total area. The record for the
largest continuously placed underwater concrete pour was completed 18 October 2010, in New
Orleans, Louisiana by contractor C. J. Mahan Construction Company, LLC of Grove City, Ohio.
The placement consisted of 10,251 cubic yards of concrete placed in a 58.5 hour period using two
concrete pumps and two dedicated concrete batch plants. Upon curing, this placement allows the
50,180-square-foot (4,662 m2) cofferdam to be dewatered approximately 26 feet (7.9 m) below sea
level to allow the construction of the Inner Harbor Navigation Canal Sill & Monolith Project to be
completed in the dry.

• Cofferdam:
Underwater excavation is carried out by
(1) Pumping out the water if inflow is not excessive
(2) Isolating the site by a cofferdam (temporary bund)
(3) Sinking caisson (box) with or without compressed air or
(4) Chemical consolidation.
The cofferdam is a temporary structure to exclude water from water-logged soil, river or
the sea to enable the excavation and construction to be carried out in the dry. The cofferdam can be
made out of earth, concrete, sheet piles or sheet cell. The earthen cofferdam is possible in shallow
water with low velocity of current. The earthen bank is constructed 1 mt of the top water level.
Due to water seeping and leaking such dam can fail. Therefore constant watch is necessary. Sheet
piled cofferdam can be constructed by using a floating structure with machinery and crew. All
members of floating pile-driving crew should be trained to handle boats. The interlocking sheet
piles and bracing in a cellular form are placed through water. Fuel tanks below deck of a floating
pile-driving equipment should be vented to the outside air with flame arresters. Workers handling
piles should wear leather gloves. A competent person should constantly supervise. After erecting
the cofferdam, inside water is pumped out. The excavation is done in dry soil up to a sound strata,
the foundation is laid down and the structure is built. The cofferdam is dismantled thereafter.
 Irrigation :
Irrigation projects such as barrages, canals, aqueducts, lift irrigation, flood banks etc. demand
speed & efficiency. Our equipment helps meet these challenges across various types of jobs.
 Earthwork
Our Hydraulic Excavators are extensively deployed for excavation of earth in irrigation projects.
Their faster cycle time, coupled with low fuel consumption make them versatile and an attractive
proposition in jobsites, where production is of utmost importance.
 Dozing / Levelling
Irrigation work also comprises dozing / leveling activities wherein the ground has to be cleared or
flattened for movement of tipper trucks, making trenches, etc. This work is accomplished by
dozers and motor-graders. In projects such as construction of dams, dozers are used intensively for
getting a flat base.
Our small and medium-size dozers have proven their versatility in ripping, dozing and leveling
operations in irrigation projects. Motor graders are also deployed for leveling activity and for
making haul roads for movement of tippers / dumpers.
 Dredging
Dredging involves the removal of sand, soil or silt from water bodies like the backwaters in
shallow ports, rivers and lakes. This can be accomplished by using clam-shells, draglines or de-

weeding buckets. These special application attachments are designed to suit the specific site
conditions and mounted on excavators. For shallow water dredging, the machines are mounted on
pontoons – with or without the undercarriage
 Safety in uses and portion related machinery and equipment :
General provisions: Scope and application
This code applies to any work activity in which machinery is used. The code is intended to apply
generally to the design, manufacture, supply and use of machinery for use at work. It does not take
into account the particular specificities relating to certain categories of machinery, such as
weapons, pressure vessels, medical devices, seagoing vessels, vehicles and trailers solely for
transportation of passengers by rail, road, air or water, machinery for military use and household
appliances for domestic use, which are typically covered by special legislation at the national level.
This code applies to all stages of the life cycle of the machinery, including second-hand, rebuilt,
modified or redeployed machinery for use at work.
Objectives
The objective of this code is to protect workers from the hazards of machinery and to prevent
accidents, incidents and ill health resulting from the use of machinery at work by providing
guidelines for:
(a) ensuring that all machinery for use at work is designed and manufactured to eliminate or
minimize the hazards associated with its use;
(b) ensuring that employers are provided with a mechanism for obtaining from their suppliers
necessary and sufficient safety information about machinery to enable them to implement effective
protective measures for workers; and Safety and health in the use of machinery
(c) ensuring that proper workplace safety and health measures are implemented to identify,
eliminate, prevent and control risks arising from the use of machinery.
Hierarchy of controls
Unless a particular hazard is removed, the risk associated with such a hazard can never be
completely eliminated.
The approach most commonly used is referred to as the hierarchy of controls, from preferred to
least desirable, as follows:
(a) elimination;
(b) substitution;

(c) engineering controls;
(d) administrative (procedural) controls; and
(e) personal protective equipment (PPE).
Definitions
The following definitions apply for the purposes of this code:
– Competent authority: A minister, government department or other public authority with the
power to issue regulations, orders or other instructions having the force of law.
– Competent person: A person with suitable training and sufficient knowledge, experience and
skill for the safe performance of the work in question. The competent authority may define
appropriate criteria for designating such persons and may determine the duties to be assigned to
them.
– Dangerous occurrence: Readily identifiable event, as defined under national laws and
regulations, with potential to cause injury
General provisions
or disease to people at work or the general public, for example a “near miss” or a “near hit”.
– Employer: Any physical or legal person that employs one or more workers.
– Fault tolerance: Ability of a functional unit to continue to perform a required function in the
presence of faults or errors.
– Guard: A part of machinery specifically designed to provide protection by means of a physical

barrier.
– Hazard: The inherent potential to cause injury or damage to people’s health.
– Incident: An unsafe occurrence arising out of or in the course of work where no personal injury
is caused.
– Life cycle: All phases of the life of machinery, i.e.:
(a) transport, assembly and installation;
(b) commissioning;
(c) use; and
(d) decommissioning, dismantling and disposal.

– Machinery: An assembly fitted with, or intended to be fitted with, a drive system other than one
using only directly applied human or animal effort, consisting of linked parts or components, at
least one of which moves, and which are joined together for a specific application.
– Maintenance: Workplace activities such as constructing, installing, setting up, testing, adjusting,
inspecting, modifying, and maintaining machinery on a preventive, periodic and predictive basis.
These activities include lubrication, cleaning or unjamming Safety and health in the use of
machinery of machinery and making adjustments or tool changes where a worker may be exposed
to the unexpected energization or startup of the machinery or release of hazardous stored energy.
– Manufacturers: Any natural or legal persons responsible for marketing machinery under their
names or trademarks, whether they actually design and manufacture the machinery themselves or
contract those tasks to a third party. This includes cases in which the machinery is manufactured
exclusively for their use.
– OSH management system: A set of interrelated or interacting elements to establish occupational

safety and health (OSH) policy and objectives, and to achieve those objectives.
– Protective device: A safeguard other than a guard which reduces risk, either alone or in
conjunction with a guard.
– Risk: A combination of the likelihood of an occurrence of a hazardous event and the severity of
injury or damage to health of workers caused by this event.
– Risk assessment: The process of evaluating the risks to safety and health arising from hazards at
work.
– Safety and health committee: A committee with representation of workers’ safety and health
representatives and employers’ representatives established and functioning at organization level
according to national laws, regulations and practice.
– Supplier: Any natural or legal person in the supply chain, including the manufacturer, importer
and distributer, who makes the machinery available, including second-hand machinery.
– Worker: Any person who performs work, either regularly or temporarily,for an employer.
General provisions
– Workers’ representative: In accordance with the Workers’ Representatives Convention, 1971

(No. 135), any person who is recognized as such by national law or practice, whether they are:
(a) trade union representatives, namely, representatives designated or elected by trade unions or by
members of such unions; or

(b) elected representatives, namely, representatives who are freely elected by the workers of the
organization in accordance with provisions of national laws or regulations or of collective
agreements and whose functions do not include activities which are recognized as the exclusive
prerogative of trade unions in the country concerned.
 Fragile roofs:
What is fragile?
Falls through fragile roofs account for 22% of all the deaths that result from a fall from height in
the construction industry. A fragile material is one that does not safely support the weight of a
person and any load they are carrying. The fragility of a roof does not depend solely on the
composition of the material in it, the following factors are also important:
■ thickness of the material;
■ the span between supports;
■ sheet profile;
■ the type, number, position and quality of fixings;
■ the design of the supporting structure, eg the purlins; and
■ the age of the material.
Remember that even those roofs that were deemed to be ‘non-fragile’ when they were installed
will eventually deteriorate and become fragile over time. Sometimes the entire roof surface is
fragile, such as many fibre cement roofs. Sometimes part of the roof is fragile, eg when fragile roof
lights are contained in an otherwise non-fragile roof. Sometimes a roof is temporarily fragile, such
as during ‘built up’ roof construction when only the liner is installed or sheets have not been
secured. Sometimes the fragility of a roof may be disguised, eg when old roofs have been painted
over. This guidance applies to all these situations. The fragility, or otherwise, of a roof should be
confirmed by a competent person before work starts. If there is any doubt, the roof should be
treated as fragile unless, or until, confirmed that it is not. It is dangerous to assume that a roof is
non-fragile without checking this out beforehand.
 Prevent un authorised access:
Make sure that un authorized access to the roof is prevented, eg by implementing a permit-to-work
regime or blocking off roof access ladders. Make sure that appropriate warning signs are displayed
on existing roofs, particularly at roof access points.
 Working on fragile materials
Work on fragile materials must be carefully planned to prevent falls through the roof:

■ all work should be carried out from beneath where this is practicable;
■ where this is not possible, consider using a MEWP that allows operatives to carry out the work
from within the MEWP basket without standing on the roof itself; Health and Safety Executive
Working on roofs
■ if access onto the fragile roof cannot be avoided, edge protection should be installed around the
perimeter of the roof and staging should be used to spread the load. Unless all the access and work
is on staging and platforms that are fitted with guard rails, safety nets should be installed under the
roof or a harness system should be used.
■ Where harnesses are used, they require adequate anchorage points. They also rely on user
discipline, training and supervision to make sure that they are used consistently and correctly.
Support platforms should be of sufficient dimensions to allow the worker to move safely and use
any equipment or materials safely. Make sure that support platforms are long enough to provide
adequate support across roof members. They should span across at least two purlins. Using a
platform may spread the load, but it will not provide enough support if the only thing supporting it
is the fragile material. Never try to walk along the line of the roof bolts above the purlins or along
the ridge, as the sheets can still crack and give way; they are not designed to support your weight.
Workers should not have to constantly move platforms about the roof. It is not acceptable to rely
on using a pair of boards to ‘leap-frog’ across a fragile roof. Make sure there are enough platforms
provided to avoid this. Precautions are needed to prevent a person falling from the platform.
Provide the platform with edge protection comprising top rail, intermediate rail (or equivalent
protection) and toe board.
 Working near fragile material:
Protection is needed when anyone passes by or works near to fragile materials, eg:
■ during access along valley gutters in a fragile roof;
■ when fragile roof lights or smoke vents are contained in an otherwise non-fragile
roof; or
■ during access to working areas on a fragile roof.
Wherever possible make sure that all fragile materials 2 m or closer to the people at risk are
securely covered and a warning notice displayed. Alternatively, provide continuous physical
barriers with warning notices around or along the fragile material to prevent access to it. (Make
sure that appropriate precautions are taken when installing such protection, eg the use of netting,
birdcage scaffold or a harness system.) Sometimes it will not be reasonably practicable to provide
such protection, usually if the proximity to fragile material is irregular and short duration, ie a
matter of minutes. Safety harnesses will usually be the appropriate solution and may be used in
conjunction with any permanently installed running line systems. Boundaries can be established
identifying ‘safe’ areas containing the workplace and routes to and from it. If these are used:

■ the boundary should be at least 2 m from the nearest fragile material;
■ the boundary does not need to comply with full edge protection standards, but there should be a
continuous physical barrier (a painted line or bunting is not acceptable); and
■ tight discipline is essential to make sure everyone stays inside the safe area at all times.
• Tower cranes:
Tower cranes are widely used for lifting operations in the construction industry. Statistics show
that tower cranes contribute to quite a number of serious accidents. Property damage and bodily
injuries can be avoided if they are properly used. Tower cranes are a modern form of balance crane
that consist of the same basic parts. Fixed to the ground on a concrete slab (and sometimes
attached to the sides of structures as well), tower cranes often give the best combination of height
and lifting capacity and are used in the construction of tall buildings. The base is then attached to
the mast which gives the crane its height. Further the mast is attached to the slewing unit (gear and
motor) that allows the crane to rotate. On top of the slewing unit there are three main parts which
are: the long horizontal jib (working arm), shorter counter-jib, and the operators cab
The long horizontal jib is the part of the crane that carries the load. The counter-jib carries a
counterweight, usually of concrete blocks, while the jib suspends the load to and from the center of
the crane. The crane operator either sits in a cab at the top of the tower or controls the crane by
radio remote control from the ground. In the first case the operators cab is most usually located at
the top of the tower attached to the turntable, but can be mounted on the jib, or partway down the
tower. The lifting hook is operated by the crane operator using electric motors to manipulate wire
rope cables through a system of sheaves. The hook is located on the long horizontal arm to lift the
load which also contains its motor.
Definitions:
• Automatic safe load indicator:
It means a device intended to be fitted to a crane that automatically gives an audible and visible
warning to the operator thereof that the crane is approaching its safe working load, and that

automatically gives a further audible and visible warning when the crane has exceeded its safe
working load (Regulation 3(1) of the LALGR).
• Certified plan:
It includes drawings, details, diagrams, calculations, structural details, structural calculations, geo
technical details and geo technical calculations which are certified by safety supervision personnel.
• Competent person:
A competent person, in relation to any duty required to be performed by him under the LALGR,
means a person who is -
a) appointed by the owner required by those regulations to ensure that the duty is carried out by a
competent person; and
b) by reason of training and practical experience, competent to perform the duty (Regulation 3(1)
of the LALGR).
• Climbing frames:
Frames of a climbing crane, which transfer the loading from the crane on to the structure that
supports it.
• Climbing ladders: Vertical structural frameworks by means of which some types of

climbing cranes are raised.
• Condition of tipping: A condition when a crane is subject to an overturning moment

which cannot be increased by even a small amount without causing the crane to fall over.
• Free-standing height: The maximum height at which a tower crane can operate without
being held by ties or guys. The dimension between the inner faces of the rail heads of the rail track
of a crane.

• Height alteration: It means climbing of a tower crane or the addition or removal of mast
section to or from the main tower.
• Overlapping zone: An overlapping zone is the space which may be swept by the load, its
attachment or any part of the tower crane, and common to at least two tower cranes.
• Rail ties: Ties used to retain rails at the correct distance apart and to withstand the imposed
tensile and compression forces.
• Wedges: The means of securing the tower within tie frames or climbing frames of a tower
crane.
• Working space limiter: A working space limiter is a limiting device to prevent the load, its
attachment or any part of the tower crane from entering an overlapping zone.
• Types of tower cranes: Static and mobile tower cranes are available in a wide variety of
types and configurations according to the particular combination of tower, jib and type of base
which they employ.
• Tower configurations: Tower cranes are available with either fixed or slewing towers. On
the fixed tower type the slewing ring is situated at or near the top of the tower and the jib slews
about the vertical axle of the stationary tower. The slewing ring on the slewing tower type is
situated at the bottom of the tower and the whole of the tower and jib assembly slew relative to the
base of the crane. The towers can be further classified as being mono towers, inner and outer
towers and telescopic towers.
• Mono Towers: The jib is carried by a single tower structure which may be either fixed or
slewing. Provision may be made in the design to permit the tower to be extended.
• Inner and Outer Towers: They are characterized by the jib being carried by a fixed or
slewing inner tower which is supported at the top of the fixed outer tower. Provision may be made
in the design to permit the outer tower to be extended.
• Telescopic Towers: The tower structure consists of two or more main sections which nest
into each other to enable the height of the crane to be altered without the need for partial
dismantling and re-erection. Telescopic
towers are usually of slewing type and more common on rail-mounted and mobile tower
cranes.
• Jib configurations: The main types of jib used on tower cranes are horizontal trolley jibs,
luffing jibs, fixed-radius jibs, rear-pivoted luffing jibs and articulated jibs.
 Horizontal trolley jibs (“A” frame type) : They are held in a horizontal or slightly raised
position by tie bars or ropes connected to an “A” frame on the top of the tower crane. The hook is
suspended from a trolley which moves along the jib to alter the hook radius. A suitable allowance
needs to be made for deflection when calculating the clearance between adjacent cranes.
 Horizontal trolley jibs (flat top type): They are connected directly to the tower top and do
not require tie bars or ropes connected to an “A” frame. This reduces the overall height of the
crane. The hook is suspended from a trolley which moves along the jib to alter the working radius.
A suitable allowance needs to be made for deflection when calculating the clearance between
adjacent cranes.
• Luffing jibs: They are pivoted at the jib foot and are supported by luffing cables. The hoist
rope which supports the load usually passes over a sheave at the jib head, and the hook radius is
altered by changing the angle of inclination of the jib.
• Fixed-luff jibs: They are also mounted on pivots at the jib foot. Unlike the luffing jibs,
these are held by jib-ties at a fixed angle of inclination. On some types, the hook is suspended from
the jib head and the hook radius cannot be altered, whereas on others the hook is suspended from a
saddle or trolley which travels on the jib.
• Rear-pivoted luffing jibs: The jib pivot of this type of jib is situated at the top and behind
the center line of the tower and the hook is supported by the hoist rope which passes over a sheave
at the jib head.
o Articulated jibs: The jib has a pivot point somewhere in its middle area. Some models are
level-luffing; that is, the hook elevation remains constant as radius changes. It is possible to
provide either a trolley or a fixed-location hook or even a concrete pump-discharge line.
Articulated jibs are mounted on towers identical to those used with horizontal trolley jibs.

Horizontal trolley jibs (“A” frame type):
Horizontal trolley jibs (flat top type):
Luffing jibs:

Fixed Luff jibs:
Rear-pivoted luffing jibs:

Articulated jibs:
 Mounting configurations:
Tower cranes are also characterized according to their mounting configuration. They are
available as static bases, rail-mounted units and mobile units.
• Static bases: There are three main types of static bases.
 In-situ base: The crane is mounted on special corner angles, frames or an expendable
tower section, cast into the concrete foundation block.
 On own base - The crane is mounted on its own base section or chassis which, without
wheels and traveling gear, but with ballast, stands on a concrete base.
o Climbing base - The crane is supported by the structure which it is being used to construct,
and to which it is attached by climbing frames and wedges. The height of the cranes can be
extended as the height of the structure increases by means of climbing supports attached to
the frames. Climbing support can be metal ladders, rods or tubes. A climbing crane may be
mounted initially on a fixed base and its support be later transferred to climbing frames and
supports.
• Rail-mounted units: The cranes are mounted on a chassis frame which is supported on rail
wheels. The wheels are usually double flange. When all wheels are removed, some tower cranes
can be used as static based cranes.
• Mobile units: The mobile mounting configuration consists of truck mounted, wheel-
mounted / crawler mounted units.
• Truck-mounted tower cranes: Tower cranes mounted on truck or lorry chassis are
available. It is essential that this type of crane has its outriggers extended. The outriggers should be
securely set up and level on its jacks when handling loads.
• Wheel-mounted tower cranes: These are not normally Self Propelling and may be moved
by towing by a suitable vehicle. They are provided with stabilizers or outriggers and jacks which
should be set (and the wheels either removed or raised clear of the supporting surfaces) before
commencing erection or lifting operations.
• Crawler-mounted tower cranes:
There are two principal types of crawler bases used on this type of tower cranes. One is a twin
track type which is mounted on one pair of crawler tracks. The crane requires outriggers to be
extended and jacks set when handling loads. The other is the straddle-type which is mounted on
four widely spaced crawler tracks, each of which can be adjusted to height. Both types of tower
cranes should be set firm and level when handling their rated safe working loads. In general, they
do not have the same freedom of mobility as for example crawler-mounted mobile cranes.

Reference should be made to the crane specification and to the manufacturer regarding conditions
under which these machines may travel in their erected state.
Types of static base for tower cranes
On own base:
In-situ base Climbing base
Rail-mounted tower cranes:

a. With saddle jib and fixed tower b. With luffing jib and slewing tower

Fig. 2 Truck-mounted tower crane Fig.3Wheel mounted tower cranes
a. Twin track type Side view a. Four track straddle type Side view
Identification: The crane should have a permanent durable plate bearing the manufacturer's name,
machine model, serial number, year of manufacture and weight of the unit for identification
purpose. Every major structural, electrical and mechanical component of the machine should have
a permanent durable plate / a clear indication bearing the manufacturers' name, machine model

number, serial number, year of original sale by the manufacturer and weight of the unit. Besides,
identification numbers should be clearly marked on all basic removable components and
attachments of the machine (such as counterweights etc.) to show that they belong to that machine.
It is important that these components should be used only on that machine or identical models or
equipment for which they were specifically intended by the manufacturer.
• Automatic safe load indicator: All types of crane, except those with a maximum safe
working load of 1 tonne or less or those operate with a grab or by electromagnetic means, shall be
fitted with an automatic safe load indicator (Regulation 7B of the LALGR). The automatic safe
load indicator is usually used in association with overloading cutout devices. The specification of
automatic safe load indicator should conform to British Standard 7262 or equivalent standards.
• Operation Features of Tower Cranes:
• Operating controls:
All controls must be located within easy reach of the operator and allow him ample room for
operation. The controls should be of dead man switches in that they return to neutral automatically
when released. The main power switch should be lockable and located within easy reach of the
operator. Each control must be clearly labeled and marked to show the motion and the direction of
movement that it controls. Where practicable, controls should be arranged so that accidental
displacement is prevented and inadvertent pressure on them does not cause the crane to be set into
motion.
• Guards and protective structures: All exposed moving parts of a tower crane such as
gears, pulleys, belts, chains, shafts, flywheels, etc. which might constitute a hazard under normal
operating conditions shall be effectively guarded
• Limiting switches: All tower cranes of every configuration must be equipped with built-in
safety devices which operate automatically to prevent damage to the machine should the operator

make an error. The most important of these are the limit switches which would eliminate the
possibility of crane overload or over-travel of crane components.
 Every tower crane must have :
1) a hook height limit switch that causes the hoist drum to stop whenever the load hook
reaches a predetermined maximum height position;
2) luffing jib limit switches that cause the jib hoist drum to stop whenever the jib is raised
to too high an angle or lowered to too low an angle. These switches should be adjusted by raising
up and lowering down slowly (without load) and allowing the jib to come in contact with the
striker switches;
3) a trolley travel limit switch that causes trolley motion to stop whenever the trolley reaches a
predetermined maximum out or maximum in position;
4) an overload limit switch that causes the hoist drum to stop whenever the load being hoisted
exceeds the maximum rated load for any radius or jib angle or whenever the over-turning moment
exceeds the rated load moment. The overload limit switch should be installed in association with
the automatic safe load indicator; and
5) travel limit switches for rail mounted cranes that apply the carriage brake whenever the
crane comes near the ends of the tracks.
• Crane standing or supporting conditions:

(a)The ground or foundations, temporary supporting structures, grill ages, packing's, connections
and anchorages for tower cranes should be of sufficient strength to withstand the maximum in-
service and out-of-service loading without failure. In particular, suitable preparation of ground
surface for fixed tower cranes should be carried out for safety reason.

(b) It is essential that the ground on which a tower crane stands has adequate bearing capacity. In
assessing this, account should be taken of seasonal variations in ground conditions. The bearing
capacity must not be exceeded under the most severe static and dynamic crane loading conditions.
(c) The siting of the crane, the assessment of maximum loads and the design of foundations,
supporting structures and ancillary details should be certified by a safety supervision personnel.
Particular care should be taken to ensure that the imposed loadings are not underestimated. Careful
assessment of probable wind pressures should also be made, taking into account the degree of
exposure of the site and any other special factors.
(d) Although tower crane manufacturer's instructions may specify maximum wind speed for
service conditions, they cannot give recommendations for survival wind conditions on a particular
site. On tall cranes, wind forces will have a considerable influence on the strength requirements of
the supports and foundation.
• Underground hazards:
(e) Cranes should not be sited where there is danger to their foundations, supporting structures
from cellar whether filled or not, temporary shoring, excavations, embankments, buried pipes and
mains, and etc. With these underground hazards, it may be necessary to provide additional special
foundations to ensure the safety of the crane.
• Tidal or flood water areas:
(f) In areas subject to tidal or seasonal flooding, or where there is a high water table, the crane may
require deep foundations or special ground consolidation. In such situations, all machinery and
electrical equipment should be positioned where it is not in danger from any rise in the water level.
Unless adequate precautions are taken, the crane should not be sited where there is danger to
foundations, rail tracks or temporary access roads from surface water drainage, flooding or rises in
the water level.
• Erection, Dismantling and Height Alteration:
• General precautions:
Accidents may occur during crane erection, dismantling and height alteration operations due to
failure to follow the correct procedures specified by the crane manufacturers, use of incorrect
parts, the wrong size or type of bolt, the incorrect assembly or sequence of assembly, or taking
apart of components

• To avoid dangerous and expensive consequences, the following points should be observed:
(a) the owner should arrange to conduct a risk assessment before the commencement of any
erection, dismantling or height alteration operation on tower crane to identify the hazards inherent
in the operation and the hazards which could result from adjacent activities, the risk assessment
should be conducted in accordance with the details
(b) the owner should formulate measures for avoiding the hazards identified in risk assessment, or
where this is not possible, devise measures for minimizing their likelihood of occurrence /
mitigating their consequences.
These measures include but not limited to the following:
• installation of fall protection system for workers working at height;
• suspension of work activities within an exclusion zone around the tower crane until an
operation is completed;
• provision of personal protective equipment such as protective gloves, ear protectors and
reflective vests;
• sufficient rest breaks;
• provision of proper training for competent person and workmen engaged in tower crane
erection, dismantling or height alteration operations;
• provision of adequate lighting between floors; and ensure the work is carried out by
competent workmen and competent person.
• all measures for avoiding or mitigating the hazards identified in the risk assessment;
• step-by-step procedures supplemented by diagrammatic illustrations;
• highlighting of critical hazards and safety precautions by specific warning words such as
“Danger”, “Caution” and “Hold Points”;
• procedure and instruction on dealing with “Hold Points” of critical parts;

• procedures for avoiding hazards to personnel working adjacent to the tower crane;
• clear statements on the role and tasks of members of the working crew; and
• arrangements for effective communication;
(c) if applicable, copies of risk assessment report (including the method statement) should be
distributed to the competent specialist contractor, who should be advised of the estimated duration
of the operation and the boundaries of the exclusion zone;
(d)if practicable, erection, dismantling or height alteration operation during night time should be
avoided;
(e) most manufacturers specify limiting wind velocities for the erection, dismantling and height
alteration operations, and these operations should not be undertaken in high wind speeds.
Particular care should be taken in gusty conditions and where there are shielding and funneling
(venture) effects in the vicinity of tall buildings;
(f) assemblies should be slung from the points recommended by the manufacturer and in such a
way that they will not swing or become unstable or sustain damage when lifted;
• Erection of tower:
When the base or chassis has been set up, the tower (which may include the slewing gear and
tower head) is then erected and attached to it using a second crane or a self-erection procedure. In
either case the tower should be correctly orientated within the base section. Where the jib is
attached to the tower head before the tower is raised from horizontal to the vertical position, some
means, such as a plank or board should be placed beneath the outer end of the jib to ensure that it
can move freely across the ground as the tower is raised. Where a second crane is used for
erection, the number of sections in any tower sub-assembly should be minimum as to eliminate

excessive stresses in the assembly when it is raised from the horizontal to the vertical position. It is
recommended that jib-ties are attached before the jib is raised and positioned at the top of the
tower section. When a tower section or sub-assembly has been placed in position, all bracing,
locking devices, etc., should be attached and bolts securely tightened before proceeding with the
next stage of the erection operation. It is essential to ensure that any specially strengthened tower
sections are positioned where required. It may be necessary to guy or support the tower depending
on its free standing height. When tension the guys, ensure that the pull is even on each and that the
tower remains perfectly plumb. Ensure also that blocking is installed in the tower to support the
guys and to prevent the tower from being damaged.
• Weather conditions:
Cranes shall not be used under weather conditions likely to endanger its stability. Before a crane is
taken into use after exposure to weather conditions likely to have affected the stability of the crane,
the crane's anchorage or ballast shall be tested by a competent examiner (Regulation 7G of the
LALGR)
Any instructions issued by the crane manufacturers advising conditions under which a crane
should be taken out of service and recommending the conditions in which it should be placed
should be strictly followed. During adverse weather conditions such as rainstorm and lightning,
adequate precautions should be taken to prevent personnel associated with the use of the crane
from being endangered.
Cranes are generally designed to operate in conditions of normal steady wind speed and should not
be operated in wind speeds that are in excess of those specified in the operating instructions for the
crane. Gusty wind conditions may have an adverse effect on safe working loads and machine
stability. Even in relatively light wind conditions it is prudent to avoid handling loads presenting
large wind-catching surfaces. Name boards or other items presenting a wind catching area should
not be fitted to the jib, counter jib, or tower of a tower crane without the express approval of the
manufacturer. An anemometer or wind speed measuring device should be provided at a suitably
elevated position on all tower cranes. Where practicable the indicator of the instrument should be

fitted at the crane operator's station. Necessary actions on the operation of tower cranes which
correspond to various magnitudes of measured wind speed as recommended by the manufacturers
should be strictly adhered to.
• Monthly Inspection and Maintenance of Tower Crane:
(1) Further to weekly full inspection by competent person, inspection and maintenance to tower
crane(s) should be carried out at least once in a month by the inspection and maintenance
technicians for tower crane.
(2) The inspection and maintenance technicians should properly record all their work performed
and the respective findings.
(3) The record should be read and signed by inspection and maintenance technician(s).
(4) Inspection and maintenance record should include the following, if applicable:
• basic information such as crane model, the date of the inspection, workplace reference,
workplace address, crane owner, wind speed, running hour of the crane and voltage of the power
supply to the crane should be logged;
• details of inspection, maintenance and repair work carried out should be logged in the
record with details of the condition of the parts inspected and whether lubrication was applied. If
repair work is required or has been carried out, the details should be entered into the record;
• the inspection, maintenance and repair work carried out on critical mechanism of the tower
crane, including but not limited to, if applicable:
(5) hoisting operation of the tower crane such as:
• inspection and adjustment (if required) of the braking system for hoisting, auxiliary
hydraulic braking system, hook height limit switch, moment cutout switch and overload cutout
switch;
• inspection of electrical parts for hoisting system, gearbox oil level and refill, hoist winch
and main axle, lubrication and oiling;

• fixing of the base for hoisting parts, connection pins/bolts for gearbox and footings;
• inspection of the connections for all pulleys, hooks and pins;
• inspection of the lubrication, wear and tear condition of wire ropes;
• inspection of the swivel/anti-twist device for wire ropes at jib; and
• inspection of safety latches of all hooks;
(6) luffing operation of the tower crane such as:
• inspection and adjustment of hydraulic braking system, luffing travel limit switch and
trolley limit cutout switch;
• inspection of electrical parts for luffing;
• fixing of luffing parts, pins bolt and nuts;
• inspection of the lubrication, wear and tear condition of trolley pulleys;
• inspection of the lubrication, wear and tear condition of wire ropes; and boom stops.
(7) slewing parts such as:
• inspection and adjustment to slewing limit switches;
• inspection of electrical parts for slewing;
• inspection and securing of V-Belt to the slewing motor;
• inspection of the slewing gearbox oil level and refill;
• inspection and fixing of the bolts of slewing bearing;
• lubrication of the slewing bearing with grease;

• lubrication of the slewing ring with grease; and fixing of connection pins/bolts for gearbox;
(8) steel structure and main structural parts such as:
• inspection of tower base and mast base;
• inspection of the connections of all mast sections, checking for any missing split pins /
bolts and nuts;
• inspection of the connections and split pins at jib and other steel structural parts / bolts and
nuts;
• inspection of the welding parts of all structural components such as mast sections, slewing
ring, tie bar and foundation anchor etc.;
• inspection for any deformation at tower mast sections, jib and counter-jib (vertical parts
and tie bars); inspection of the connections of climbing collars (or wall ties)
• inspection of pins and bolts of ballast blocks; and
• inspection of climbing ladders of tower crane; and

Routine checks:
At the beginning of each shift or working day, the operator, if competent for the purpose, or a
competent person, should carry out the following routine checks, as appropriate:
a) checks as required by the manufacturer’s instructions;
b) check that the automatic safe load indicator is correctly set and/or fitted with the correct jib
length
c) (or jib and fly-jib lengths) and falls of hoist rope;
d) check that the correct load-radius scale appropriate to the jib (or fly-jib) length is fitted on the
visual indicator;
e) check crane level indicator (where applicable);
f) check working space limiter/anti-collision system (where applicable);
g) check audio and visual alarming devices;
h) check the security of the counterweight or ballast where this is in the form of removable
weights, check that the weights fitted correctly correspond to those shown on the counterweight
chart for the operating condition.
i) check the oil level(s), fuel level and lubrication;
j) check hook for signs of cracks and wear;
k) check loosening of pins, bolts and nuts;
L) check the ropes, and rope terminal fittings and anchorages for obvious damage and wear;
m) check the condition and inflation pressure(s) of tyres (where applicable);
n) check that all water is drained from any air receivers;
o) check the jib structure for damage;
p) check the operating pressures in any air and/or hydraulic system(s);
q) check leakage of brake fluid and hydraulic oil;
r) check the operation of the crane through all motions with particular attention to brakes to ensure
that these are operating efficiently;
s) check the operation of all limit switches or cut-outs (use caution in making the checks in case of
non-operation);
t) on rail-mounted cranes the wheels and axles are in good condition; the cable drum is free to
revolve and the cable does not foul on any part of the crane structure;
u) all rail clamps and out-of-service anchorages have been released;
v) the track is in good condition and clear of obstructions, and that there is no undue settlement,
loose joints, cracks, or gaps between adjacent length of rail;
w) the crane is placed out of service when the wind speed registered is near the manufacturer's safe
working limit and that where an anemometer is fitted to the crane, it is in working order;
x) split pins and locking cellars are in position on jib and counter-jib ties and counter balance
hanger bars;

y) the travel warning device operates;
z) on a climbing crane all climbing frames and wedges are secure, and that the anchorages and
wedges on any tower ties or tie frames are secure and locked in position where necessary.
 Different Types of Temporary Building Structures:
Temporary doesn’t mean short-lived or fragile when it comes to temporary building structures.
These sturdy structures stand the test of time and have a variety of different uses. Temporary
building structures are multi-purpose, portable structures that offer protection under all weather
conditions. They are great alternatives to conventional structures and offer some impressive
advantages that include quick delivery, portability, and low cost.
Temporary Building Structures as Garages
Car dealers, automobile auctions, and repair shops are just a few automotive type businesses that
have used temporary building structures for garages. The large size of these shelters can house
dozens of cars at one time. Vehicles are instantly protected from bird droppings, dirt, wind, rust,
acid rain, sap, hail, snow, and the sun. An instant garage alleviates worry about damage to vehicles.
Garage shelters are designed for quick and easy assemblage. No slabs, footers, or concrete are
required. When rain, wind, snow, or freezing temperatures make it next to impossible to perform
vehicle maintenance, temporary building structures as garages can provide a warm shelter away
from the inclement weather. Not only are the vehicles protected, but employees are kept happy and
healthy.
Large-scale Greenhouses for Cultivation
When businesses need a large-scale solution for indoor growing, temporary building structures
step in and provide a climate-controlled environment. They can provide year-round growing and
multiple harvests per year.
One rather new use for cultivating in temporary building structures is growing cannabis. With 23
states allowing the sale of medical or recreational marijuana, warehouse space is becoming scarce.
Tension fabric buildings are a perfect solution. They can use translucent fabric to allow light in and
they are sturdy enough to hold heavy lighting that is required to grow cannabis indoors.
Nursery businesses are making use of temporary building structures too. They are an economical
solution that can provide seedlings, plants, and flowers to customers. Indoor growing provides
harsh element protection. Plants are easily weakened by heavy winds, burning heat, driving rain,
and mild frost. Higher yields and healthier vegetation can occur with the use of temporary building
structures.
Barn and Farm Storage : Protect animals from the inclement, foul weather with temporary
building structures. They can be customized to serve as run in sheds, storage shelters, horse arenas,

or housing structures. Temporary building structures are superior alternatives when the cost is
considered. Portable housing is easy to build.
Horse shelter canopies or canopies for pigs, cows, goats, and other animals are excellent uses for
temporary buildings. The shade protects animals from intense solar radiation. The temporary
building structures can be ventilated to protect, and, therefore, improve, the welfare and health of
animals by providing a better environment. Healthy, stress-free, and productive livestock result.
Other Uses of Temporary Building Structures

Innovative technology is used in the construction of these multi-use shelters that often offer a
better alternative to conventional structures. They have been used as:
 Boat and RV Storage

 Workshops
 Disaster Relief Stations
 Screen Houses
 Pool Enclosures
 Airplane Hangars
Temporary building structures are made from UV-treated fabric. The structural frames have been
tested and can withstand severe environmental conditions. They might be temporary…but they’re
built to last.
CHAPTER 3.
GENERAL SAFETY MEASURES
 Workplace Housekeeping Checklist for Construction Sites:
What is an example of a workplace housekeeping checklist for construction sites?
DO
 Gather up and remove debris to keep the work site orderly.

 Plan for the adequate disposal of scrap, waste and surplus materials.
 Keep the work area and all equipment tidy. Designate areas for waste
materials and provide containers.
 Keep stairways, passageways, ladders, scaffold and gangways free of

material, supplies and obstructions.
 Secure loose or light material that is stored on roofs or on open floors.

 Keep materials at least 2m (5 ft.) from openings, roof edges, excavations or
trenches.
 Remove or bend over nails protruding from lumber.
 Keep hoses, power cords, welding leads, etc. from laying in heavily
travelled walkways or areas.
 Ensure structural openings are covered/ protected adequately (e.g. sumps,

shafts, floor openings, etc.)
DO NOT
 Do not permit rubbish to fall freely from any level of the project. Use chutes
or other approved devices to materials.
 Do not throw tools or other materials.
 Do not raise or lower any tool or equipment by its own cable or supply hose.
 Flammable/Explosive Materials
 Store flammable or explosive materials such as gasoline, oil and cleaning

agents apart from other materials.
 Keep flammable and explosive materials in proper containers with contents

clearly marked.
 Dispose of greasy, oily rags and other flammable materials in approved

containers.
 Store full barrels in an upright position.
 Keep gasoline and oil barrels on a barrel rack.
 Store empty barrels separately.
 Post signs prohibiting smoking, open flames and other ignition sources in
areas where flammable and explosive materials are stored or used.
 Store and chain all compressed gas cylinders in an upright position.
 Mark empty cylinders with the letters "mt," and store them separately from
full or partially full cylinders.
 Ventilate all storage areas properly.
 Ensure that all electric fixtures and switches are explosion-proof where
flammable materials are stored.

 Use grounding straps equipped with clamps on containers to prevent static
electricity buildup.
 Provide the appropriate fire extinguishers for the materials found on-site.
Keep fire extinguisher stations clear and accessible.
 Safety - Electrical Hazards on Construction Sites:
Construction sites tend to be full of potential electrical fire dangers. Fires on

construction sites happen all too frequently, and they pose a tremendous risk of
serious injury or even death for the workers on site. Construction site fires also pose
a risk to the general public as well as the property around a jobsite. Damage to both
the worksite and the surrounding property can add up to significant, unforeseen
costs to a construction company.
The awareness of electrical and fire hazards on construction sites has grown
through the years as frequent incidents of fires and accidents could not be
overlooked. Improvements in general construction site procedures and safety
measures are already making a difference, but more can always be done. Some of
the major areas of concern in terms of the risk of electrical fires are whenever any
large, high-wattage power tools are in use. The potential for electrical fire is
heightened whenever portable generators bring electricity to a jobsite or when a
new electrical system is being installed or tested in a building.You can reduce the
likelihood of electrical fires and other electrical accidents by taking a few
precautions.
 General Preventative Safety Measures:
 Put an effective lockout/tagout on live, energized circuits
 Wear protective eyewear and appropriate gloves while working
 Keep the work area neat and tidy by removing all debris daily
 Avoid mishaps by installing guard rails if working on elevated surfaces.
 Provide Adequate Training and Supervision: Be sure to provide thorough, up-to-

date training and supervision for all of your employees, especially those working
directly with electricity. Pay close attention to new employees so that you can
ensure they know how to handle themselves around high voltage equipment.
 Safety During Welding: The welding, cutting and brazing processes can produce
sparks and extremely hot flying particles. Showers of sparks can move molten metal
far from the work area where they are not seen, and could start a fire. Put shields
around the welding site to prevent this. Remove all combustible materials, liquids

and containers from the work area. Position tool cords safely and make sure sparks
or molten metal do not burn any power cords.
 Temporary Electrical Service Safety: At times a construction site requires a

temporary electrical service to be installed outside of a building in progress until the
building has its own electricity system. If this is the case, make sure the temporary
service never becomes overloaded. Take measures to ensure that they're protected
from any stormy or rainy weather.
 Onsite Fire Extinguishers
Be sure to provide the correct type of fire extinguishers onsite for the specific tasks
your employees will be performing. The Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) lists five primary types of extinguishers available for the
workplace and personal use. They run from A to E, but type C fire extinguishers are
the ones used for electrical fires - whether caused by electric motors, fuse boxes or
welding machines. Be sure to have them on hand whenever electricity is in use at
your jobsites.
 MATERIALS HANDLING AND EQUIPMENT
INTRODUCTION:
1. This chapter addresses the safety and health requirements for Smithsonian Institution
(SI) materials handling and storage and applies to all SI worksites. All materials
handling and storage shall be performed in accordance with the requirements contained
in the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards in 29 CFR
1910 Subpart N, “Materials Handling and Storage,” and the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) Standard 505, “Powered Industrial Trucks Type Designations,
Areas of Use, Maintenance, and Operations.” Since injuries may result from
improperly handling and storing materials, it is important to be aware of incidents that
may occur from unsafe or improperly handled equipment and improper work practices
when handling and storing materials. Topics discussed in this chapter include:
a. Moving Loads (General)
b. Loading Docks Material Handling
c. Manually Moving Loads
d. Forklifts/Powered Industrial Trucks
e. Hoists

f. Scissor Lift Work Platforms
g. Slings And Hooks
h. Cranes And Gantries
i. Other Material Handling Equipment
j. Storage Requirements (General)
k. Storage Of Hazardous Materials/Chemicals (General)
l. Storage Of Other Materials
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES:

1. Safety Coordinators shall:
a. Assist supervisors in complying with this Chapter and ensuring that resources are
available to fully comply.
b. Ensure retention of all employee equipment training certificates.
2. Supervisors shall:
a. Ensure hazard controls detailed in this chapter are implemented.
b. Develop Job Hazard Analyses per Chapter 4, “Safety Risk Management Program”,
of this Manual for the more hazardous, non-routine material handling operations.
c. Ensure employees receive training prior to operating and demonstrate they are
competent to operate material handling equipment.
d. Allow employees to only operate material handling equipment for which they have
been trained;
e. Ensure employees follow all safety requirements and perform safely.
f. Ensure employees have and use personal protective equipment to include safety
shoes and hard hats when moving objects that are overhead and goggles when
moving liquids that could pose a splash hazard.
3. Employees shall:
a. Perform material handling operations and operate material handling equipment
safely to prevent injury or damage;
b. Inspect and perform safety checks on material handling equipment before each use
to ensure equipment is in proper working order and is appropriate for material
being handled;
c. Report any deficiencies found during pre-use inspections to supervisor;
d. Not operate material handling equipment for which they have not been trained.
e. Follow all safety requirements, use required personal protective equipment and
perform their duties safely.
 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION:
1. Back injury is the number one injury associated with improper material
handling.

2. Heavy or unbalanced loads could fall and injure employees, especially head and
feet.
3. Vehicle becomes unbalanced and overturns with driver not wearing seat belts.
4. Improper or unsafe use of material handling equipment could cause injury or
property damage.
5. Falls from working platforms or ladders could occur
6. Damaged or poorly maintained equipment could cause injury.
7. Battery charging and filling pose significant risks
8. Loading docks pose numerous risks for injury or property damage to include:
a. falls from unguarded dock edges,
b. slips/trips due to wet or icy surfaces,
c. caught between/under due to crowded staging areas, unbalanced loads,
d. collision due to numerous pieces of moving equipment or vehicles,
e. tip over due to steep inclines improperly traversed,
f. lift platforms could fail or operate improperly,
g. Wheeled vehicles could roll if not properly secured, or damage to vehicles could
occur due to tight maneuver room,
h. Overhead doors may open or close unexpectedly,
i. Hazardous chemicals with their commensurate risks may be involved during
loading/unloading operations
j. Any fuel-operated material-handling vehicle poses the risk of fire and explosion.
k. Material handling equipment used in cramped spaces or populated areas pose
significant hazards of injury or property damage.
HAZARD CONTROLS:
1. Moving Loads (General)
a. Check the load first to decide how best to move it—forklift, hand truck, hoist,
conveyor, manually, etc. Then check the route to be taken and remove obstacles, or
find another route if the obstacle cannot be moved. Make sure there is space for
the load at its destination and that equipment, platforms, elevators, etc. are rated to
handle the load weight and bulk.
b. Forklifts, hand trucks, dollies, or other material handling equipment (MHE)
carrying unbalanced loads or loads that obstruct the operator’s view may be
dangerous to the operator and any other employees in the area. Place loads
carefully so they are stable and will not fall off or tip the equipment over. Load
heaviest objects at the bottom and secure/strap any bulky or awkward items.
Ensure operator has sufficient view in direction of movement.
c. Whenever MHE are equipped with seat belts, operators will wear them.
d. Consider a ground guide when negotiating bulky loads through narrow aisles or
crowded spaces.

e. When operating on a ramp or steep incline, employees shall keep loads downhill to
prevent the load from rolling over them if they lose control.
f. Employees shall inspect material handling equipment before each use:
(1) Check the framework for obvious signs of damage such as broken welds or
fractured boards.
(2) Check the tires for large pieces missing from solid tires and air missing from
pneumatic tires.
(3) Ensure accessories (e.g., handle extensions, nose plate extensions, stair
climbers, etc.) are properly attached.
(4) Inspect straps and ratchets for damage or deterioration. Test wheel brakes to
ensure they work.
(5) If damage/defects are noted, remove the equipment from service and tag with
a “Do Not Use” sign until it is repaired.
2. Loading Docks Material Handling:

a. Employees shall keep loading docks clear of water and ice as much as possible.
b. Adequate space shall be available for the safe loading/unloading of docked
materials.
c. Employees shall stay away from unguarded dock edges.
d. Secure movable dock loading/unloading plates.
e. Check dock plate load capacity before loading it.
f. Block or chock truck/trailer wheels to keep them from moving.
g. Be alert to overhead door movements.
h. Employees shall protect their hands from being crushed against solid objects and
watch for pinch points when going through doorways or other tight spaces. Use
hand and forearm protection (e.g., long-cuff, heavy work gloves) and safety shoes
to protect from falling loads or wheeled vehicles in tight spaces.
3. Manually Moving Loads: Manual lifting and moving loads is a major potential source of
back injuries among workers. When manually moving materials, employees shall follow proper
lifting techniques. Employees shall seek additional assistance when:
(1) A load is so bulky they cannot grasp or lift it;
(2) When they cannot see around/over the load;
(3) When the load is too heavy to handle for one person, and
(4) When a worker cannot safely handle the load manually.
Supervisors shall assist employees in reducing the potential for back injuries by employing the
following lifting principles whenever possible:
(1) Eliminate the need to handle materials manually by using/installing mechanical lifting aids
(e.g. lift truck, conveyor, hoist, etc.);
(2) Manually move the load with a handling aid (e.g. cart, dolly, etc.);
(3) Reduce the size or weight of the objects lifted;
(4) Change the height of a pallet or shelf.

Using safe manual lifting techniques may reduce back injuries such as pulls and disc
impairments. Leg muscles are stronger than back muscles, so workers should lift with their legs
and not with their back.
4. Forklifts/Powered Industrial Trucks:
o OSHA defines “powered industrial trucks” as “mobile, powered, driven vehicles used to
carry, pull, push, lift, stack, or tier materials.”
o Trucks shall have a label indicating acceptance by a nationally recognized testing

laboratory. No one shall be permitted to make modifications or additions affecting the
capacity or safe operation of a powered industrial truck without the manufacturer’s prior
written approval. Any modifications and additions shall be added to the truck’s capacity,
operation, and maintenance information and postings.
o Forklifts/powered industrial trucks shall also comply with the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) Standard 505, “Powered Industrial Trucks Type Designations, Areas of
Use, Maintenance, and Operations.”
o Powered industrial trucks operating in potentially hazardous atmospheres must be approved

for that purpose and have additional safeguards for use. Refer to OSHA 29 CFR
1910.178(b) for more detail on these requirements.
o Because of the fire hazard, only electrically powered material handling equipment will be
used in museums, collections areas and populated spaces. Newly purchased forklifts will
be battery powered. Large, gas-powered equipment required for lifting extremely large
exhibits may only be used when no visitors are present.
o Trucks shall not be parked and left unattended in areas occupied by or frequented by the
public.
o Contact the Office of Safety, Health and Environmental Management if clarification is
required on which powered industrial trucks may be used in what type of environments.
o Forklifts/powered industrial trucks shall be inspected prior to use and documented on
Attachments 1 and 2. Keep on hand the last five (5) checklists for auditing purposes to
ensure documentation of inspections.
o Forklifts/powered industrial trucks have a high center of gravity and may tip over if not
driven slowly and carefully by trained, authorized operators. Materials lifted incorrectly or
placed improperly on the forks may easily slip, causing a hazard to the operator and any
other employees in the area. When picking up materials with a forklift/powered industrial
trucks, operators shall:
(1) Follow the manufacturer’s operational instructions.
(2) Keep forks and loads low and tilted back while moving.
(3) Center the load on the forks as close to the mast as possible, which minimizes tipping or
chances of the load falling.
(4) Do not overload forklifts/powered industrial trucks because it will impair the controls and
cause tipping. Do not put extra weight on the rear of a counter-balanced forklift/powered
industrial truck to allow an overload.
(5) Adjust the load to the lowest safe position when traveling.

(6) If the load obstructs the operator’s forward view, then the operator shall travel with the load
trailing the vehicle. Consider the use of a ground guide if needed.
(7) Pile and cross-tier stacked loads correctly.
j. Additional safety precautions for forklifts/powered industrial trucks:

(1) Provide sufficient head room under overhead installations, lights, pipes, and sprinkler systems.
(2) Forklifts shall be equipped with a cage over the operator’s seat to protect them from shifting or
falling loads. The forklift shall also be equipped with a vertical load back rest extension when the
load presents a hazard to the operator.
(3) Forklifts shall be equipped with a back-up alarm and a horn. When a forklift is used inside a
building it must have a strobe light attached to its roll cage.
(4) Be careful when approaching doorways, aisle crossings, and other intersections—sound a
warning signal whenever pedestrians or other moving equipment are operating in the same area.
When more than one forklift is operating in the same area, follow the rules of the road- e.g. yield
to the right, stop at intersections and clear before preceding, etc.
(5) Where applicable provide signage to warn pedestrians to be on the look-out for powered
industrial trucks and stay out of the way when truck is in use.
(6) Park a forklift with the forks lowered and tilted flat, brake set, and keys removed. Block the
wheels if the truck is parked on an incline. These precautions will be followed when an operator
will be more than 25 feet away from the vehicle or the vehicle is out of sight.
(7) Set the brakes when using the truck to load/unload materials. The dock/board/bridge plate
shall be secured so they will not move when equipment drives over them.
(8) Additional riders are prohibited on forklifts/powered industrial trucks.
(9) Never stand or walk under the raised part of a forklift/powered industrial truck.
(10) Do not put arms/legs between the uprights of the mast or outside the running lines of a
forklift/powered industrial truck.
(11) Locate battery-charging installations in designated areas, and ensure fire extinguishers are
within 25 feet when charging. This area must be designated as a “No Smoking” area. Spill control
supplies must be available for neutralizing and flushing spilled electrolyte. The battery-charging
equipment shall be protected from truck damage. Provide ventilation of battery-charging gases.
(12) Disconnect battery before repairing an electrical system.
(13) Provide auxiliary directional lighting on forklifts/powered industrial trucks when the general
lighting is less than 2 lumens/square foot.
5. Hoists:
a. OSHA requires that all hoisting equipment be inspected initially and per the inspection
section ”n” below, according to standards set by the individual manufacturer and ANSI.
Inspections:
(1) Prior to First Use/Major Alteration: Following assembly and erection of hoists, and before
being put in service, an inspection and test of all functions and safety devices shall be made under
the supervision of a Competent Person (one who is capable of identifying existing and predictable
hazards in the surroundings or working conditions which are hazardous or dangerous to
employees, and who has authorization to take prompt corrective measures to eliminate them). A
similar inspection and test shall be required following major alteration of an existing installation.

(2) Daily (or prior to use) inspections: Daily (or prior to use if hoists are not used daily)
inspections shall be performed by the operator at the start of each shift, or at the time the hoist is
used for the first time during each shift. The inspection regimen shall include, but not be limited
to, an examination of the chain for wear, twists, excessive dirt, broken links, and proper
lubrication. Hooks shall be inspected for deformations, cracks, damage, and properly operating
latches.
(3) Frequent inspections: Frequent inspections are the next level up from daily inspections.
Frequent inspections shall be performed by a person who is trained, experienced, and qualified to
perform hoist inspections. How often the frequent inspections are done is a function of hoist
service. If the hoist is seeing normal service, then the frequent inspections should be conducted
once a month. For heavy service, the frequent inspections should be weekly to monthly. Severe
service applications warrant frequent inspections, daily to weekly. During frequent inspections,
check the hoist more thoroughly than the operator’s daily inspections. Use American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Standard B30.16, “Overhead Hoists (Underhung),” and the
manufacturer's recommendations to determine frequent inspection criteria. ASME B30.16 outlines
construction, installation, operation, inspection, and maintenance requirements for hand chain-
operated chain hoists and electric and air-powered chain and wire rope hoists used for, but not
limited to, vertical lifting and lowering of freely suspended, unguided, loads which consist of
equipment and materials.
(4)Periodic inspections: Periodic inspections shall be performed by a qualified inspector, and at
intervals recommended by the manufacturer and according the severity of the service. Hoists shall
also be inspected and tested at not less than three month intervals. Periodic inspections are more
thorough than frequent inspections. According to the severity of the service, the inspector shall
refer to ASME B30.16 and the manufacturer’s recommendations. Disassembly is not required for
any of these inspections unless the inspection indicates a breakdown is needed. However, prior to
placing the hoist back in service, load testing is required if some disassembly involving load-
bearing components has occurred.
c. The most important variables in safe hoist operation are knowledge about the hoist, the load, and
safe operating practices, and the training and communication that support that knowledge.
d. Safe hoist operation begins with proper hoist selection. The hoist must be matched to the
application. Hoist capacity is of primary importance; it is critical that the hoist selected has a
capacity that exceeds the weight of the load. Consider a powered hoist if the load has to be lifted a
long distance or repeatedly.
e. Ensure the hoist’s load chain is long enough to reach the load. The chain must be straight and
properly seated in the load sheave. Avoid tip loading unless the hook is specifically designed for
point loads.
f. Operator training shall be specific to the type of hoist the operator will be using, including
information about lift capacity as well as inspections and maintenance, slip clutches, load limit
devices, braking mechanisms, and wear limits. Training shall include a discussion of balanced lift
points and safe rigging practices.
g. Slings or other attachments shall be seated in the saddle of the hook and hook latches shall be
present and functioning properly. The hoist's load chain shall never be used as a sling.
h. Loads shall always be lifted slowly at first to ensure everything is seated and operating properly.
Lift loads vertically, and do not side pull a load, which places additional stress on the hoist and
risks uncontrolled load swings.
i. Avoid using the hoist’s travel limits to stop operation. These limits are usually not designed for
regular everyday usage; they are intended for emergency use.

j. When the hoist is coupled to a trolley, take care not to crash the trolley into the end stops on the
beam. Hitting the end stops increases stress on the hoist and may cause dangerous load swings.
k. Jogging the hoist’s motor shall be minimized; it generates heat in the motor’s windings, which
could lead to motor failure.
l. Supervisors shall ensure hoist operators and signal persons can communicate, especially in noisy
environments where lifting operations require a hoist operator and a signal person (e.g., rigging or
hook-up person) to use hand signals or voice communication. Hand signals shall be documented
and posted. Except to obey a stop signal, the operator shall only respond to hand signals from the
designated signal person.
m. Before giving the signal to lift a load, the operator shall inspect their surroundings, to ensure
they have a solid foundation for executing a manual lift, and that all personnel are clear of the load.
The operator shall communicate their intention to begin lifting to employees in the immediate
vicinity of the lift, and pay close attention to the hoist in progress. Operators shall never leave a
load unattended or suspended.
n. It is the hoist inspector's responsibility to alert maintenance workers of an inspection's findings.
Hoists that do not pass inspection need to be tagged "Out of Service" and removed from the
hoisting area until repaired or replaced.
o. The employer shall prepare a certification record for frequent and periodic inspections that
includes the date the inspection and test of all functions and safety devices was performed; the
signature of the person who performed the inspection and test; and a serial number, or other
identifier, for the hoist that was inspected and tested. The most recent certification record shall be
maintained on file.
6. Scissor Lift Work Platforms:
a. Lifting and elevating the work platform must be done on flat, firm surfaces.
b. The safety bar located inside the lifting mechanism must be used to prevent lowering of the
scissor-type lift during maintenance or inspection.
c. DO NOT:
(1) Elevate the work platform if it is not on a firm level surface; or
(2) Exert excessive side force while the work platform is elevated;
(3) Overload (the relief valve does not protect against overloading);
(4) Alter or disable limit switches;
(5) Raise the platform in windy or gusty conditions. (The manufacturer recommends not
raising to full height or half height in windy or gusty wind conditions). The manufacturer follows
a 20 mph wind speed as a guide. The manufacturer recommends not raising the lift if the wind
speed is 20 mph or greater.)
(6) Park the work platform on high traffic sidewalks that will impede foot traffic or wheelchair
traffic.
d. Safety Devices :
(1) The guardrails must be upright and locked in place with locking pins.
(2) The safety bar must be used for inspection and maintenance.
(3) Do not reach through scissor assembly without ensuring that the safety bar in its proper
position.
(4) The operator must wear a personal protective device (positioning device system) to prevent
movement past or over handrails. The personal protective device will consist of a body belt with a
lanyard attached to an anchor point to ensure a 100% no-fall situation. The anchor point must be

positioned so the employee cannot reach the handrail with slack in the lanyard; this will prevent an
employee from being able to fall from the platform.
e. Operators must read and completely understand the operator’s manual before being
allowed on a work platform.
f. Inspect and/or test for the following daily (documentation not required):
(1) Operating and emergency controls;
(2) Safety devices and limit switches;
(3) Tires and wheels;
(4) Outriggers;
(5) Air, hydraulic, and fuel systems for leaks;
(6) Loose or missing parts;
(7) Guardrail systems;
(8) Engine oil level; and
(9) Hydraulic reservoir level.
g. Do not operate unless proper authorization and training have been received.
7. Slings and Hooks:
a. Personnel using slings should adhere to the inspection and safe use criteria established by
OSHA and available in this OSHA guidance document found at the following link: OSHA
Guidance Document
b. Personnel using hooks for moving materials will use hooks with self-closing safety latches
or their equivalent to prevent components from slipping out of the hook.
8. Cranes and Gantries:
a. Some SI departments utilize overhead cranes to facilitate materials handling. Contractors
who use cranes on SI construction sites may affect emergency access, vehicular and pedestrian
traffic flow. Though this machinery facilitates the work, unsafe operators can put lives and
property at risk.
b. Operators of cranes and hoists must be aware of equipment limitations, inspection
requirements, proper rigging, and control functions. OSHA mandates that operators receive
training in these procedures. If your department maintains and operates a crane or gantry, ensure
operators are properly trained and that all requirements of the OSHA Crane Standards are met per
the link OSHA Crane and Hoist Safety.
9. Rated Capacity Markings:
All material-handling equipment (e.g., forklifts/powered industrial trucks, conveyors, hoists,
dollies, carts, etc.) shall have a rated capacity noted on it that determines the maximum weight the
equipment can safely handle and the conditions under which it can handle that weight. Employers
must ensure that the equipment-rated capacity is displayed on each piece of equipment.
10. Storage Requirements (General):
a. Emergencies could become disasters if exits, fire alarms, power switches, sprinklers, light
switches, etc., are blocked – even temporarily. Employees shall not block emergency access or
equipment. Aisles and passageways must be kept clear of obstructions and slip, trip, and fall
hazards. A 36 inch clearance shall be maintained around emergency equipment and the emergency
equipment shall be clearly marked.
b. Do not store materials in excess of supplies needed for immediate operations in
aisles/passageways.

c. Employers shall mark permanent aisles and passageways. Obstructions in aisles (e.g.
columns, posts, etc.) shall be clearly marked.
d. When using aisles and passageways to move materials mechanically, employees shall allow
sufficient clearance for aisles at loading docks, through doorways, wherever turns must be made,
etc. Sufficient clearance will prevent workers from being pinned between the equipment and
objects in the workplace and will prevent the load from striking an obstruction and possibly falling
on an employee.
e. When different levels exist, ramps shall be used by vehicles moving materials.
f. Doors shall be of sufficient height and width to accommodate material handling equipment.
Aisles shall be 2 feet wider than the widest vehicle used. Exit access aisles in storage areas shall
be at least 44 inches wide.
g. There must be enough operating space for handling and stacking materials safely in all
storage areas.
11. Storage of Hazardous Materials/Chemicals using Material Handling Equipment:
a. Read labels and Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) before storing chemicals or
flammable/combustible materials. Match storage conditions to material handling requirements
(e.g., dry, cool, ventilated, etc.). Refer to Chapter 19, “Chemical Handling and Storage”, of this
Manual, for other hazardous materials storage requirements. Smoking and using open flames or
spark-producing devices are prohibited in chemical storage areas. Non-compatible materials must
be segregated in storage. Refer to Chapter 36, “Fire Protection”, of this Manual, for information
on flammable/combustible materials.
b. Trash, brush, long grass, and other combustible materials shall be kept away from areas
where flammable/combustible materials are handled or stored.
c. All spills of flammable/combustible materials shall be immediately cleaned up following
guidelines outlined in the facility Emergency Spill and Leak Response Plan.
12. Storage of Other Materials:
a. When storing materials, employees shall:
(1) Prevent creating hazards when storing materials by being aware of the material’s height and
weight; how accessible the stored materials are to the user – consider the need for availability of
the material; and the condition of the storage containers. All materials stored in tiers must be
stacked, racked, blocked, inter-locked, or otherwise secured to prevent sliding or collapse.
(2) Keep storage areas free from accumulated materials that may cause slips, trips, falls, or
fires or that may contribute to harboring pests.
(3) If possible, place bound materials on racks and secure it by stacking, blocking, or inter-
locking to prevent it from sliding, falling, or collapsing.
(4) Stack lumber no more than 16 feet high if handled manually and no more than 20 feet if
using a forklift.
a. Remove all nails from used lumber before stacking it.
b. Stack and level lumber on supported bracing.
(5) Ensure stacks are stable and self-supporting. Observe height limitations when stacking
materials.
(6) Stack bags and bundles in interlocking rows and limit the height of the stack to keep them
secure.
(7) Block the bottom tiers of drums/barrels/kegs to keep them from rolling if stored on their
side.

a. Stack drums/barrels/kegs symmetrically.
b. Place planks, pallets, etc. between each tier of drums/barrels/kegs to make a firm, flat
stacking surface when stacking on end.
c. Chock the bottom tier on each side to prevent shifting in either direction when stacking two
or more tiers high.
(8) Materials must not be stored on scaffolds or runways in quantities exceeding those needed
for immediate operations.
c. Additional safe material storage practices include:
(1) Ensuring shelves and racks are sturdy and in good condition.
(2) Stacking all materials on a flat base.
(3) Placing heavier objects closer to the floor and lighter/smaller objects higher.
(4) Not stacking items so high that they could block sprinklers (18” of clearance) or come in
contact with overhead lights or pipes.
(5) Using material-handling equipment or a ladder to place or remove items above your head.
(6) Never standing on a shelf, rack, boxes, or a chair.
1. Manual Load Movement.

Employees shall receive back injury prevention training as part of the SI new hire safety
orientation, including:
a. The dangers of improper manual lifting and body warning signals when manually
lifting/carrying a load improperly.
b. Avoidance of unnecessary physical stress and strain. Use mechanical moving equipment
whenever possible.
c. Lifting aids available (e.g. stages, platforms, steps, trestles, shoulder pads, handles, wheels,
mechanical moving equipment, etc.).
d. Awareness of what an employee may comfortably handle without strain—an employee should
understand his/her body strengths and weaknesses.
e. Demonstrate and practice safe manual lifting techniques due to high incidence of back injuries.
f. Consider periodic safety talks at least annually to remind personnel about the importance of safe
lifting techniques.
g. The PPE required for manual movement of loads includes:
(1) Eye protection;
(2) Hand and forearm protection for loads with sharp/rough edges; and
(3) Steel-toed safety shoes/boots. Metatarsal guards shall be required to protect the instep area
from impact if working with heavy loads or moving equipment.
2. Forklift/powered industrial truck training:
a. Supervisors must develop a forklift/powered industrial truck training program specific to

the type of truck to be driven and the work conditions encountered.
b. Purchase of powered industrial equipment shall include as part of the purchase contract that
the dealer provide training to supervisors and operators.
c. Supervisors must evaluate the operator’s performance in the workplace and certify each
operator has received the training needed.
d. Certification shall include the operator’s name, the training date, the evaluation date, the
trainer’s name, and the evaluator’s name.
e. Supervisors must conduct a re-evaluation of each forklift/powered industrial truck
operator’s performance at least every three years.
f. A forklift/powered industrial truck operator must be re-evaluated and must attend
refresher training if:
(1) The operator is observed operating the vehicle in an unsafe manner;
(2) The operator is involved in an accident or a near-miss incident;
(3) The operator’s evaluation shows unsafe operation of the truck;
(4) The operator is assigned to drive a different type of truck; or
(5) The condition of the workplace changes in a manner that could affect safe operation of the
truck.
3. Scissor Lift Work Platform (including cherry pickers and other articulated arm work
platforms) Operator Qualification/Training :
a. Only trained and authorized personnel should use the work platform.
b. Operators must be familiar with the procedures listed for scissor lifts in this chapter before
operating the equipment.
c. Authorized personnel performing training must provide means of evidence that training has
been done. The training document will contain:
(1) Name of entity providing the training;
(2) Name of trainer;
(3) Specific statement that the training covered self-propelled work platforms;
(4) Date of training; and
(5) Name of person receiving training.
d. Workplace Inspection. Before and during use, the user shall:
(1) Check the area for possible hazards such as, but not limited to:
(a) Drop-off or holes;
(b) Slopes;
(c) Bumps;
(d) Debris;
(e) Overhead obstructions;
(f) Wind and weather conditions; and
(g) Presence of unauthorized persons.
(2) Inspect all safety devices and PPE that will be used including:
(a) Body belts (for positioning only)

(b) Lanyards
(c) Emergency stop button
(d) Hand rails
(e) Entry gate
(f) Safety bar
(g) Outriggers
F. REQUIRED INSPECTIONS:
1. Employees shall inspect material handling equipment (MHE) before each use.
2. OSHA requires that all MHE be regularly inspected according to standards set by the individual
manufacturer and ANSI:
a. Following assembly and before being put in service.

b. Following major alteration of an existing installation.
c. Frequent - weekly to monthly (heavy MHE use), and daily to weekly (severe MHE use).
d. Periodic - at no more than three month intervals.
e. Hoist inspection certification records that include the date the inspection and test of all functions
and safety devices was performed; the signature of the person who performed the inspection and
test; equipment a serial number or other identifier for the hoist that was inspected and tested.
f. The most recent certification record shall be maintained on file.
g. Forklifts/powered industrial trucks shall be inspected prior to use.
G. RECORDS AND REPORTS
1. Keep Forklift Inspection Checklists for at least the last 5 uses. For example, if you use the
forklifts on a daily basis, then keep 5 Days worth of checklists. If you use the forklifts less often,
then keep for the dates of the last 5 uses.
2. Keep training records that include the employee’s name, training topic(s), trainer’s name, and
date of training.
3. Inspection records. Unless otherwise noted in previous sections, daily inspection records
need not be kept. Periodic inspections and load testing records shall be maintained for at least one
year. Format could include tags, painting directly on device or forms with appropriate data.
UNDERWATER PORTION:
 Well sinking :
HISTORY
• They had their origin in India. • It have been used for 100 of years as a deep foundation for
important buildings and structures. • Well foundations are used since Mughal period(TAJ MAHAL
is the best example). • They were used for the first time for irrigation structures at Ganga canal at
Roorkee.(middle of 19th century) • In towers of Howrah bridge, wells of size 24.8x53.5m were
used and sinking depth was 31.4m below gnd level.(largest in India) • Many other such examples
are Rajendra Pul,Mahanadi bridge etc. • In spite of excellent development of technology on well
foundations there are still some areas where engineers face difficulty while sinking of wells.

o Benefits of Well Foundation:
• Provides massive and solid foundation.
• Possible to sink well through boulders,logs of wood found at depth.
• Large section modulous with minimum cross sectional area is advantageous.
• The strata through which well passes is known exactly.
• Well raising and steining is done in steps so foundation level can be varied.
• Economical to provide it for unstable soil mass.
Construction Procedure:-
• Layout
• Fabrication of cutting edge.
• Well curb.
• Construction of steining.
• Island construction
• Well Sinking.
• Plugging.
• Sand filling.
• Casting of well cap.
o SINKING OPERATIONS.
a) Erect Cutting Edge.
b) Erect inside shuttering of curb.
c) Fix reinforcement for the curb.
d) Erect outside shuttering of curb.
e) Concrete the curb and ground it.
f) Remove the shuttering.
g) Fix reinforcement in steining.
h) Erect reinforcement for one lift.
SINKING OPERATIONS. • Concrete the steining. • Dredge inside the well. • Sink the well in
stages. • Sinking is done by uniform excavation of material. • Use of water jetting and explosives
may be done. • Normally dewatering should not be done. • Tilts must be rectified wherever
necessary.
Precautions:
• When two wells sunk near each other, they should be sunk alternately.
• Least possible area must be disturbed in vicinity.
• In sinking of dumb bell shaped well, excavation must be done simultaneously.
• Dredged material must not be accumulated near well.
• In sinking of two wells through sand, timber logs are provided between steining.
• Care must be taken when cutting edge approaches junction of strata.
DIFFICULTIES IN SINKING:
Sinking Well Through Clay Strata • It is one of the tough situations to face as well becomes
stationary. • Tilting occurs due to horizontal force by water. • The well becomes vulnerable to tilt if
a step is provided on outside face of the well steining to reduce • It may lead to a very expensive
and time-consuming affair for attempting to make well straight and vertical.

Measures Adopted:
• Remove soil in contact with the outside surface of the well by grabbing to a certain depth.
• Continue grabbing much below the cutting edge level of the well.
• Dewatering well results into increasing effective weight.
• Flushing with jet of water on the outside face of well.
• By Kentledge loading on the well.
CASE STUDY:
• Outside projection of well curb was 75 mm.
• Pipes were not kept in well steining to inject water on the outside surface of well.
• Stiff Clay was observed below the curb.
• It was overcome by cutting stiff clay layer by a jet of water through a pipe using a high pressure
pump.
• This pipe was supported on a circular frame.
• Actually 4 vertical pipes were fixed at 4 quadrants.
• Thus this method was found to be quite effective, safe and efficient method.
13. Elevation of Well and Pipelines.

14. Sinking In Bouldery Strata:
• Bouldery strata is treated in 3 ways-
 If they are lying loose,than with grabbing.
 If cemented but not so firmly, than underwater blasting.
 If cemented very firmly, than Pneumatic sinking.
• Soil investigation is required to decide method to be adopted.

• Three dimensional final element analysis is to be done for eccentric blasting force.
• The steining of well must be designed in vertical direction as well in the transverse direction
providing appropriate design reinforcement.
• The wells of Varanasi Bridge of 13 m dia,2.5 m thick steining and up to 67 m deep is the best
example of it.
 Formation of Heaves.
• When a well passes through soft strata over a considerable depth, the upward resistance acting on
the outside surface of the well is less than the weight of the well.
• Thus the well sinks down and quite often a heap is formed inside the dredge hole.
• Formation of heave at the designed foundation level , creates problem of laying bottom plug.
• Bottom plug laid in the dredge hole, does not serve its purpose.
 Solution for Heave formation.
• Achieving the condition that weight of well will be resisted through outside frictional force only.
• No further concreting of steining well should be done and sinking is continued.
• It will result into constant weight of well, and the frictional force outside will increase very fast.

• When the heave develops, the equilibrium of the well takes place as per following equation:
W = F+ qa
F = frictional force in the vertical direction along the outside surface of the well.
q = bearing pressure of soil.
a = area of the well supported over the heave.
17. Showing additional sinking without any further concreting of steining
18. General Measures for Ease of Sinking.
Appropriate choice of cutting edge and adoption of proper detailing:
• The "Angle iron" cutting edge works well when the well passes through alluvial soil strata
without any hard obstruction.
• A "V type" cutting edge is more appropriate in meeting various obstructive situation provided
correct detailing is adopted.
• The inclined plate should be stopped about 25 mm above the bottom tip of vertical plate.
Adequate no. of Borelogs must be taken in the location of each well.
• Presence of very large boulder covering a part of the well at some depth in the bridge over
Brahmaputra at Jogighopa.
• Similar type of problems including sudden change of bed profile are encountered in various
rivers in India.
CONCLUSION.
• A list of difficult situations, which engineers normally encounter during sinking of well
foundations, is presented.
• The problems like the formation of hump inside the dredge hole or wells cracking due to sand
blow, or in a stiff clay layer wells becoming stationary and not sinking down are quite common
situations.
• In several cases, how these problems were overcome and what were the solutions adopted are
explained.
• Thus, it was observed that, at most care should be taken while analyzing and designing well
foundation with the help of appropriate data and adoption of correct detailing.
• Caissons:
A caisson is a box type structure to be used as a part of foundation. Unlike cofferdam, it
is a permanent structure and forms an integral part of the bridge or building foundation.
 The caissons are of three types
(1) A box caisson which is closed at the bottom but open at top to the atmosphere
(2) An open caisson which is open at both the ends and
(3) A pneumatic caisson which has a working chamber with roof in which air pressure is
maintained to prevent the entry of water and soil into excavation.
The box caisson is possible where no much excavation is required under water. The box
is prepared of concrete or stone masonry on a dry dock, floated out to the location of sinking, sunk
at the place of foundation bed and filled with mass of concrete or sand. The open caisson is a
hollow cylinder or rectangular hollow shaft made of timber, masonry or RCC. Its bottom edge is
V-shaped (pointed) and known as cutting edge. On reaching foundation level, mass concrete is
placed to plug the cell after which any water is pumped out and further concrete is placed to form
the final seal. Such open caisson is possible on soft soil and not suitable on hard or irregular rock
surface.
Where piles driving or open caisson is not possible, the pneumatic caisson is created by
compressed air to drive water out of the working space for men and voids in material which is
being excavated and thereby making the inside dry for easy working. More than 1 m3 or 285 litres
of fresh air per minute per person should be supplied in the chamber at a pressure below 2.5 bar.
During compression initial pressure is kept about 0.25 bar until it is ascertained that no person is
feeling discomfort, and thereafter it may be raised at a rate not exceeding about 0.5 bar/min.
Standby power should be available to the air compressors. To improve the working condition and
to reduce the incidence of caisson sickness, the air should be warmed in cold weather and cooled
in hot weather. In tropical climate, it should be dehumidified to keep the wet bulb temperature
below 25 0C.
In air and water tight chamber, openings for men and materials are provided at top in
the vertical shafts with air-locks. The shafts (and openings) extend from the roof of the caisson to a
level well above the water level outside. The man-lock should be of sufficient size and equipped
with pressure gauges, communication system and man-lock attendant. Every caisson, shaft,
working chamber, medical lock and man lock should have a minimum internal height of 1.8 mt.
The door between the working chamber and the man lock leading to a lower pressure should be
kept open when any person is working inside and the lock is not in use. Air supplied to the caisson
from a compressor should be clean and non-polluted.
All air lines should be in duplicate and with non-return valves to prevent the air escape
from the chamber if pressure in the lines fails. There should be a standby compressor for
emergencies and two separate power supplies for each compressor. There should be two
independent sources of electrical supply for lighting. Exhaust valves should be provided on
chamber for clearing the air when necessary. Reliable means of communication such as bells,
whistles, telephones etc. should be maintained at all times between the working chamber and
surface installations. An adjustable safety valve should be fitted on the outside of the bulkhead to a
separate pipe leading from the working chamber through the bulkhead to the outside air.
Every caisson and shaft containing flammable material should have water lines, hose
connections and fire extinguishers. In all tunnels 5 mt or over in diameter or height, a well-guarded
overhead gangway should be provided from the working surface to the nearest airlock with an
overhead clearance of at least 1.8 mt. Effects of air pressure on human body may be light (known
as bends) or severe resulting in paralysis or death. Pain in ears, stomach and joints (like
rheumatism), profuse cold perspiration, dizziness, giddiness, double vision, incoherence of speech,
heat and feeling of resistance to move owing to density and pressure of air are reported. Rapid
lowering of air pressure (decompression) causes severe effect as the nitrogen comes out from the
body fluid (mostly blood). Therefore it must be ensured that the de pressuring must be carried out
slowly.
The workers should be physically fit (not fat, and with normal lungs, kidneys and good
heart rate), above the age of 20 and medically re-examined at least every 2 months or earlier. A
first-aid box should be kept in the working chamber. To counteract the effect of cold, the air-lock
should be warmed, the men coming out (emerging) should be given hot drink and they should
dress warmly. The best cure for ‘caisson disease’ is recompression with slow decompression. This
is achieved by putting the patient in a medical air-lock for this purpose. The trained lock keepers
and medical lock attendants should be employed in the works. The medical lock should have two
compartments so that it can be entered under pressure.
 Cofferdam:
A cofferdam also called a coffer is an enclosure built within, or in pairs across, a body of water
and constructed to allow the enclosed area to be pumped out. [2] This pumping creates a dry work

environment for the major work to proceed. Enclosed coffers are commonly used for construction
and repair of oil platforms, bridge piers and other support structures built within or over water.
These cofferdams are usually welded steel structures, with components consisting of sheet
piles, wales, and cross braces. Such structures are typically dismantled after the ultimate work is
completed.
 INTRODUCTION :
• Cofferdams are temporary enclosures to keep out water and soil so as to permit dewatering and
construction of the permanent facility (structure) in the dry.
• A cofferdam involves the interaction of the structure, soil, and water. The loads imposed include
the hydrostatic forces of the water, as well as the dynamic forces due to currents and waves.
• In construction of cofferdams maintaining close tolerances is difficult since cofferdams are
usually constructed offshore and sometimes under severe weather conditions. Under these
circumstances, significant deformations of cofferdam elements may happen during the course of
construction, and therefore it may be necessary to deviate from the design dimensions in order to
complete the project according to plan.
• The loads imposed on the cofferdam structure by construction equipment and operations must be
considered, both during installation of the cofferdam and during construction of the structure itself.
• Removal of the cofferdam must be planned and executed with the same degree of care as its
installation, on a stage-by-stage basis. The effect of the removal on the permanent structure must
also be considered. For this reason, sheet piles extending below the permanent structure are often
cut off and left in place, since their removal may damage the foundation soils adjacent to the
structure.
• In cofferdam construction, safety is a paramount concern, since workers will be exposed to the
hazard of flooding and collapse.
• Safety requires that every cofferdam and every part thereof shall be of suitable design and
construction, of suitable and sound material and of sufficient strength and capacity for the purpose
for which it is used, proper construction, verification that the structure is being constructed as
planned, monitoring the behavior of the cofferdam and surrounding area, provision of adequate
access, light and ventilation, and attention to safe practices on the part of all workers and
supervisors, and shall be properly maintained.
o Types of cofferdam:
1. Braced: It is formed from a single wall of sheet piling which is driven into the ground to form a
“box” around the excavation site. The box is then braced on the inside and the interior is
dewatered. It is primarily used for bridge piers in shallow water (30 - 35 ft depth)
2. Earth-Type: It is the simplest type of cofferdam. It consists of an earth bank with a clay
core or vertical sheet piling enclosing the excavation. It is used for low-level waters with
low velocity and easily scoured by water rising over the top.
3. Timber Crib: Constructed on land and floated into place. Lower portion of each cell is
matched with contour of river bed. It uses rock ballast and soil to decrease seepage and
sink into place, also known as “Gravity Dam”. It usually consists of 12’x12’ cells and is
used in rapid currents or on rocky river beds. It must be properly designed to resist lateral
forces such as tipping / overturning and sliding.

4. Double-Walled Sheet Pile: They are double wall cofferdams comprising two parallel
rows of sheet piles driven into the ground and connected together by a system of tie rods
at one or more levels. The space between the walls is generally filled with granular
material such as sand, gravel or broken rock.
5. Cellular: Cellular cofferdams are used only in those circumstances where the excavation
size precludes the use of cross-excavation bracing. In this case, the cofferdam must be
stable by virtue of its own resistance to lateral forces.
 Advantages of Cofferdam :
Performing work over water has always been more difficult and costly than performing the same
work on land. And when the work is performed below water, the difficulties and cost difference
can increase geometrically with the depth at which the work is performed. The key to performing
marine construction work efficiently is to minimize work over water, and perform as much of the
work as possible on land.
Below some of the advantages of cofferdams are listed:

 Allow excavation and construction of structures in otherwise poor environment
 Provides safe environment to work
 Contractors typically have design responsibility
 Steel sheet piles are easily installed and removed
 Materials can typically be reused on other projects
Installation
The success of any piling scheme requires satisfactory completion of the following stages.
1. Competent site investigation, sampling and relevant testing to build up an informed picture of
the task.
2. Adequate design of all the stages of the construction.
3. Setting out and installation of the piles.
As with all site operations the relevant legislation and guidance on matters pertaining to safety
must be strictly adhered to. Items needed for installation are pile driving hammer (vibratory or
impact), crane of sufficient size, steel sheet piles are typically used, H-piles and/or wide flange
beams for wales and stringers. In many cases barges may be required for efficient installation of
cofferdams.
• Hazards at Construction:
1. Fall of Persons – Fall from height, fall through opening, collapse of scaffold, structure failure,
tripping. Fall from height may be due to nonuse or failure of safety belt, lack of proper access,
non-use of proper ladder etc. Fall through opening may be due to unguarded opening or poor
guarding. Collapse of scaffold may be due to its improper design, no toe board, no means of
access. Minimum dimensions are : Board width 6”, thickness 1” and guard rail height 30 to 36”.
Tripping may be due to loose object/cables etc.

2. Fire: Due to welding, gas cutting, smoking, gas cylinders, scattered wooden material/ rubbish,
paints/thinners, temporary shed etc.
3. Electrocution: Electric shock, burns, damaged cable, no earthing, no ELCB, no use of 3 pin
plug/socket, work by nonqualified electrician etc.
4. Material Handling: No training, excessive weight lifting, improper or failure of lifting tackles,
slings etc.
5. Transport Accidents: Untrained driver, not obeying traffic rules, reversing without signaling,
over-speed, speed-breakers, poor brakes, poor lighting etc.
6. PPE: Not using helmet, safety shoes, hand gloves, safety belt, respirators etc.
7. Others: Noise, vibration, dust, gas, fumes, cave in, night work, overtime, intoxication etc. This
suggests the direction of accident prevention work in construction activity.
• UNDERWATER WORKS
Work under or over water is required for deep foundation, well sinking, river
dredging, underwater pipelines, tunneling, concreting, cofferdam, floating structure and special
operations pertaining to irrigation and marine purposes.
 General Provisions: Main safety measures necessary are
(1) to prevent workers from falling into water
(2) to rescue them in the event of drowning and
(3) safe and sufficient transport and life Saving equipment.
Life buoys, life jackets, manned boats, fencing, safety nets, safety harness and protection
from reptiles and other animals are also necessary. Bridges, footbridges, pontoons, walkways,
gangways and workplaces should possess sufficient buoyancy, strength and stability, be wide
enough to allow safe movement of workers, free from nails, bolts, knots and tripping hazards,
boarded over, lighted sufficiently, be provided with life Saving equipment, toe-boards, guard-rails,
hand ropes etc., be kept clear of tackle, tools and other obstructions, be made non-slippery by
spraying sand, ashes etc., be anchored to prevent run away, be provided with ladders with safety
hoops. Floating structures should have shelters, lifelines, gaffs, ring buoys. Rafts (logs), if used,
should be strong enough to carry loads, securely moored and have safe means of access. Iron decks
should be studded with non-slip surface and deck openings should be fenced. Floating pipelines
should have safe walkway. No person should enter a hydraulic dredge gear room without
informing the lever man and without being accompanied by a second person.
Hoist lines, drag lines, buckets, cutter heads and bridles should be inspected daily. Workers should
be embarked and disembarked only at safe and suitable landing places and counted regularly.
 Boats:
Boat used to transport workers by water should comply with legal requirements if
any. It should be manned by an adequate and experienced crew and be equipped with lifesaving
appliances. The number of persons that can be transported safely should be marked as clearly
visible and no more person than that must be allowed. Tow-boats should have a device to quick
release tow-rope. Power driven boats should carry suitable fire extinguishers. Row-boats should
carry a spare set of oars. Rescue boats should be properly constructed and of sufficient length and
beam to afford stability. For work in tidal waters or fast flowing rivers a power driven craft should
be provided with a fixed self-starting device on the motor. When not patrolling, their engines
should be run several times a day to ensure full efficiency.

• Rescue and Emergency Procedures:
Buoyancy-aid like life-jackets should be provided to rescue crew. Operatives should

not work alone and they should be trained for emergency procedures. Rule 36, BOC Workers
Rules, 1998, requires emergency action plan to handle emergencies like drowning of workers,
sinking of vessels, fire and explosion, collapse of lifting or transport equipment, building, shed,
structure etc., gas leakage, spillage of dangerous goods, land slide, floods, storms etc. It should be
approved by the Director General.
• Well-Sinking:
Shaft-sinking operation for digging well or tunnel pose various hazards like wet and
slippery footing, cramped working space, insufficient lighting, unknown weakness in rock or soil,
handling of explosives and detonators, hoisting and haulage of muck and accidents due to
machinery and mistakes in working methods. Dewatering pumps, shoring machine guarding and
control devices, use of personal protective equipment, training and supervision are useful remedial
measures.
 USE OF SAFETY EQUIPMENT
In addition to all engineering controls and work permits, personal protective equipment should
not be forgotten while working at height or depth. Safety belts of various types are available. Pole
safety belt, general purpose safety belt with or without remote anchorage and harness (man
hoisting by another man) type safety belt are in common use.
specifications stated. They are available in leather and webbing of natural and Man Made fibres,
of which, webbing is superior to leather. Webbing can withstand loads 3 to 4 times that of leather
of the same size. Web material may be cotton, nylon or dacron. While selecting a belt, its normal
and emergency use should be considered. Life Lines of manila rope of 19 mm diameter or nylon
rope of 13 mm diameter are suitable provided a shock absorbing device is available. Care of belts
is always necessary. Respiratory equipment should be se selected depending upon the working
environment.

CHAPTER 4
o SAFETY IN HIGH-RISE CONSTRUCTION :
Temporary structures Most accidents in high-rise buildings (as with most structures) occur during
the construction phase. That is because, in general, temporary structures and processes used in
construction are more susceptible to failure than permanent structures themselves:
 “Temporary” nature psychologically leads to neglect.
 Materials, procedures, inspection etc. for temporary structures are all under less scrutiny and
control.
 Foundations for temporary structures are also less known and under less control. General public
rarely gets to see them or use them.
 Personnel involved are mostly uneducated laborers.
 Temporary structures may not be subject to rigorous codes (in countries like India). Personnel
involved are not the ultimate users and hence have no vested interest in their deficiencies.
 They have no direct benefit to users after construction.
 Cost is not a main line item to client, and must be absorbed, to be amortized over repeated uses.
 Must be dismantled and reused many times, their components get damaged at critical locations.
 Scaffolds are considered so simple they need no attention.
 Design lacks construction instructions or contractor does not follow them.
Table 1. The race for the tallest building
Country K.L. Taiwan Shanghai Dubai Jakarta NewYork Shanghai

Height 452 m 508 m 492 m >800m 558 m 541 m 1228 m
Completion 1998 2004 2007 2008 2009 2010 2020

Safety in design and construction – :
Necessity or luxury?
In many countries, concept of safety is still not part of the professionals’ imperative. There is also
the deeply ingrained feeling myth that safety concerns will lead to greater cost and reduced
productivity. Over the last few decades, it has been proved that safety evaluation and control save
money provided , professionals place worker injury and death at the top of their list. Otherwise, it
may become (and remain) a legal necessity and an industry statistic The truth however is that
investment in safety is like planting a tree close to the compound wall: The fruit will be slow in
coming, not immediate; and the branches will grow beyond the property, not just one-on-one.
Which should be quite acceptable for the industry and the nation.
Working safely around asphalt:
Workers can be exposed to fumes from asphalt during road paving, roofing, siding and concrete
work. According to the New Jersey Department of Health and Senior Services, exposure to the
fumes can have both short- and long-term health consequences.
In the short term, asphalt fumes can irritate the eyes, nose and throat, leading to coughing,
wheezing and shortness of breath, the department states. The fumes also can cause headaches,
dizziness, nausea and vomiting. Long-term exposure to asphalt fumes may result in bronchitis.
To reduce workers’ asphalt-fume exposure, the department recommends the following:

• Enclose operations and use local exhaust ventilation at the site of the chemical release, when
possible. If local exhaust ventilation or enclosure is not used, respirators should be worn.
• Use a NIOSH-approved supplied-air respirator with a full face piece operated in a pressure-
demand or other positive-pressure mode if asphalt fumes are greater than the NIOSH-
recommended airborne exposure limit of 5 mg/m3 for longer than 15 minutes.
• Post warning information in work zones about the hazards of exposure as part of an ongoing
education effort.
• Communicate this information to all potentially exposed workers.
• Consider all potential exposures. Employers may need to provide a variety of personal protective
equipment.
According to the department, contact with asphalt itself can irritate and cause severe skin burns,
and may cause dermatitis and lesions similar to acne. Long-term exposure can cause skin
pigment changes, which are made worse by sunlight exposure.
Employees should follow these practices when working with asphalt:
• If clothing has been contaminated, change into clean clothing quickly.
• Ensure eyewash stations are available.
• Emergency shower facilities should be provided so that if skin comes into contact with asphalt,
employees can immediately shower off the chemical.
• Do not eat or drink where asphalt is being handled, as the chemical can be swallowed.
 Electrical supply:
Electricity is almost universally used on construction sites as a power source for a range of
machinery and portable tools, as well as lighting and heating is in wide use on construction
sites. Portable electrical appliances shall be used in damp situations only with one of the
following safeguards.
• A supply isolated from earth with a voltage between conductors not exceeding 230 volts;

• A monitored earth circuit where the supply to the appliance is automatically disconnected in the
event of the earth to the appliance being broken or disconnected,
• The appliance is double insulated;
• A source connected to earth in such a way that the voltage to earth will not exceed 55 volts AC;
or
• A residual current device.
Temporary supply switchboards All supply switchboards used on building and construction sites
should be of substantial construction and should:
• Where installed in outdoor locations, be so constructed that safe operation is not impaired by the
weather;
• Incorporate a stand for the support of cables and flexible extension cords;
• Be provided with a door and locking facility acceptable to the electrical supply authority.
Doors should be designed and attached in a manner that will not damage any flexible cord
connected to the board and should protect the switches from mechanical damage. The door
should be provided with a sign stating “KEEP CLOSED — LEADS THROUGH BOTTOM”.
• Have an insulated slot in the bottom for the passage of leads.
• Be attached to a permanent wall or suitable structure which has been designed for the purpose.
• Where pole or post mounted, be fixed by means of coach screws or bolts.

No part of a crane, digger, excavator, drill rig, or other mechanical plant, structure or scaffold may
be brought closer than 4 m to an overhead line without the written consent of the power line owner.
 Inspection of equipment:
All electrical tools and equipment should be inspected prior to their first use and thereafter at least
at 3-monthly intervals. All tools and equipment should have an identification tag stating the
date of last inspection and when the next is due.
 Safety in prevention and protection at work site including the collapsing of the
structure :
 Working at heights over 3 metres: The first and essential step in ensuring
that work is done safely is to ensure that it is practicable for the work to be
carried out safely.
 Planning: Those engaged in the architectural and engineering design of

buildings, structures, and roofs should consider the effects that their designs
may have on the safety of people who will undertake the work and work
practices necessary to carry out the work.
 Safe work practices may include one or more of the following:

• Guarding;
• Safety nets; or
• Fall arrest systems.
 Perimeter of working platforms or places of work:
Where a danger exists of any person or any materials or any other things falling from the platform
or place of work. Consideration should be given to how far a person or any materials or other
things might fall.
No account should be taken of any structure or thing temporarily placed below the working
platform or working place unless it constitutes a safe means of arresting the fall of the person
or materials.
Guardrails should be erected along the exposed edge of the working platform or working place in
accordance with the requirements of following.
Where the working platform or working place is situated above a public thoroughfare and a danger
exists of materials or other things falling from the platform or place on to persons using the
thoroughfare, then unless the area below the platform or working place is barricaded off to
prevent public access, screens or projecting platforms should be erected.
 Guardrails/ toe boards;
Where protection is required at the perimeter of the building or openings in roofs, floors or lift
shaft, and is provided by a guardrail system, the guardrail should:
• Be 900-1100 mm above the working place;
• Incorporate a mid-rail; and
• Include the installation of a toe board where there is a risk of tools or materials falling
from the roof/place of work.
 Safety nets :
Safety nets can provide a satisfactory means of protection against falling, while allowing workers
maximum flexibility of movement.

In considering the use of safety nets as a fall protection measure, employers may take into account
the usefulness of safety nets for the safety of persons in other occupations involved with the roof
structure.
Workers installing the nets should be protected from falling. Ideally a mobile work platform
(cherry picker, scissors lift) should be used, but where such mechanical access is not possible, the
workers should have the protection of scaffolding or a safety harness and line.
Nets should be hung as close as possible to the underside of the work area.
Nets should be installed with sufficient clearance to prevent contact with the surface below when a
person falls on them.
 Individual fall arrest systems:
Individual fall arrest systems include inertia reel systems, safety harnesses, lanyards and
static lines. People required to use this equipment must be trained in its use.
Waist type belts should not be used for roof work.
People using safety harnesses should not work alone. It is important that the rescue of a worker
who is suspended in a full body harness should occur within 20 minutes of the arrested fall.
Provision must be made for anchorage points for static lines, inertia reel lines, and/or safety nets as
appropriate.
 Inertia reel systems:
Inertia reel systems can be used to prevent falls where workers are required to carry out their work
near an unprotected edge.
When considering the use of inertia reels, users should bear in mind that they may be less effective
for certain applications, e.g. in arresting a person falling down the inclined surface of a pitched
roof.
Inertia reels are not designed for continuous support but become effective in the event of a fall.
They should not therefore be used as working supports by locking the system and allowing it to
support the user during normal work.
• Project management in construction safety:
Construction Phase For the project execution, the physical resources required are manpower of
different categories, construction materials, equipment and other site specific infrastructure
facilities in terms of water, power, roads, communication and other required facilities.
a) Manpower resources: Manpower resources under the categories of construction workers and
technicians shall be planned for their quantities, skills and time of requirement based on the project
details, WBS, time schedule and estimates. Resource histograms shall be prepared for different
categories of work force which can be done by using standard project management software with
in-built labour constants. Necessary resource levelling shall be carried out to sort out the peak

demands exceeding the resource availability and also to resolve idle labour situations by
rescheduling certain activities within the available floats without delaying project completion time.
Planning shall be done to take care of any situation of non-availability of local labour force
necessitating import from other localities as in case of projects in remote locations.
b) Construction Materials: Construction materials constitute a major proportion of project cost

and hence sound material management process shall be established as a subset of cost management
process. Material resource management essentially involves identification of various categories of
material requirements, market survey about their source of availability, cost and leads involved,
estimation of total quantities, determining the quantum and timing of requirements as per project
schedule, procurement process from suppliers and delivery at site. The site related material
management processes are storage and handling, usage in works, and site practices for
minimization of wastages and prevention of environmental degradation.
c) Construction Equipment: The modern construction practices adopt mechanized construction

through the extensive use of construction equipment for various project activities for improving the
quality and speed of construction. Some of the major construction equipment usage are the
equipment for earthwork operations; concrete production, transportation, placement and
compaction; false work and shuttering; pile foundations; well foundations; launching of girders for
bridges diaphragm wall constructions; road surfacing; material hoisting and handling; and smaller
portable equipment for individual construction activities. During the equipment resource planning
process, the equipment type and production capacities are decided based on the project
requirements including the site constraints, on site availability of the equipment and durations of
their deployment are worked out in relation to project schedule and quantum of work involved. For
example, the capacity of concrete batching plant is worked out based on the quantum of concrete
operations which are levelled considering the peak and low demand volumes. In the procurement
process of equipment, economic considerations of owning and operating costs or hiring on
rental/lease costs needs to be considered. On the whole, the equipment resources should be
properly planned and deployed for improved speed and quality construction at economic costs. As
part of the site management processes, due attention shall be given for the location of the
equipment and their onsite maintenance, planning and location of the site offices and laboratories,
location of the material storage and other safety and site protection measures.
Ladder Guidance:
1. On a construction project, where an employer intends to have work performed at heights, the
employer shall use a scaffold as required by section 125(1) of the Regulation. Where the hazard
assessment for the use of a ladder to perform the work in question determines that there are either
no hazards posed by the use of a ladder or that any identified hazards have been mitigated, an
employer may consider the use of a ladder to perform that work. Where a ladder is used, the
employer shall ensure that the ladder and its use comply with regulatory requirements and that all
reasonable precautions for the protection of the worker when using the ladder are taken.
2. Portable, manufactured ladders must be designed, constructed and maintained so as to not

endanger a worker and must be capable of withstanding all loads to which they may be subjected.
3. Ladders must by used in accordance with manufacturers’ instructions. It is recommended

that heavy-duty CSA-certified ladders be used at construction projects (Construction Grade 1 in
accordance with CSA Standard CAN3-Z11 Portable Ladders).

4. Workers must be adequately trained on the selection, setup, use, and maintenance of a ladder.
5. An employer’s site- specific health and safety program must address the hazards and risks
associated with the use of ladders to ensure that a worker’s health and safety are protected.
6.The work to be performed from a ladder must also not adversely affect the stability of the ladder
(e.g., using equipment such as hammer drills, pulling cable through conduit, and overreaching to
where the worker’s “belt buckle” is beyond the side rails of the ladder would not be allowed).
7. A worker must not carry any materials, tools or equipment in his/her hands while climbing the
ladder. Nor should the worker support heavy or bulky objects (i.e., large air handling ducts, heavy
wall plumbing pipe, etc.) while standing on a ladder.
8. When a ladder is used as a means of access, the ladder must be erected in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions, and a worker must maintain three-limbed contact so that both hands
are used when climbing up or down.
9. When ladders are used as a means of work positioning, the Ministry of Labour expects that a
worker will be protected from falling, while in the work position and exposed to fall hazards
described under section 26 of Ontario regulation 213/91. The worker’s fall protection must be
secured to an adequate anchor point independent of the ladder.
10. Any equipment including ladders which are damaged must be immediately taken out of service
and repaired in accordance with manufacturers’ instructions or be replaced.
11. Ladders that are used as access between levels of a structure must be secured at the top and
bottom to prevent movement.
12. Where possible, it is recommended that ladder stabilizers be used with portable, manufactured
ladders.
13. A ladder is not designed or intended to be used as a “work platform”. Work platforms must
meet the requirements of sections 134 and 135 of the Regulation respecting loading, dimensions,
configuration, etc. It should be noted by employers considering ladder use that the narrower width
of ladders does provide additional ergonomic stresses to workers using ladders, and results in less
stability necessitating strict work practices to avoid overreaching while on a ladder.
14. The use of ladders with built-in work platforms that are designed and manufactured in
accordance with CSA Standard CAN3-Z11 Portable Ladders are a preferable choice over standard
extension ladders.
15. Inspectors will review situations where a ladder is being used for work based on a ladder risk
assessment for the tasks being performed and may issue orders or requirements, as appropriate,
where he or she determines that the use of the ladder contravenes the OHSA and the regulation.
• Workers working on ladders
• are trained in ladder safety
• can perform tasks that do not affect the ladder stability (e.g., no forceful exertions or sudden
forces, not using equipment such as hammer drills, not overreaching while pulling something such
as cable through conduit)

• can climb the ladder using both hands
• can climb the ladder while facing it
• can stand on the ladder and receive or place materials/tools without reaching sideways beyond
the side rails of the ladder, or below knee level, or lean backwards
• can achieve three-point contact when standing and working on the ladder (e.g., not holding large,
awkward items that require both hands to hold)
• can always keep both feet on the ladder when standing on it
• can stand below a height of three metres (otherwise fall protection is needed)
• Using Ladders:
The primary use of ladders in construction should normally be for access and egress to work areas
above or below ground level.
Work activities carried out with ladders can be divided into three types.
1. Climbing/descending a ladder
2. Receiving/placing/removing tools/materials while on a ladder
3. Working from a ladder
Safety in uses of
Each of these activities and their associated tasks have similar inherent hazards that could affect
the health and safety of the worker depending on the type of ladder being used but there are some
hazards that are unique by type of ladder. The risk assessment done by the employer must consider
the type of ladder that is to be used and the work activities and associated tasks.
1. Climbing Ladders are designed to provide access to work areas at different heights and
allow workers to travel more easily from the ground to other levels of a structure or building,
either above or below ground.
Inspectors may consider the following when observing workers using ladders for climbing:
• Is the worker using both hands while climbing/descending?
• Is the worker maintaining three-point contact?
• Is the worker facing the ladder?
• Has the worker received information, instruction, and supervision on safe climbing and material
handling with respect to ladders?

2. Receiving/Placing/Removing Materials A factor that an inspector may consider when observing
workers handling materials while on ladders is whether the worker receives items to one hand only
as long as precautions and safeguards are in place.
 Precautions and safeguards may include:
• Worker has received information, instruction, and supervision on safe material handling
• One hand must hold the rail (three-point contact must be maintained)
• Worker keeps both feet on the ladder at all times.
• Worker’s centre line of body (belt buckle) stays within the side rails of the ladder
• Worker does not reach down below knee level
• Handling or placing of the object does not interfere with the worker’s balance (e.g., tool/
materials don’t come in contact with the ladder, worker doesn’t have to lean backwards or
sideways beyond the side rails of the ladder for tool/materials to clear the ladder).
3. Performing Work The types of factors which Inspectors may consider when observing workers
performing work while on ladders are
• Is the worker able to achieve three-point contact, if necessary?
• Is the worker’s belt buckle within the side rails of ladder? Precautions and safeguards may
include
• Demands of the task and characteristics of objects enable a worker to grasp side rail for balance •
Worker’s centre line of their body (belt buckle) stays within the side rails of the ladder
• Force is generated consistently and with ease
• Worker keeps both feet on the ladder
• Worker has received information, instruction, and supervision in order to carry out task safely.
• Fragile surfaces
 What you need to do?
The law says that contractors and employers must manage the danger by avoiding work on or near
fragile surfaces and controlling any remaining risk by use of stagings, guard rails, and fall arrest
systems. Those at risk must be told what the necessary safety precautions are and people carrying
out the work have to be trained and instructed in the precautions required. On business premises
contractors should work closely with the client and agree arrangements for managing the work.
Falls through fragile surfaces, particularly fibre-cement roofs and rooflights, account

for 22% of all fall from height fatal injuries in the construction industry. Workers undertaking roof
work and building maintenance can die or be permanently disabled when they fall through fragile
surfaces. Those carrying out small, short-term maintenance and cleaning jobs are over-represented
in the injury statistics.
Everyone involved in this type of work, including clients, designers and contractors,
should treat falls through fragile surfaces as a priority hazard.
Fragile surfaces
Fragile surfaces and materials will not safely support the weight of a person and any materials they
may be carrying. All roofs, once fixed, should be treated as fragile until a competent person has
confirmed that they are non-fragile. In particular, the following are likely to be fragile:
Fibre-cement sheets – non-reinforced sheets irrespective of profile type;
Rooflights – particularly those in the roof plane that can be difficult to see in certain light
conditions or when hidden by paint;
Liner panels – on built-up sheeted roofs;
Metal sheets – where corroded;
Glass – including wired glass;
Chipboard – or similar material where rotted; and
Others – including wood wool slabs, slates and tiles.
• Precautions:
Effective precautions are required for all work on or near fragile surfaces, no matter how short the
duration, whether the work concerns construction, maintenance, repair, cleaning or demolition.
Health and safety in roof work HSG33 [paras 170-202] is FREE to download and provides full
details of the dangers presented by fragile surfaces and the precautions available. This guidance
should be consulted by all involved in such work
The hierarchy of steps to be taken to deal with the danger is:
Avoidance: Plan and organise work to keep people away from fragile surfaces so far as possible,
eg by working from below the surface on a mobile elevating work platform or other suitable
platform.

Control: Work on or near fragile surfaces requires a combination of stagings, guard rails, fall
restraint, fall arrest and safety nets slung beneath and close to the roof.
Communication: Warning notices must be fixed on the approach to any fragile surface. Those
carrying out the work must be trained, competent and instructed in use of the precautions required.
co-operation: On business premises, contractors should work closely with the client and agree
arrangements for managing the work.
 Safety in uses and handling of explosive :
Introduction:
What is DSEAR?
The Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 2002 , known by the
acronym DSEAR, aim to protect people from the risks from fires, explosions and other
similar events that may occur as a result of the presence or use of dangerous substances in
the workplace. DSEAR is principally concerned, therefore, with the safe use of substances
that can create thermal radiation effects (burns) and over-pressure effects (blast injuries).
DSEAR has removed a large amount of old health and safety legislation on flammable
substances, for example the Highly Flammable Liquids and Liquefied Petroleum Gases
Regulations 1972.
Examples of Dangerous substances include
o Most common organic solvents
o Benzoyl peroxide
o Ammonia gas
o Oxygen gas
o Petrol
o Varnishes
o LPG
o Methyl ethyl ketone
o Styrene monomer
o Acrylamide monomer
Examples of activities to which DSEAR applies (the list is not exhaustive, but offered as
examples)
• Storage of petrol and LPG as a fuel for cars, boats, horticultural machinery etc.;
• Use of flammable gases, such as acetylene, for welding;
• Handling and storage of waste dusts in woodworking shops;
• Handling and storage of flammable wastes including fuel oils;
• Hot work on tanks or drums that have contained flammable material;
• Work activities that could release naturally occurring methane
• Use of flammable solvents in laboratories
• Storage of flammable goods, such as paints, solvents, reagents;
• Storage, use and handling of flammable gases, including LPG;
• Transport of flammable liquids in containers around the workplace;
• Chemical or gas manufacture resulting from research or teaching.
Some definitions from the Regulations are given in Appendix 1. In summary, a dangerous
substance is any natural or artificial substance which is explosive, extremely flammable,
highly flammable or flammable, including liquids, vapours, gases, dust; and equipment that
might leak or generate a dangerous substance. Such substances that are bought in
commercially will be recognized by the standard pictograms on the container, e.g.
Explosive Flammable Oxidising
Relationship with other health and safety legislation
The duties in DSEAR apply alongside the Health and Safety at Work Act and other
Regulations made under the Act, and especially legislation on fire precautions. The
following paragraphs explain the interface between DSEAR and some key pieces of
legislation.
The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 (‘the Management
Regulations’) support the general duties under the Act. The Management Regulations
require employers, amongst other things, to: assess the general risks to health and safety
arising from their work activity; identify the preventive and protective measures that need
to be taken to control the identified risks; introduce procedures for serious and imminent
danger; and to provide information and training for employees.
Where dangerous substances are present or used at the workplace the more specific
provisions of DSEAR will apply to work with those substances. For example, an
assessment of the risks from dangerous substances carried out under DSEAR will not need
to be repeated for The Management regulations, and in many cases will be incorporated
into the more general MHSW assessment. Similarly, the provisions in DSEAR concerning
arrangements for emergencies involving dangerous substances will generally be sufficient
to fulfill the corresponding general requirements for such procedures in the Management
regulations.
The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002 Health risks from
substances are controlled primarily by the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health
Regulations (COSHH).
The definitions of “dangerous substance” and “substance hazardous to health” contained in
DSEAR and COSHH respectively, cover a wide range of substances. As a result, some
substances that may be dangerous to safety could also present a health risk.
For example, certain gases (e.g. hydrogen, methane, propane, etc) are extremely
flammable and come within the scope of DSEAR. However, the gases themselves can also
act as asphyxiants, reducing the quantity of oxygen present in a workplace to the extent that
life can be put at risk. As a result, they will also satisfy the definition of a substance
hazardous to health for the purposes of COSHH. Therefore, where substances that could
result in a risk to both safety and health are present, employers have duties to control the
risks from those substances under both sets of Regulations.
DSEAR are a complex set of regulations. Not only is the text complex, but the regulations
are supported by a set of five Approved Codes of Practice. This document is of necessity a
summary of the major points that are perceived by SEPS are being common to science-
based departments in the University. It is the responsibility of Principal Investigators and
Heads of Department to ensure that all work within their area of responsibility to which
DSEAR applies is compliant with the regulations.
Risk assessment is the key to compliance with DSEAR. A model assessment form is given
at the end of this document. If compliance with DSEAR is the overriding consideration, i.e.
flammability risks predominate, this form should be used. If toxic risks predominate, the

assessment form from the University’s guidance on the COSHH regulations should be
used, with a note to the effect that flammability/explosive risks have been addressed too.
 Risk Assessment and Control of Dangerous Substances:
 Introduction: The purpose of risk assessment is to enable the University to decide what to
do in order to eliminate or reduce so far as is reasonably practicable the safety risks from
dangerous substances and ensure that these safety controls are implemented.
The term ‘dangerous substance’ covers any substance or preparation that could cause harm
to people from fire or explosion as a result of its properties or the way it is used. This
includes, for example, petrol, LPG, paints, varnishes, solvents, and dusts that could cause
an explosive atmosphere with air.
The key requirements of the Regulations are to:
 Assess the risks from dangerous substances;

 Provide measures to eliminate those risks, or reduce them so far as is reasonably
practicable;
 Provide equipment and procedures to deal with accidents and emergencies; and
 Provide information and training to employees.
In addition, if there are places where hazardous explosive atmospheres may be present
then those places must be classified into zones and marked where necessary. Any new
electrical or mechanical equipment used in those zoned places must comply with the
requirements of the Equipment and Protective Systems Intended for Use in Potentially
Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 1996 (EPS).
Risk Assessment under DSEAR :
The risk assessment under DSEAR is intended to build upon that already required by the
Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999. It should be an identification
and examination of the dangerous substances that are (or could be) present, the associated
work activities and an analysis of what could go wrong, leading to a fire or explosion.
Please refer to Appendix 5.
Responsibility for ensuring risk assessments are completed lies with the Principal
Investigator of the work in question. For activities based on departmental work, such as the
ownership of a flammable liquid store, responsibility lies with the head of Department.
As preliminary step, if the assessor quickly comes to the conclusion that hazards from
dangerous substance are not present or unlikely to occur no further action is necessary. But
typically in a scientific department, the following steps will be required.
STEP 1 - Check whether the substance has been classified under the Chemicals (Hazard
Information and Packaging for Supply) Regulations2 (CHIP) as: explosive, oxidising,
extremely flammable, highly flammable or flammable. The CHIP Regulations require
dangerous substances to be classified by suppliers using criteria set out in the “Approved
Guide to the Classification and Labelling of Substances and Preparations Dangerous for
Supply”3 into certain categories of danger. If a substance or preparation is classified as
explosive, oxidising, extremely flammable, highly flammable or flammable then it is a
“dangerous substance”.
When dangerous substances are used at work, suppliers must provide safety data sheets (an
MSDS) that indicate whether the chemical has been so classified.

STEP 2 - Assess the physical and chemical properties of the substance or preparation and
the work processes involved to see whether that creates a potential for fire, explosion or
similar energetic (energy releasing) event4 . See Appendix 4 for the full definition as given
in the Regulations, and Appendix 5 for the risk assessment pro forma.
Remember, the Regulations apply because of the way a substance is used or present. For
example, diesel oil is not classified as “flammable” under CHIP. Nevertheless its physical
properties are such that when heated to a high temperature it can present a fire and
explosive risk. The key point is that it is not only the substance’s fundamental physical or
chemical properties, but also the way the substance is used/processed or present that
determines whether DSEAR applies. Another example would be substances which on their
own or when mixed with others decompose or react to release energy such that there could
be a fire or explosion. Examples include certain chemical reactions with the potential for
thermal runaway and the handling and storage of unstable substances such as certain types
of peroxides.
A risk assessment uses information about the physical and chemical properties of the
substance and the characteristics of the work processes to determine whether there is a
hazard and risk. If the assessment of the work activity involving the substance or
preparation shows that there is a risk of a fire, explosion or similar energetic (energy
releasing) event then the substance or preparation is “dangerous”.
STEP 3 - Check to see if the work activity involves the creation or handling of potentially
combustible or explosive dusts
Control and Mitigation:
The most effective control to avoid the risk from dangerous substances is to remove them
from the workplace, and DSEAR requires that efforts are made to avoid using dangerous
substances where this is possible. Elimination is the best solution and must be considered
first. This involves replacing a dangerous substance with a substance or process that totally
eliminates the risk by avoiding exposure to the hazard. The nature of the work may mean
that this is simply not possible – often the properties that make a substance useful or
needed in a work activity or process also make it dangerous.
Substitution and Risk Reduction
In practice it is more likely that it will be possible to replace the dangerous substance with
one that is less hazardous (e.g. by replacing a low flashpoint solvent with a high flashpoint
one) or to design the process so that it is less dangerous – for example, by reducing
quantities of substances in the process. Care must be taken, however, whilst carrying out
these steps so as to ensure that no other new safety or health risks are created or increased.
DSEAR also requires mitigation measures to be in place in case an incident occurs. These
measures include:
 Preventing fires and explosion from spreading;

 Reducing the number of people exposed to a potential incident; and
 Providing equipment that can safely contain or suppress an explosion or vent it to a safe
place.
By: -

• Reducing the quantity of dangerous substances to a minimum
• Avoiding or minimizing releases
• Controlling releases at source
• Preventing the formation of an explosive atmosphere
• Collecting, containing and removing any releases to a safe place (e.g. by ventilation)
• Avoiding ignition sources
• Avoiding adverse conditions (e.g. exceeding the limits of temperature or control settings)
that could lead to danger
• Keeping incompatible substances apart
Measures that mitigate the risk must be applied and these should likewise be consistent
with the risk assessment and appropriate to the nature of the activity or operation, these
should include:
• Reducing the numbers of employees exposed

• Providing plant which is explosion resistant
• Providing explosion suppression or explosion relief equipment
• Taking measures to control or minimise the spread of fires or explosions
• Providing suitable Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
DSEAR also specifies that the measures taken to achieve the elimination or the reduction
of risk should include:
• Design, construction and maintenance of the workplace (e.g. fire-resistance, explosion

relief)
• Design, assembly, construction, installation, provision, use and maintenance of suitable
work processes, including all relevant plant, equipment, control and protection systems
• The application of appropriate systems of work including: written instructions, permits to
work and other procedural systems of organising work
Emergency Procedures
DSEAR requires employers to put procedures in place to protect people from explosive
incidents that may occur, building on requirements established in the Management of
Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999. The nature and extent of these procedures
should be based on the findings of the Risk Assessment and where necessary, should
include:
• Warning and communication systems;

• Escape facilities;
• Procedures for people to follow in the event of an incident;
• Appropriate protective equipment; and
• Practice drills.
Employers should make their emergency procedures available to the emergency services.
Clearly the requirements in DSEAR need to be considered alongside those in Management
of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 and in existing fire safety legislation.
Explosive Atmospheres and Classified Zones
Where an explosive atmosphere may occur then such areas must be classified into zones,
based on the likelihood and persistence of any such atmosphere. Once zoned, an area must
be protected from sources of ignition. The points of entry to zoned areas should be marked

with a specified “EX” sign where necessary for safety and employees working in zoned
areas must be provided with appropriate anti-static clothing.
New electrical and mechanical equipment and protective systems used in a zoned area must
comply with the DTI’s EPS Regulations (although equipment already in use prior to July
2003 can continue to be used so long as it is safe to do so, i.e. explosion protected). Before
areas zoned under DSEAR are brought into operation the effectiveness of the overall
explosion protection measures to each areas must be formally verified.
Safe handling of flammable gases
Gases contained in cylinders are used for many different purposes such as in research work,
for soldering, welding and flame cutting, and for extinguishing fires. They are safe when
adequate risk control is in place but users and others sometimes suffer accidents if careful
risk assessment has not been carried out. The main causes of accidents with gas cylinders
are:
• Inadequate training and supervision of users;

• Poor installation; • Poor examination and maintenance;
• Faulty equipment and/or design (e.g. badly fitted valves and regulators);
• Poor handling;
• Poor storage;
• Inadequately ventilated working conditions.
Users must ensure: -
 Staff who handle cylinders are properly trained

 Minimum numbers of cylinders are used and held in laboratories
 Cylinders are secured to walls or benches with chains or proprietary clamps
 Valves are not opened fully. Half a turn is sufficient to ensure optimum gas flow. (If fully
open it becomes difficult to close in an emergency.)
 Risk assessments are carried out to determine the potential for an explosive atmosphere
when using flammable gases.
 Adequate ventilation where flammable gases are used
 All obvious ignition sources are removed from handling areas
 Electrical items not in use are switched off and unplugged
 Storage areas for flammable gases are well ventilated.
 Cylinder valves are closed immediately when no longer needed
 Cylinders are transported in suitable cylinder trolleys by staff trained in manual handling
techniques
 Acetylene cylinders are moved with the valve upright, or allowed to stand for at least 1
hour after moving and before use
 Acetylene equipment never contains copper. Acetylene reacts with silver, mercury and
copper to form explosive acetylides

 Acetylene cylinders subject to excess pressure, impact or heat must be checked for
temperature rise using the back of the bare hand as acetylene becomes unstable and
potentially explosive. Never move or approach a cylinder subjected to excess heat.
 Staff are trained to fit regulators correctly
 Flashback arrestors are fitted to fuel regulators to give flashback protection
 Dry powder fire extinguishers are present in the workplace
 Skin is protected from liquid propane, which freezes skin on contact.
 Propane gas is only used with special resistant hoses (orange colour)
 Propane is never stored underground. Ensure good ventilation at low levels
 Propane cylinders are not exposed to excess heat
 Propane cylinders are always transported and used upright.
 Staff are aware hydrogen is highly flammable and ignites more easily than any other
common gas. At high pressure it can self-ignite It burns with an almost invisible flame.
 Everyone knows the emergency procedure in the event of a significant leak of flammable
gas. Extinguish all flames and heat sources, do not switch electrical appliances on or off,
get out and stay out. Alert Central Services on 4444
 Golden rules of gas cylinder safety
o Never tamper with, attempt to repair, or disguise damage to, a cylinder or cylinder
valve – report it Never transfer or “decant” gas from one cylinder to another
o Never subject cylinders to abnormally high or low temperatures, or mechanical
shocks that could damage the valve or safety device.
o Never use cylinders as rollers or supports,
o Never rely on the colour of the cylinder to identify the contents – the label (below
valve assembly) is the only sure means of identifying the gas inside the cylinder.
o Never apply PTFE tape, jointing compounds, lubrication or other sealing materials
to valves to try to achieve a gas tight seal - if gas tight seal cannot be achieved,
replace regulator or change cylinder.
o Oils or grease are never be allowed to contaminate oxygen regulators, cylinders,
pipelines, valves or associated fittings, nor should they be handled by oily or greasy
hands, gloves or rags
• Check “O” ring seals are in good condition, if not replace with approved part.
• An “empty” cylinder is never empty - it contains gas at atmospheric pressure!
• Before fitting regulator to cylinder - check valve for particles of dirt or water -
use a clean dry cloth to remove any large deposits.
• Fuel gases are given a smell to aid leak detection. They also need oxygen and an
ignition source for combustion to occur, but once started, are self-propagating.
Explosive mixtures vary according to the gas, e.g. Acetylene =2% - 82% and
Propane=2% -10%.
• Handle regulators with care. Rough treatment can damage springs, diaphragms,
valve seats and valves
• Regulators should only be used with the gas for which they were designed and
labelled.
• Using incorrect or damaged regulators on high-pressure gases is potentially
hazardous. • Leave the pressure adjustment knob/screw fully out when the regulator
is not in use
• Regulators must be service replaced every 5 years and inspected annually by a
competent person and the inspection recorded.
• Air or nitrogen regulators must not be used with oxygen. Serious accidents have
occurred when contaminated equipment has been used on oxygen systems.
 Safe handling of flammable liquids

Users must ensure: -
• Minimum quantities only to be used, handled and stored

• Risk assessments are carried out to identify and minimise the potential for an
explosive atmosphere when handling and using flammable liquids (required by
DSEAR) as well as their health effects (required by COSHH)
• Adequate ventilation is provided where flammables are dispensed, used or stored
• All obvious ignition sources are removed from storage and handling areas
• Electrical items must be safe for use in the zone indicated, or they must be
intrinsically safe for use in such areas.
• Nylon lab coats are not used due to potential static problems
• All flammable liquids are in suitable lidded containers and stored in clearly
marked bins or cupboards away from other processes and storage areas
• Storage areas with significant solvent vapour present are marked “EX” and all
electrical equipment within the storage area is “EX” rated
• Containers are closed, or lid put back on, immediately when not needed and
returned to the proper storage bin or cupboard
• Glass containers of flammables are carried so that they cannot be dropped or break
by striking against each other or other items on trolleys – use a suitable carrier
and/or plastic sleeves around individual bottles
• Dispensing from large drums to small containers is done by trained staff
• In laboratories, that liquids are dispensed in a fume cupboard over spillage trays
and that you have a stock of inert absorbent material to mop up spills. Dispense
larger quantities in a dispensary or outside
• Solvent contaminated clothing is removed and placed in fume cupboard
immediately
• Rags and cloths used for mopping up spills are disposed of in metal containers
with Well Fitting lids, or placed in fume cupboard, and removed from the
workplace at the end of the day
• Dry powder fire extinguishers are present in the lab
• Everyone knows the emergency procedure in the event of a significant spillage of
flammable liquid – extinguish all flames and heat sources, do not switch electrical
appliances on or off, get out and stay out and alert Central Services on 4444
 Operation of a Flammable Solvent Store
Most University flammable solvent stores are solely used to store unopened bottles
of solvent as a buffer stock. These are issued as units when required. However, in a
few solvent stores, dispensing is carried out. Although solvent stores may have
mechanical ventilation, they are not provided with local extract ventilation to
control emissions from processes such as dispensing. Mechanical ventilation, if
installed, is there to prevent a build up of flammable vapour over a period from
minor leaks from containers. In order to comply with the DSEAR Approved Code
of Practice, alternative areas must be found for dispensing solvents safely, away
from stored stocks.
“Areas in and around storage facilities where explosive atmospheres could be
formed should be designated as hazardous zones according to the principles of
Hazardous Area Classification. The employer should implement measures to
prevent the ignition of hazardous substances and the flammable atmospheres in the
hazardous zones arising from their storage”
The Hazardous Area Classification is based on how often an explosive atmosphere
is likely to occur and how long it would be likely to persist. The safety standard
necessary for any electrical equipment used in the area will be determined from this

Classification. This indicates that the interior of flammable stores, flammable
storage cupboards or bins must normally be regarded as a Zone 2 area. Only
electrical equipment suitable for use in such a zone may be used. Other areas that
may need to be zoned in this way include oil tank housings, LPG storage facilities,
and areas used for the storage of other flammable gases. If you are responsible for
such areas, please consult SEPS for advice. flammable solvent stores can only be
used to store flammable solvents. No other materials can be allowed within the
store. Means should be available to deal with any spillage occurring in the store.
Adequate Fire Fighting equipment must be provided.
DO
 Restrict access to authorised staff

 Keep stock to a minimum
 Rotate stock (first in, first out)
 Dispose of stock which has been stored for too long
 Check condition of labels and bottles on a regular basis
 Use carriers or trolleys when issuing stock
 Have the electrical fittings checked for safety annually
 Keep the floor clear of solvent bottles and empty boxes
 Keep the area outside clear of any flammable materials
 Keep supplies of absorbent materials, such as dry sand, to control spills in
the store
 Keep adequate appropriate fire-fighting equipment in the store
 Prohibit smoking
DO NOT
o Dispense solvents in the store

o Put bottles of solvent on shelves above shoulder level
o Allow any hot work to be done
o Allow any power tools to be used
o Allow any smoking next to the store
o Allow vehicles with running motors next to the store
The store must be kept maintained. Faulty lighting or mechanical ventilation should be
reported and repaired. Water ingress or structural damage to the store should also be
reported and made good. Some solvents, when exposed to the air and then left in stock, will
form peroxides that can later explode in use. Common solvents that are prone to do this are
ethers, tetrahydrofuran and methyl ethyl ketone. Thus bottles that have been opened and
left for any length of time should be handled with caution and disposed of or treated to
make them safe.
Definitions from the DSEAR Regulations, Reg. 2 - Interpretation
"Dangerous substance" means –
(a) a substance or preparation which meets the criteria in the approved classification and
labelling guide for classification as a substance or preparation which is explosive,
oxidising, extremely flammable, highly flammable or flammable, whether or not that
substance or preparation is classified under the CHIP 6 Regulations;

(b) a substance or preparation which because of its physico-chemical or chemical
properties and the way it is used or is present at the workplace creates a risk, not being a
substance or preparation falling within subparagraph (a) above;
or (c) any dust, whether in the form of solid particles or fibrous materials or otherwise,
which can form an explosive mixture with air or an explosive atmosphere, not being a
substance or preparation falling within subparagraphs (a) or (b) above.
"Explosive atmosphere" means a mixture, under atmospheric conditions, of air and one or
more dangerous substances in the form of gases, vapours, mists or dusts in which, after
ignition has occurred, combustion spreads to the entire unburned mixture;
"Hazard" means the physico-chemical or chemical property of a dangerous substance

which has the potential to give rise to fire, explosion, or other events which can result in
harmful physical effects of a kind similar to those which can be caused by fire or explosion,
affecting the safety of a person.
"Risk" means the likelihood of a person's safety being affected by harmful physical effects
being caused to him from fire, explosion or other events arising from the hazardous
properties of a dangerous substance in connection with work and also the extent of that
harm.
 Risk Assessment under DSEAR
Risk assessment under DSEAR has to take a specific form: this is specified in the
Regulations themselves. The requirements are repeated here for reference.
Regulations 5. –
(1) Where a dangerous substance is or is liable to be present at the workplace, the employer
shall make a suitable and sufficient assessment of the risks to his employees that arise from
that substance.
(2) The risk assessment shall include consideration of –
(a) The hazardous properties of the substance;
(b) Information on safety provided by the supplier, including information contained in any
relevant safety data sheet;
(c) The circumstances of the work including –
(i) The work processes and substances used and their possible interactions;
(ii) The amount of the substance involved;
(iii) Where the work will involve more than one dangerous substance, the risk presented
by such substances in combination; and
(iv) The arrangements for the safe handling, storage and transport of dangerous substances
and of waste containing dangerous substances;
(d) Activities, such as maintenance, where there is the potential for a high level of risk; (e)
The effect of measures which have been or will be taken pursuant to these Regulations;
(f) The likelihood that an explosive atmosphere will occur and its persistence;
(g) The likelihood that ignition sources, including electrostatic discharges, will be present
and become active and effective;
(h) The scale of the anticipated effects of a fire or an explosion;
(i) Any places which are or can be connected via openings to places in which explosive
atmospheres may occur; and
(j) Such additional safety information as the employer may need in order to complete the
risk assessment.
 Risk Assessments Under DSEAR

The purpose of risk assessment is essentially to take cognizance of the hazards inherent in a
work process, not the precautions already in place, and guide the decision-making process

as to whether more needs to be done to assure continued safety. DSEAR makes no
distinction as to the scale of the hazard, but in the University, many users of flammable
liquids may use quite small quantities – a few millilitres in a sample, say. Equally a large
flammable liquid store may contain hundreds of litres.
The formal risk assessment process is complicated by the fact that most users will already
be familiar with the risk assessment requirements of the COSHH Regulations. As will have
been noted, DSEAR expand on the scope of the risk assessment requirements with
chemicals.
It is not intended that users of chemicals necessarily complete both a COSHH and a
DSEAR risk assessment form. It will often be the case that the toxic hazard or the
flammability predominates. That being so, the relevant risk assessment form, COSHH or
DSEAR, should be completed, and a note made that other hazards have been considered. If
this is not a true reflection of the situation then both forms ought to be completed; it is for
the Principal Investigator to decide which form(s) are appropriate in the circumstances of
each case.
OPEN CAST MACHINERY:
Open-pit, open-cast or open cut mining is a surface mining technique of extracting rock or
minerals from the earth by their removal from an open pit or borrow.
This form of mining differs from extractive methods that require tunneling into the earth, such as
long wall mining. Open-pit mines are used when deposits of commercially useful minerals or rocks
are found near the surface; that is, where the overburden (surface material covering the valuable
deposit) is relatively thin or the material of interest is structurally unsuitable for tunnelling (as
would be the case for sand, cinder, and gravel). For minerals that occur deep below the surface—
where the overburden is thick or the mineral occurs as veins in hard rock—underground mining
methods are used to extract the valued material.
An open-pit Copper mine

An open-pit copper mine in Chuquicamata.
Open-pit mines that produce building materials and dimension stone are commonly referred to as
"quarries."
Open-pit mines are typically enlarged until either the mineral resource is exhausted, or an
increasing ratio of overburden to ore makes further mining uneconomic. When this occurs, the
exhausted mines are sometimes converted to landfills for disposal of solid wastes. However, some
form of water control is usually required to keep the mine pit from becoming a lake, if the mine is
situated in a climate of considerable precipitation or if any layers of the pit forming the mine
border productive aquifers.
 Extraction
Heavy machinery extracting lignite from Garzweiler surface mine in Germany during 2008.
Open-cast mines are dug on benches, which describe vertical levels of the hole. These benches are
usually on four to sixty meter intervals, depending on the size of the machinery that is being used.
Many quarries do not use benches, as they are usually shallow.
Most walls of the pit are generally mined on an angle less than vertical, to prevent and minimize
damage and danger from rock falls. This depends on how weathered the rocks are (eroded rocks),
and the type of rock, and also how many structural weaknesses occur within the rocks, such as
a faults, shears, joints or foliations.

The walls are stepped. The inclined section of the wall is known as the batter, and the flat part of
the step is known as the bench or berm. The steps in the walls help prevent rock falls continuing
down the entire face of the wall. In some instances additional ground support is required and rock
bolts, cable bolts and shotcrete are used. De-watering bores may be used to relieve water pressure
by drilling horizontally into the wall, which is often enough to cause failures in the wall by itself.
A haul road is usually situated at the side of the pit, forming a ramp up which trucks can drive,
carrying ore and waste rock.
Waste rock is hauled to a waste dump. Waste dumps can be piled at the surface of the active pit, or
in previously mined pits.
Leftover waste from proccessing the ore is called tailings, and is generally in the form of a slurrey.
This is pumped to a tailings dam or settling pond, where the water is reused or evaporated. Tailings
dams can be toxic due to the presence of un extracted sulfide minerals, some forms of toxic
minerals in the gangue, and often cyanide which is used to treat gold ore via the cyanide leach
process. If proper environmental protections are not in place, this toxicity can harm the
surrounding environment.[4]
 Rehabilitation:
After mining finishes, the mine area may undergo land rehabilitation. Waste dumps are contoured
to flatten them out, to further stabilize them. If the ore contains sulfides it is usually covered with a
layer of clay to prevent access of rain and oxygen from the air, which can oxidize the sulfides to
produce sulfuric acid, a phenomenon known as acid mine drainage. This is then generally covered
with soil, and vegetation is planted to help consolidate the material. Eventually this layer will
erode, but it is generally hoped that the rate of leaching or acid will be slowed by the cover such
that the environment can handle the load of acid and associated heavy metals. [6] There are no long
term studies on the success of these covers due to the relatively short time in which large scale
open pit mining has existed. It may take hundreds to thousands of years for some waste dumps to
become "acid neutral" and stop leaching to the environment. The dumps are usually fenced off to
prevent livestock denuding them of vegetation. The open pit is then surrounded with a fence, to
prevent access, and it generally eventually fills up with ground water. In arid areas it may not fill
due to deep groundwater levels.[7]Instead of returning the land to its former natural state, it may
also be reused, converting it into recreational parks or even residential/mixed communities.
 Quarrying:
Construction Processes ……Mining Processes
Quarrying is a form of mining similar to open-pit mining, involving the extraction of useful natural stone
from a man-made open pit called a quarry by cutting, digging, or blasting. Rock is either quarried as solid
blocks or slabs, or crushed and broken. Minerals produced from quarries include coal, clay, gypsum,
marble, gritstone, limestone, sand, and sandstone. [1] The industry is distinguished by dimension-stone and
crushed-stone quarrying. The dimension-stone process involves the quarrying of solid blocks or slabs of
stone used for decorative and ornamentation purposes. In the crushed-stone process, materials such as
granite, limestone, sandstone, and basaltic rock are crushed for use in concrete aggregate or road stone
for road construction.
Quarrying is an activity closely connected to the construction industry. Many quarries feature on-site
processing plants that include ready-mix concrete plants and coating plants to
make asphalt, bituminous road materials, cement- and lime-burning kilns, concrete block and pipe works,
brick works, pottery works, and plaster and plaster board factories.

Canada’s Quarrying Industry
The production of natural stone is an important industry in most Canadian provinces and is directly
linked to construction. When a downturn occurs in construction, the demand for building materials
produced from quarries will decrease.
The main types of stone quarried in Canada include limestone, granite, sandstone and marble.
Limestone accounts for the majority of all stone produced—about 79 percent in terms of total
volume in tonnage and 71 percent in value.[4] Ontario generates the most limestone in Canada
followed in by Quebec, B.C., and Manitoba. Granite, marble, and sandstone are also produced but
in smaller amounts.[5]
Most of the quarried limestone in Canada is crushed and used in the construction industry
for concrete and aggregates. It is also used as a stabilizing base material in road construction, in fill
and embankment reinforcement, railway ballast, in roofing granules, and in chips for stucco and
terrazzo. Limestone can be pulverized and used as a filler or extender for cement. It is also a key
component of agricultural fertilizer and an ingredient in chemical and pharmaceutical products.
PROCESS :
Quarrying involves removing large amounts overburden such as soil or clay at the surface, or
sinking a shaft or slope and then using the proper tools to extract stone from its bed by cutting,
digging, or blasting. The method used to quarry stone depends on the stone’s composition,
hardness, structure, cleavage, and other physical properties. The characteristics and placement of
rock mass deposits is also an important consideration. For stone that is deposited in relatively
accessible beds, hand tools such as drills, hammers, and wedges are employed. The demand for
crushed rock such as limestone has actually led to the development of new kinds of quarrying
techniques and quarrying is a less selective process than it used to be.
 Explosives
The use of explosives capable of blasting away larger portions of hillside is a common method of
quarrying today. The stone then gets split with the use of wedges or by the plug-and-
feather method, or crushed by a heavy steel ball weighing several tons. Holes are drilled deep
enough into the rock that it will break. The drilled holes are partially filled with explosives, which
are then detonated.
Sometimes the holes are drilled along the outside of the rock block to be removed. Wedges, used in
combination with explosives, are driven into a block of rock to split it into more manageable-sized
pieces. Most quarries separate larger masses of rock first and then later divide the rock mass into
smaller blocks of desired sizes. Sometimes the rock is stratified and then holes must be drilled at a
right angle to the plane of separation. If a rock mass has no rift or stratification or the natural plane
of separation is too far apart, then holes are drilled into the quarry face and wedges are driven into
the rock to separate it. To prevent the stone from shattering, lighter gunpowder is preferred to
fracture dimension-stone. In the production of crushed-stone, more powerful dynamite and
explosives are used.
 Compressed Air and Explosives
A new technique to emerge in granite quarries is the use of compressed air to separate layers of
rock in conjunction with a small charge of dynamite. For example, granite has no natural rift so a
hole is drilled down to the depth where the layer is to be split, creating a cavity in which a small
amount of powder is exploded to produce a crack that runs parallel to the rock surface. A
compressed air pipe is sealed into the opening to introduce increased pressure. Water under
pressure may also be used with small amounts of gunpowder to achieve the same results.
 Channeling
Another method of quarrying called channeling or broaching involves cutting long, narrow
channels into the rock to free up the sides of large stone blocks. In this process special machines
called channelers are used. Formerly steam-driven, these self-propelling machines today are
powered by diesel or gasoline engines. They cut the stone with a cutting edge that traverses back
and forth along the seam of the rock bed until a deep cut is made. The cut is deep enough to allow
wedges to be inserted down into the rock until it is split. The cut in the stone is used to guide the
fracture in the rock. The use of channeling is extensive in soft rock quarries such as those
containing limestone, marble, and sandstone.
 Mining
Sometimes the stone bed to be quarried is too thin and removing the overburden on top is too
expensive. In such situations the quarry is treated like a mine and the methods used to extract
desired blocks of stone are similar to methods used in mining. For example, horizontal rock beds
are cut near the top or the bottom of the bed. The face of the quarry is divided into blocks by saw
cuts, channels, or rows of drilled holes. The blocks are then separated through wedging or blasting.
As stopping moves forward, some of the rock is left behind as pillars to provide roof support. This
approach is particularly common in European slate quarries where rock beds tend to dip down
from a horizontal position. Similar to mining, the rock is worked by stops that follow along the
inclination of the rock bed.
 Equipment uses :
 Conveyor
 Crusher
 Forklift
 Front end loader
 Hammer drill
 Saw
 Truck
 Wheel loader
Race for height Living and working at height are unavoidable in modern urban
environment. Countries around the world are reaching higher and higher towards the
heavens. Many large countries, USA among them, are not joining the height race … or
battle. Most residences in USA, UK, and Australia are still single and low-rise, because
land for horizontal expansion is available. Author believes that India, with its unique
strengths and constraints must certainly go to high rise buildings in the urban environment,
but must (and will) use prudence and care in this pursuit, and not compete for global
recognition in superficial factors.

CHAPTER 5
SAFETY PRECAUTION FOR WORKS OF ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION:
Safety of distillation column
1. Personal Protective Equipment for this activity: Hardhat Long pants Close-toed shoes Safety
glasses or goggles
2. If there is a chemical spill, air mixtures may result in an explosion or cause a flash fire, which is
rare and has not occurred so far. If you suspect too much chemical vapor evacuate the area and
contact the lab supervisor.
3. Steam is used and therefore pipes become very hot- 300o F is common. Use caution.
4. The chemicals used, denatured ethyl alcohol and isopropanol alcohol have harmful fumes, can
burn, and may damage skin and eyes. Sample ports may spray when opened. Therefore, open
slowly with caution.
5. Use of electronic devices including cell phones or personal computer is not allowed. You may
use them in the control room as it is isolated from the main lab.
6. Do not eat or drink anywhere in Unit OPS including the control room. To drink or eat a snack,
please go out to the hallway with the permission of your TA. Beware of contaminated hands.
7. All accidents and spills must be reported to the supervisor immediately.
8. If anything out of the ordinary happens, like fire, severe spills, or fire alarms evacuate the Unit
OPS labs and meet in the loading dock area south of the building. Send someone to notify the lab
supervisor and the main office. If there is any severe injury call 911. Do not move the injured
person. Try to stop excessive bleeding by applying pressure to the wound and keep the airway
clear.

9. The most probable hazards are heat and falls. During the summer labs the temperature can
exceed 110o F inside the lab. Keep hydrated and set up fans as needed. Do NOT climb on anything
except approved ladders used correctly. The hydraulic ladder to get up to the ports for sampling is
very dangerous. Climb with care and always lock the safety chain before taking the sample. The
ladder must be locked by screwing down the lift screws at the base of the steps. If the ladder is not
locked down and it shifts, you could be thrown off the platform. Unit OPS floors become wet
during labs and slips and falls are possible; so please use caution.
10. Any injury must be reported to the TA and lab supervisor. Aside from stopping bleeding and
assisting breathing do not treat any injury. If injury is severe call 911 first.
11. After the experiment, remember to wash your hands.
The materials are listed below
Chemical(s) Used Hazard Class Health hazard
Ethanol Flammable , Reactive Inhalation (cough, drowsiness,

headache, fatigue), Eyes (redness, pain,
burning), Skin (dryness), Ingestion
(burning sensation, confusion, dizziness,
headache, unconsciousness) Long-term
or repeated exposure: affects upper
respiratory and central nervous
systems, may defat skin, ingestion may
cause liver cirrhosis
Isopropyl Alcohol Flammable , Reactive Inhalation (nausea, headache, dizziness,
drowsiness, unconsciousness), Eyes
(irritation, burning, redness, tearing,
inflammation, possible corneal injury),
Skin (irritation with pain and stinging,
especially if the skin is abraded),
Ingestion (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
possible kidney damage) Long-term or
exposure to high concentrations: affects
respiratory and central nervous
systems, may defat skin or cause
dermatitis
Methanol Flammable , Reactive Inhalation (cough, dizziness, headache,
nausea), Eyes (redness, pain), Skin (may
be absorbed, redness, dryness),
Ingestion (abdominal pain, shortness of
breath, unconsciousness, vomiting,
blindness, death) Long-term or
repeated exposure: affects the
respiratory tract and central nervous
system (recurring headaches, impaired
vision), may cause dermatitis

Fractionating column
A fractionating column is an essential item used in distillation of liquid mixtures so as to separate the mixture
into its component parts, or fractions, based on the differences in volatilities. Fractionating columns are used in
small scale laboratory distillations as well as for large-scale industrial distillations.
Laboratory fractionating columns

Figure 1: Fractional distillation apparatus using a Liebig condenser.
A laboratory fractionating column is a piece of glassware used to separate vaporized mixtures of liquid
compounds with close volatility. It can also be called a fractional column. Most commonly used is
either a Vigreux column or a straight column packed with glass beads or metal pieces such as Raschig
rings. fractions columns help to separate the mixture by helping the mixed vapors to cool, condense,
and vaporize again in accordance with Raoult's law. With each condensation-vaporization cycle, the
vapors are enriched in a certain component. A larger surface area allows more cycles, improving
separation. This is the rationale for a Vigreux column or a packed fractionating column. Spinning band
distillation achieves the same outcome by using a rotating band within the column to force the rising
vapors and descending condensate into close contact, achieving equilibrium more quickly.
In a typical fractional distillation, a liquid mixture is heated in the distilling flask, and the resulting vapor
rises up the fractionating column (see Figure 1). The vapor condenses on glass spurs (known as trays
or plates) inside the column, and returns to the distilling flask, refluxing the rising distillate vapor. The
hottest tray is at the bottom of the column and the coolest tray is at the top. At steady-state conditions,
the vapor and liquid on each tray reach an equilibrium. Only the most volatile of the vapors stays in
gas form all the way to the top, where it may then proceed through a condenser, which cools the vapor
until it condenses into a liquid distillate. The separation may be enhanced by the addition of more trays
(to a practical limitation of heat, flow, etc.)
Industrial fractionating column:

Fractional distillation is one of the unit operations of chemical engineering. Fractionating columns are
widely used in the chemical process industries where large quantities of liquids have to be distilled
Such industries are the petroleum processing, petrochemical production, natural gas processing, coal
tar processing, brewing, liquified air separation, and hydrocarbon solvents production and similar
industries but it finds its widest application in petroleum refineries. In such refineries, the crude oil
feedstock is a complex, multicomponent mixture that must be separated, and yields of pure chemical
compounds are not expected, only groups of compounds within a relatively small range of boiling
points, also called fractions. That is the origin of the name fractional distillation or fractionation.
It is often not worthwhile separating the components in these fractions any further based on
product requirements and economics.
Distillation is one of the most common and energy-intensive separation processes. Effectiveness of
separation is dependent upon the height and diameter of the column, the ratio of the column's
height to diameter, and the material that comprises the distillation column itself. [6] In a typical
chemical plant, it accounts for about 40% of the total energy consumption. [7] Industrial distillation
is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns (as shown in Figure 2) known as
"distillation towers" or "distillation columns" with diameters ranging from about 65 centimeters to
6 meters and heights ranging from about 6 meters to 60 meters or more.

Figure 3: Chemical engineering schematic of a continuous fractionating column
Figure 4: Chemical engineering schematic of typical bubble-cap trays in a fractionating column

Industrial distillation towers are usually operated at a continuous steady state. Unless disturbed by
changes in feed, heat, ambient temperature, or condensing, the amount of feed being added
normally equals the amount of product being removed.
The amount of heat entering the column from the reboiler and with the feed must equal the amount
heat removed by the overhead condenser and with the products. The heat entering a distillation
column is a crucial operating parameter, addition of excess or insufficient heat to the column can
lead to foaming, weeping, entrainment, or flooding.
Figure 3 depicts an industrial fractionating column separating a feed stream into one distillate
fraction and one bottoms fraction. However, many industrial fractionating columns have outlets at
intervals up the column so that multiple products having different boiling ranges may be
withdrawn from a column distilling a multi-component feed stream. The "lightest" products with
the lowest boiling points exit from the top of the columns and the "heaviest" products with the
highest boiling points exit from the bottom.
Industrial fractionating columns use external reflux to achieve better separation of products. [3]
[5]
Reflux refers to the portion of the condensed overhead liquid product that returns to the upper
part of the fractionating column as shown in Figure 3.
Inside the column, the down flowing reflux liquid provides cooling and condensation of up
flowing vapors thereby increasing the efficacy of the distillation tower. The more reflux and/or
more trays provided, the better is the tower's separation of lower boiling materials from higher
boiling materials.
The design and operation of a fractionating column depends on the composition of the feed and as
well as the composition of the desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical
methods such as the McCabe–Thiele method or the Fenske equation can be used. For a multi-
component feed, simulation models are used both for design, operation, and construction.
Bubble-cap "trays" or "plates" are one of the types of physical devices, which are used to provide
good contact between the up flowing vapor and the down flowing liquid inside an industrial
fractionating column. Such trays are shown in Figures 4 and 5.
The efficiency of a tray or plate is typically lower than that of a theoretical 100%
efficient equilibrium stage. Hence, a fractionating column almost always needs more actual,
physical plates than the required number of theoretical vapor–liquid equilibrium stages.
Figure 5: Section of fractionating tower of Figure 4 showing detail of a pair of trays with bubble caps

Figure 6: Entire view of a Distillation Column
In industrial uses, sometimes a packing material is used in the column instead of trays, especially
when low pressure drops across the column are required, as when operating under vacuum. This
packing material can either be random dumped packing (1–3 in or 2.5–7.6 cm wide) such
as Raschig rings or structured sheet metal. Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing, and the
vapors pass across this wetted surface, where mass transfer takes place. Differently shaped
packings have different surface areas and void space between packings. Both of these factors affect
packing performance.
Distillation Column Selection and Sizing (ENGINEERING DESIGN GUIDELINES)
INTRODUCTION
Scope This design guideline covers the basic elements in designing a typical distillation column
system, which includes column internals selection and sizing. In designing a distillation column,
the thermodynamics of the vapor and liquid phases must be understood. The vapor-liquid
equilibrium (VLE) determines the minimum number of stages required to achieve the degree of
separation needed. The minimum reflux ratio also depends on the VLE data of the mixture. A few
equations that are commonly used in the industry are illustrated in this guideline to estimate the
minimum number of stages and the minimum reflux ratio of a column based on the VLE data, such
as the Fenske-Underwood equation. Some design heuristics are also highlighted. These rules are
based on design experiences and take into account both the safety and economical factors. The
selection of column internals is very critical in distillation column design. There is a wide variety
of trays and packings in the market. Each design has its strengths and weaknesses. However, the
quotations from vendors are sometimes contradictory and confusing. This could lead to a wrong
choice of column internal. Therefore, some general considerations are depicted to aid engineers in
making the right choice of column internals. In general select trays for high pressure and packings
for low pressure. A distillation column is sized by determining the diameter of the tower. An initial
estimation of the tower diameter can be done based on the vapor and liquid loadings in the column.
Included in this guideline is an example of the data sheet used in the industry and a calculation
spreadsheet for the engineering design.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS :
Distillation is not child's play it is a science and could prove dangerous if you do not know what
you are doing and do not pay careful and constant attention to the process.
Please read these safety precautions through carefully before starting off.
a) Allow sufficient space to work in. Your distillation area should be well lit, clean and well
ventilated to prevent the accumulation of alcoholic vapours.
b) When working with flammable liquids such as ethanol care should be taken to eliminate
any fire hazards. Keep a fire extinguisher handy and collect the distillate securely so the
risk of spilling it is reduced. Don't smoke!
c) Before any distillation, please ensure that there is no obstruction in the piping that could
cause excessive pressure build up in the still and cause it to burst. You may risk burning
yourself if the vapours do not have an easy exit point. For this reason we frequently
emphasize that the alembic head should be placed loosely on the pot, for appropriate
models, so it may easily pop off in such a case (see Sealing technique).
d) Perform a cleaning distillation first (see Cleaning and maintenance for more info).
e) Read Basic distillation rules for some guidelines before performing a distillation.
f) Apply rye putty to seal off any leaks as they occur (see Sealing technique)
g) Don't overfill your alembic, allow enough headroom for the vapours to collect in. The
liquid volume in the alembic may expand or foam if the heat source is not carefully
monitored and boil over or cause an obstruction in the piping. For this same reason, when
distilling a thick mash dilute it sufficiently to give it a liquid consistency. As a general rule
do not fill your pot more than ¾ of its capacity.
h) Monitor the temperature constantly. Do not allow the liquid in the alembic to boil
uncontrollably. The heat source should be at high strength at the beginning of the
distillation to start off and reduced when approaching boiling point. Try to maintain the
wash at a slow boil or simmer.
i) If using electrical heating, try to install an RCD on the line (residual current device - or
circuit breaker) if at all possible.
j) Control the temperature of the condensation water so no vapour is exiting the condenser
and calculate the ratio wash to distillate so as not to boil your still dry.
k) We encourage a temperate attitude towards drinking. Do not drink during the distillation
process at all! This is no time to be making drunken mistakes!

l) We attempt to make a basic presentation on the distillation process on this site and may
have inadvertently included some inaccuracies. We do not claim to be the ultimate
authoritative guide to distillation and encourage you to read up on the distillation process
as much as possible. There are many good books available on the distillation process
 COOLING TOWER:
Make your Cooling Tower safe:
Safety Instructions
It is very essential for the cooling tower personnel to follow the safety instructions for their own
safety as well as the longevity of the cooling tower.
For this they must follow the operation and maintenance procedures along with some safety
procedures:
• Rotating Equipment Maintenance:
Rotating equipments like fan, motor, gear box, pump, motor, turbine need to be stopped and their
power source to be disconnected appropriately. Sufficient protection or locking should be there
against accidental start up.
• Vibration and Noise:
Condition of a rotating equipment is expressed by vibration and noise. Unusual vibration and noise
must not be ignored. Any such event with unusual vibration or noise must be investigated till the
root cause is found and remedied. Provision of vibration switches should be there and must be
tested for its action for a proper set point.
• Guards:
There should be sufficient guard or covering over drive shaft and coupling. They should be in
proper place as in the condition of accident they protect other equipments and fan stack from
damage. • Precautions during maintenance of distribution system: Provision of access door,
walkway and suitable lifting device like monorail should be there for maintenance work in the fan
stack area. High performing fills like PVC V bar, Opti-Grid (Poly propylene) etc. are made of
flammable materials. Hence cooling tower area must be no smoking area.
• Fills and water treatment:
The condition of the fill must be assessed before taking up any maintenance work. This is available
for assessment from air intake area. Extra care should be taken while dismantling the fills as the
weight of the fouled fills can even treble up. Water chemistry of recirculating water changes as a
portion of that water is always evaporating. These changes should be monitored and circulating
water treatment should be done as per the schedule. This helps in reduction of fouling of heat
exchangers, pipes and fill media.

OPERATING INSTRUCTION:
During operating condition be sure to make the following inspection every day
1. Check motor amperage to ensure that it is below design value. If it exceeds design value, then
reduce the pitch angle of the blades.
2. Check the oil level in the gear box through sight glass provided near motor, if it goes below the
required level then fill more oil in the gear box.
3. Check the normal water level in the cold water basin. Ensure that it is maintained to design level
by adjusting make up water.
4. Make blow down in the circulating water of the cooling tower at regular intervals to maintain
the TDS in the circulating water. (normally make a blow down in such a way that the cycles of
concentration should maintain in between 2 to 3, if it exceeds the limit then consult to cooling
tower supplier)
MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTION
Various components of cooling tower and their specific maintenance requirements are listed
below:
• Hot Water Distribution System
1. Nozzles can be cleaned without shutting down the tower. Remove all the dirt, algae etc. Clean
nozzles help in uniform distribution of hot water.
2. Check the water level in the distribution RCC duct. It is important to maintain constant water
level in the RCC duct.
3. If excessive algae is present or cooling tower is in dusty environment, it is desirable to provide

cover to RCC duct. These covers eliminate dust falling into duct from above. These covers also
prevent direct incidence of sun light on hot water there by eliminating formation of algae.
4. Check the flow control valve, and carry out proper maintenance as per manufacturer’s
guidelines.
5. Also for every month apply proper greasing to the valve spindle and housing to ensure its
smooth operation.
• Cold Water Basin
1. Clean cold water basin periodically (at least once in year). Check water level on daily basis.
2. Incorrect water level can reduce tower performance by allowing some air to bypass the fill.

• Fills
1.Clean the fills as frequently as required.
2. During shut down of the cooling tower remove all the fills and re-fix it after cleaning and
replacement of any damaged pieces.
• Drift eliminators
1. Clean the drift eliminators as frequently as required.
2. Visually inspect the drift eliminators every month and clean it, also ensure that there should not
be any clogging or any damage to the drift eliminator, which will cause for additional static
pressure drop to the fan resulting in poor performance of the cooling tower.
3. During shut down of the cooling tower remove all the drift eliminator and re-fix it after
cleaning and replacement of any damaged pieces.
• Motor
1. Lubricate motor as per manufacturer’s recommendations.
2. Axial, Horizontal and Vertical Vibrations in motor should be- Velocity <= 7 mm/sec.;
Displacement <= 120 microns.
• Gear box.
1. Fill the correct oil in the gear-box as per manufacturer’s recommendations.
2. Do not overfill the gear box. Overfill will cause excessive heating up and under fill will cause
gear damage.
3. Ensure that air vent is clear of dirt and is open.
• Fan
1.Being relatively slow running equipment little maintenance is required. In case of adjustable
pitch fans a regular check of holding down bolts is necessary.
2. It is normal practice to dismantle fans when any maintenance is done on the gear box. While re
-fixing the blades, blade angle must be set correctly, all the blades should be set to same pitch
angle and should be at proper location. It is also necessary to balance the fan at site after repair or
replacement of fan blades.
3. Check and tighten (to prescribed torque) blade clamping hardware after about a week of
commissioning and at least at 6 months intervals thereafter.

4. Visually inspect fan every month and clean the blades if any dirt has accumulated. Dirt
accumulation on blades could affect balance and result in excessive vibration.
5. Blade Tip clearance (from fan stack inside wall) should be between 25mm to 50mm.
6. Fan blade angle should be as per manufacturer’s recommendation. Min. Pitch Angle= 11 deg.;
Max. Pitch Angle= 17 deg.
• Drive shaft
1. Drive shafts normally operate at motor speed and hence dynamically balanced. Check the
balancing if abnormal vibrations are noticed.
2. Whenever drive shaft assembly is attended for the maintenance, dynamic balancing should be
checked and ensured.
3. Drive shafts in cooling tower are of floating type with flexible couplings. Neoprene rubber disk,
rubber bushes, SS pins used in the shafts requires periodic replacement. Inspect bushes at least
once in 6 months and replace complete set of bushes as necessary.
4. Bolt torque on all coupling bolts shall be checked monthly to prevent looseness.
5. Check drive shaft alignment at least once in 6 months. Proper alignment is a critical
requirement for satisfactory operation of mechanical equipment.
• Tower structure
1. During shut down of the cooling tower clean all the structure of the cooling tower to remove any
dirt, algae, mud etc… (This can be done by injecting a jet of water on the structure.)
2. Once in six year it is advisable to inspect cooling tower RCC structure and carry out repair,
maintenance if required.
AIRFIELD SAFETY - Air Traffic Controllers

1. Encourage use of correct terminology and proper voice cadence.
2. Recommend controller usage of the electronic RID (Runway Incursion Device) and the
IDS (Information Display System) as an aid to prevent runway incursions. Use the electronic RID
with red lamps for runways and amber lights for adjacent areas (mowing, equipment, etc.).
3. Encourage air traffic controllers to tour the airfield, including the runway, taxiway and
ramps, during the day, at night and under IMC (instrument meteorological conditions).
4. Encourage locally based organizations to provide familiarization flights for air traffic
controllers.
5. Encourage tower cab tours as part of a pilot's training, driver's training and tenant
familiarity.
6. Eliminate distractions in the operational area.

7. Air traffic and airport operations should meet following each snow removal day and/or any
other unusual event to discuss lessons learned.
8. Develop and publish airport diagrams for ALL towered, commercial and busy general
aviation airports.
9. Routinely check airport diagrams for accuracy and update as necessary.
10. Know who has access to the airfield.
11. Update the airport remarks section in the Airport Facility Directory with all applicable data
including runway safety information.
12. Determine and publish "line-of-sight" restrictions — can aircraft at opposite ends of the
runway see each other?
13. Increase awareness and advertise of local wildlife issues.
14. Determine and publish weather phenomena related visibility issues.
15. Inform AFSS if there is a change in runway status.
16. Encourage pilots to turn lights ON during Landing and Departure.
17. Encourage pilots to have their "eyes out" when taxiing.
18. Encourage pilots to have a "heads up" policy when taxiing.
19. Encourage local flight schools to emphasize runway safety during initial and recurrent
training & BFRs.
20. Attend safety seminars and programs on RUNWAY SAFETY.
21. Customize RUNWAY SAFETY presentations for targeted audiences such as pilot
organizations, safety seminars, airport authorities, etc.
22. Improve safety by teaching, advocating, stressing and understanding situational awareness.
23. Cite specific airport RUNWAY SAFETY web pages.
24. Use Hot Spot brochures.
25. Distribute RUNWAY SAFETY materials to every aviation entity.
26. Package and distribute runway safety materials to: Flight Schools, Flight Safety
International, Maintenance Centers, Aircraft Manufacturers, etc.
27. Realize that every airport is unique and presents its own set of RUNWAY SAFETY
challenges.
28. Stay alert; stay alive.
29. Declare war on errors; make it everyone's responsibility.
Known 'Best Practices' for AIRFIELD SAFETY - Pilots

1. Encourage use of correct terminology and proper voice cadence.
3. Obtain and use airport diagrams. Use the FAA runway safety website to find airport
diagrams for all airports.

4. Conduct "Clearing Turns" prior to entering ANY runway.
5. Maintain a sterile cockpit when taxiing.
6. Maintain appropriate Taxi speed.
7. Encourage pilots to have their "eyes out" when taxiing.
9. Attend safety seminars and programs on RUNWAY SAFETY.
11. Customize RUNWAY SAFETY presentations for targeted audiences such as pilot
organizations, safety seminars, airport authorities, etc.
challenges.
Known 'Best Practices' for AIRFIELD SAFETY - Airport Personnel

2. Air traffic and airport operations should meet following each snow removal day and/or any
other unusual event to discuss lessons learned.
3. Eliminate confusing call signs for vehicles operating in the airport operations area.
4. Maintain a well defined mowing plan and procedures, including specific area
"Designations".
5. Use a patch, or spot system, for mowing and/or farming operations.
6. Use two vehicles for runway inspections to reduce "Time-on-Runway".
7. Use high visibility vehicles to increase conspicuity for pilots, controllers and other drivers
operating on the AOA (airport operations area).
8. All vehicle lights (high beams, flashers, beacons, and strobes) should be turned on when
crossing or operating on runways, taxiways or the AOA.
9. Vehicle flashers and beacons help ATC, aircrews and other vehicle operators see vehicles in
the AOA — especially during periods of reduced visibility and at night.
10. Airport authority should distribute current airport diagrams to all airport users — especially
FBO's for transient and student pilots and to other users within 50-100 miles of busy GA airports.
11. Airport authority should coordinate with local fire department, ARFF, and associated
training for access to the airfield. Create a "Letter of Agreement" on staging points, alert drills, etc.

12. Re-designate confusing taxiways.
13. Eliminate problem runways.
14. Use current diagrams in all AOA access vehicles.
15. Carry a current airport diagram with all AOA personnel badges.
16. Obtain and use airport diagrams. Use the FAA runway safety website to find airport
diagrams for all airports.
17. The airport authority is encouraged to share its driver's training program. (Even FAA
employees are required to take training if they are on the airfield.)
18. Utilize CD-based pilot and driver's education training materials and electronic programs.
19. All AOA access authorized personnel, including taxi-qualified mechanics, should complete
a driver's training program — to include recurrent training.
20. Require and schedule FAA employee driver's training and recurrent training/testing.
21. Ensure on-airport farming operators are trained and aware of airport operations and its
inherent dangers. Ensure farmers know and adhere to agricultural leased boundaries.
22. Encourage inclusion of surface safety training in maintenance school curriculum for taxi
and/or tow-qualified mechanics.
23. Offer training and awareness education to local contractors working on the airport, and
monitor them.
24. Ensure drivers know where to look for traffic when a pilot isn't talking to the tower or
broadcasting on CTAF.
25. AOA access authorized personnel should have an awareness and understanding of the
"uniqueness of helicopter operations".
26. Conduct "Clearing Turns" prior to entering ANY runway.
27. Place signs and marking placards in all AOA access vehicles.
28. Know who has access to the airfield.
29. Maximize controlled access to the airfield, including wildlife.
30. Enforce a "No Tailgating" policy to ensure vehicles remain within proximity until gate is
closed and secure to prevent unauthorized "Tailgating".
31. Inform the public. Get signs up, "NO TRESPASSING". Enforce "No Trespassing" through
ordinance.
32. Keep the runway a runway, no racing.
33. Conduct opposite flow runway inspections. Runway inspections should be conducted
toward the flow of aircraft landing and departing as much as possible.
34. Enforce maximum use of existing service roads; stay off of the runway as much as
possible.
35. Build and maintain access roads to Navaids from service roads or taxiways, not from
runways.

36. Use tunable radios.
37. Enforce a policy of "No Cell Phone" use for personnel while operating on the airfield.
38. Install and/or remove additional signs (including surface painted) and markings to
eliminate confusion.
39. Create an airport sign plan and adhere to it.
40. Use lighted runway closure markers to warn pilots of a closed runway.
41. Install signs at the entry point to the AOA and runway safety areas.
42. Prevent potential obstructions.
43. Use standardized "12 inch" and highlighted hold position markings.
44. Maintain runway and taxiway markings.
45. Install elevated runway guard lights (ERGL's) at known Hot Spots and/or high risk
intersections.
46. For new construction, use in-pavement runway guard lights (RGL) at known Hot Spots
and/or high risk intersections.
47. Update the airport remarks section in the Airport Facility Directory with all applicable data
including runway safety information.
48. Determine and publish "line-of-sight" restrictions — can aircraft at opposite ends of the
runway see each other?
49. Increase awareness and advertise of local wildlife issues.
50. Advertise seasonal crops, which might affect line-of-sight for pilots.
51. Issue NOTAMS for snow removal operations and mowing operations.
52. Designate and publish a "Calm Wind" runway at part-time and non-towered airports.
53. Advertise crop dusting operations in the area.
54. Encourage CTAF usage when the airport is "Non-Towered" in the AFD, Hot Spot
Brochure, Airport Website, and Posters at ALL on-site facilities.
55. Encourage local flight schools to emphasize runway safety during initial and recurrent
training & BFR's.
57. Use follow-me vehicles when the ramp is unusually close to a runway and/or for a
confusing taxiway route.
58. Attend and conduct safety seminars and programs on RUNWAY SAFETY.
61. Use Hot Spot brochures.

challenges.
67. Look for runway incursion potential when reviewing airport construction safety plans,
especially for haul routes.
68. Always think SAFETY FIRST.
AIRFIELD SAFETY PRECAUTIONS (DEC 1991)
(a)Definitions. As used in this clause -

(1)Landing areas means -
(i) The primary surfaces, comprising the surface of the runway, runway shoulders, and
lateral safety zones. The length of each primary surface is the same as the runway length.
The width of each primary surface is 2,000 feet (1,000 feet on each side of the runway
centerline);
(ii) The clear zone beyond the ends of each runway, i.e., the extension of the primary
surface for a distance of 1,000 feet beyond each end of each runway;
(iii) All taxiways, plus the lateral clearance zones along each side for the length of the
taxiways (the outer edge of each lateral clearance zone is laterally 250 feet from the far or
opposite edge of the taxiway, e.g., a 75-foot-wide taxiway would have a combined width of
taxiway and lateral clearance zones of 425 feet); and
(iv) All aircraft parking aprons, plus the area 125 feet in width extending beyond each edge
all around the aprons.
(2)Safety precaution areas means those portions of approach-departure clearance zones
and transitional zones where placement of objects incident to contract performance might
result in vertical projections at or above the approach-departure clearance, or the
transitional surface.
(i) The approach-departure clearance surface is an extension of the primary surface and
the clear zone at each end of each runway, for a distance of 50,000 feet, first along an
inclined (glide angle) and then along a horizontal plane, both flaring symmetrically about
the runway centerline extended.
(A) The inclined plane (glide angle) begins in the clear zone 200 feet past the end of the
runway (and primary surface) at the same elevation as the end of the runway. It continues
upward at a slope of 50:1 (1 foot vertically for each 50 feet horizontally) to an elevation of
500 feet above the established airfield elevation. At that point the plane becomes
horizontal, continuing at that same uniform elevation to a point 50,000 feet longitudinally
from the beginning of the inclined plane (glide angle) and ending there.
(B) The width of the surface at the beginning of the inclined plane (glide angle) is the same
as the width of the clear zone. It then flares uniformly, reaching the maximum width of
16,000 feet at the end.

(ii) The approach-departure clearance zone is the ground area under the approach-
departure clearance surface.
(iii) The transitional surface is a sideways extension of all primary surfaces, clear zones,
and approach-departure clearance surfaces along inclined planes.
(A) The inclined plane in each case begins at the edge of the surface.
(B) The slope of the incline plane is 7:1 (1 foot vertically for each 7 feet horizontally). It
continues to the point of intersection with the -
(1) Inner horizontal surface (which is the horizontal plane 150 feet above the established
airfield elevation); or
(2) Outer horizontal surface (which is the horizontal plane 500 feet above the established
airfield elevation), whichever is applicable.
(iv) The “transitional zone” is the ground area under the transitional surface. (It adjoins the
primary surface, clear zone, and approach-departure clearance zone.)
(b)General.
(1) The Contractor shall comply with the requirements of this clause while -
(i) Operating all ground equipment (mobile or stationary);
(ii) Placing all materials; and
(iii) Performing all work, upon and around all airfields.
(2) The requirements of this clause are in addition to any other safety requirements of this
contract.
(c) The Contractor shall -
(1) Report to the Contracting Officer before initiating any work;
(2) Notify the Contracting Officer of proposed changes to locations and operations;
(3) Not permit either its equipment or personnel to use any runway for purposes other than
aircraftoperation without permission of the Contracting Officer, unless the runway is -
(i) Closed by order of the Contracting Officer; and
(ii) Marked as provided in paragraph (d)(2) of this clause;
(4) Keep all paved surfaces, such as runways, taxiways, and hardstands, clean at all times
and, specifically, free from small stones which might damage aircraft propellers or jet
aircraft;
(5) Operate mobile equipment according to the safety provisions of this clause, while
actually performing work on the airfield. At all other times, the Contractor shall remove all
mobile equipment to locations -
(i) Approved by the Contracting Officer;
(ii) At a distance of at least 750 feet from the runway centerline, plus any additional
distance; and
(iii) Necessary to ensure compliance with the other provisions of this clause; and
(6) Not open a trench unless material is on hand and ready for placing in the trench. As
soon as practicable after material has been placed and work approved, the Contractor shall
backfill and compact trenches as required by the contract. Meanwhile, all hazardous

conditions shall be marked and lighted in accordance with the other provisions of this
clause.
(d)Landing areas. The Contractor shall -
(1) Place nothing upon the landing areas without the authorization of the Contracting
Officer;
(2) Outline those landing areas hazardous to aircraft, using (unless otherwise authorized by
the Contracting Officer) red flags by day, and electric, battery-operated low-intensity red
flasher lights by night;
(3) Obtain, at an airfield where flying is controlled, additional permission from the control
tower operator every time before entering any landing area, unless the landing area is
marked as hazardous in accordance with paragraph (d)(2) of this clause;
(4) Identify all vehicles it operates in landing areas by means of a flag on a staff attached
to, and flying above, the vehicle. The flag shall be three feet square, and consist of a
checkered pattern of international orange and white squares of 1 foot on each side (except
that the flag may vary up to ten percent from each of these dimensions);
(5) Mark all other equipment and materials in the landing areas, using the same marking
devices as in paragraph (d)(2) of this clause; and
(6) Perform work so as to leave that portion of the landing area which is available to
aircraft free from hazards, holes, piles of material, and projecting shoulders that might
damage an airplane tire.
(e)Safety precaution areas. The Contractor shall -
(1) Place nothing upon the safety precaution areas without authorization of the Contracting
Officer;
(2) Mark all equipment and materials in safety precaution areas, using (unless otherwise
authorized by the Contracting Officer) red flags by day, and electric, battery-operated, low-
intensity red flasher lights by night; and
(3) Provide all objects placed in safety precaution areas with a red light or red lantern at
night, if the objects project above the approach-departure clearance surface or above the
transitional surface.
Chimney :
A chimney is a structure that provides ventilation for hot flue gases or smoke from
a boiler, stove, furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere. Chimneys are typically vertical, or
as near as possible to vertical, to ensure that the gases flow smoothly, drawing air into
the combustion in what is known as the stack, or chimney effect. The space inside a chimney is
called a flue. Chimneys may be found in buildings, steam locomotives and ships. In the United
States, the term smokestack (colloquially, stack) is also used when referring to locomotive
chimneys or ship chimneys, and the term funnel can also be used.
The height of a chimney influences its ability to transfer flue gases to the external environment via
stack effect. Additionally, the dispersion of pollutants at higher altitudes can reduce their impact on
the immediate surroundings. In the case of chemically aggressive output, a sufficiently tall
chimney can allow for partial or complete self-neutralization of airborne chemicals before they
reach ground level. The dispersion of pollutants over a greater area can reduce their concentrations
and facilitate compliance with regulatory limits.

History
Romans used tubes inside the walls to draw smoke out of bakeries but chimneys only appeared in
large dwellings in northern Europe in the 12th century. The earliest extant example of an English
chimney is at the keep of Conisbrough Castle in Yorkshire, which dates from 1185 AD. However,
they did not become common in houses until the 16th and 17th centuries. Smoke hoods were an
early method of collecting the smoke into a chimney (see image). Another step in the development
of chimneys was the use of built in ovens which allowed the household to bake at home. Industrial
chimneys became common in the late 18th century.
Chimneys in ordinary dwellings were first built of wood and plaster or mud. Since then chimneys
have traditionally been built of brick or stone, both in small and large buildings. Early chimneys
were of a simple brick construction. Later chimneys were constructed by placing the bricks around
tile liners. To control downdrafts, venting caps (often called chimney pots) with a variety of
designs are sometimes placed on the top of chimneys.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, the methods used to extract lead from its ore produced large
amounts of toxic fumes. In the north of England, long near-horizontal chimneys were built, often
more than 3 km (2 mi) long, which typically terminated in a short vertical chimney in a remote
location where the fumes would cause less harm. Lead and silver deposits formed on the inside of
these long chimneys, and periodically workers would be sent along the chimneys to scrape off
these valuable deposits.s
 Job Construction
As a result of the limited ability to handle transverse loads with brick, chimneys in houses were
often built in a "stack", with a fireplace on each floor of the house sharing a single chimney, often
with such a stack at the front and back of the house. Today's central heating systems have made
chimney placement less critical, and the use of non-structural gas vent pipe allows a flue gas
conduit to be installed around obstructions and through walls.
In fact, most modern high-efficiency heating appliances do not require a chimney. Such appliances
are generally installed near an external wall, and a noncombustible wall thimble allows a vent
pipe to run directly through the external wall.
On a pitched roof where a chimney penetrates a roof, flashing is used to seal up the joints. The
down-slope piece is called an apron, the sides receive step flashing and a cricket is used to divert
water around the upper side of the chimney underneath the flashing.
Industrial chimneys are commonly referred to as flue gas stacks and are generally external
structures, as opposed to those built into the wall of a building. They are generally located adjacent
to a steam-generating boiler or industrial furnace and the gases are carried to them with ductwork.
Today the use of reinforced concrete has almost entirely replaced brick as a structural component
in the construction of industrial chimneys. Refractory bricks are often used as a lining, particularly
if the type of fuel being burned generates flue gases containing acids. Modern industrial chimneys
sometimes consist of a concrete windshield with a number of flues on the inside.
The 300 m (980 ft) chimney at Sasol Three consists of a 26 m (85 ft) diameter windshield with
four 4.6 metre diameter concrete flues which are lined with refractory bricks built on rings
of corbels spaced at 10 metre intervals. The reinforced concrete can be cast by conventional
formwork or sliding formwork. The height is to ensure the pollutants are dispersed over a wider
area to meet legal or other safety requirements.
 Residential flue liners:

A flue liner is a secondary barrier in a chimney that protects the masonry from the acidic products
of combustion, helps prevent flue gas from entering the house, and reduces the size of an oversized
flue. Newly built chimneys have been required by building codes to have a flue liner in many
locations since the 1950s. Chimneys built without a liner can usually have a liner added, but the
type of liner needs to match the type of appliance it is servicing. Flue liners may be clay tile, metal,
concrete tiles, or poured in place concrete.
Clay tile flue liners are very common in the United States. However, this is the only liner which
does not meet Underwriters Laboratories 1777 approval and frequently have problems such as
cracked tiles and improper installation. Clay tiles are usually about 2 feet (0.61 m) long, various
sizes and shapes, and are installed in new construction as the chimney is built. A refractory
cement is used between each tile.
Metal liners may be stainless steel, aluminum, or galvanized iron and may be flexible or rigid
pipes. Stainless steel is made in several types and thicknesses. Type 304 is used with firewood,
wood pellet fuel, and non-condensing oil appliances, types 316 and 321 with coal, and type AL 29-
4C is used with non-condensing gas appliances. Stainless steel liners must have a cap and be
insulated if they service solid fuel appliances, but following the manufacturer's instructions
carefully. Aluminum and galvanized steel chimneys are known as class A and class B chimneys.
Class A are either an insulated, double wall stainless steel pipe or triple wall, air-insulated pipe
often known by its genericized trade name Metalbestos. Class B are un insulated double wall pipes
often called B-vent, and are only used to vent non-condensing gas appliances. These may have an
aluminum inside layer and galvanized steel outside layer. Condensing boilers do not need a
chimney.
Concrete flue liners are like clay liners but are made of a refractory cement and are more durable
than the clay liners.
Poured in place concrete liners are made by pouring special concrete into the existing chimney
with a form. These liners are highly durable, work with any heating appliance, and can reinforce a
weak chimney, but they are irreversible.
 Chimney pots, caps and tops :

A chimney pot is placed on top of the chimney to expand the length of the chimney inexpensively,
and to improve the chimney's draft. A chimney with more than one pot on it indicates that there is
more than one fireplace on different floors sharing the chimney.
A chimney cowl is placed on top of the chimney to prevent birds and other animals from nesting in
the chimney. They often feature a rain guard to prevent rain or snow from going down the
chimney. A metal wire mesh is often used as a spark arrestorto minimize burning debris from rising
out of the chimney and making it onto the roof. Although the masonry inside the chimney can
absorb a large amount of moisture which later evaporates, rainwater can collect at the base of the
chimney. Sometimes weep holes are placed at the bottom of the chimney to drain out collected
water.
Spanish Conquistador style wind directional cowl found on many homes along the
windy Oregon coast.
A chimney cowl or wind directional cap is a helmet-shaped chimney cap that rotates to align with
the wind and prevent a backdraft of smoke and wind back down the chimney.
An H-style cap (cowl) is a chimney top constructed from chimney pipes shaped like the letter H.
(Its image is included in cowl (chimney).) It is an age-old method of regulating draft in situations
where prevailing winds or turbulences cause downdraft and backpuffing. Although the H cap has a
distinct advantage over most other downdraft caps, it fell out of favor because of its bulky design.
It is found mostly in marine use but has been regaining popularity due to its energy-saving
functionality. The H-cap stabilizes the draft rather than increasing it. Other downdraft caps are
based on the Venturi effect, solving downdraft problems by increasing the updraft constantly
resulting in much higher fuel consumption.

A chimney damper is a metal plate that can be positioned to close off the chimney when not in use
and prevent outside air from entering the interior space, and can be opened to permit hot gases to
exhaust when a fire is burning. A top damper or cap damper is a metal spring door placed at the top
of the chimney with a long metal chain that allows one to open and close the damper from the
fireplace. A throat damper is a metal plate at the base of the chimney, just above the firebox, that
can be opened and closed by a lever, gear, or chain to seal off the fireplace from the chimney. The
advantage of a top damper is the tight weatherproof seal that it provides when closed, which
prevents cold outside air from flowing down the chimney and into the living space—a feature that
can rarely be matched by the metal-on-metal seal afforded by a throat damper. Additionally,
because the throat damper is subjected to intense heat from the fire directly below, it is common
for the metal to become warped over time, thus further degrading the ability of the throat damper
to seal. However, the advantage of a throat damper is that it seals off the living space from the air
mass in the chimney, which, especially for chimneys positioned on an outside of wall of the home,
is generally very cold. It is possible in practice to use both a top damper and a throat damper to
obtain the benefits of both. The two top damper designs currently on the market are the Lyemance
(pivoting door) and the Lock Top (translating door).
In the late Middle Ages in Western Europe the design of crow-stepped gables arose to allow
maintenance access to the chimney top, especially for tall structures such as castles and
great manor houses.
 Chimney draught or draft :

When coal, oil, natural gas, wood, or any other fuel is combusted in a stove, oven, fireplace, hot
water boiler, or industrial furnace, the hot combustion product gases that are formed are called flue
gases. Those gases are generally exhausted to the ambient outside air through chimneys or
industrial flue gas stacks (sometimes referred to as smokestacks).
The combustion flue gases inside the chimneys or stacks are much hotter than the ambient outside
air and therefore less dense than the ambient air. That causes the bottom of the vertical column of
hot flue gas to have a lower pressure than the pressure at the bottom of a corresponding column of
outside air. That higher pressure outside the chimney is the driving force that moves the required
combustion air into the combustion zone and also moves the flue gas up and out of the chimney.
That movement or flow of combustion air and flue gas is called "natural draught/draft", "natural
ventilation", "chimney effect", or "stack effect". The taller the stack, the more draught or draft is
created. There can be cases of diminishing returns: if a stack is overly tall in relation to the heat
being sent out of the stack, the flue gases may cool before reaching the top of the chimney. This
condition can result in poor drafting, and in the case of wood burning appliances, the cooling of the
gases before emission can cause creosote to condense near the top of the chimney. The creosote
can restrict the exit of flue gases and may pose a fire hazard.
Designing chimneys and stacks to provide the correct amount of natural draft involves a number of
design factors, many of which require iterative trial-and-error methods.
As a "first guess" approximation, the following equation can be used to estimate the natural
draught/draft flow rate by assuming that the molecular mass (i.e., molecular weight) of the flue gas
and the external air are equal and that the frictional pressure and heat losses are negligible:
where:
Q = chimney draught/draft flow rate, m³/s
A = cross-sectional area of chimney, m² (assuming it has a constant cross-section)
C = discharge coefficient (usually taken to be from 0.65 to 0.70)

g = gravitational acceleration, 9.807 m/s²
H = height of chimney, m
Ti = average temperature inside the chimney, K
Te = external air temperature, K.
Combining two flows into chimney: At+Af<A, where At=7.1 inch2 is the minimum required flow area
from water heater tank and Af=19.6 inch2 is the minimum flow area from a furnace of a central heating
system.
 Draft hood:
Gas fired appliances must have a draft hood to cool combustion products entering the chimney
and prevent updrafts or downdrafts.
 Maintenance and problems

A characteristic problem of chimneys is they develop deposits of creosote on the walls of the
structure when used with wood as a fuel. Deposits of this substance can interfere with the
airflow and more importantly, they are combustible and can cause dangerous chimney fires if
the deposits ignite in the chimney.
Heaters that burn natural gas drastically reduce the amount of creosote buildup due to natural
gas burning much cleaner and more efficiently than traditional solid fuels. While in most cases
there is no need to clean a gas chimney on an annual basis that does not mean that other parts
of the chimney cannot fall into disrepair. Disconnected or loose chimney fittings caused by
corrosion over time can pose serious dangers for residents due to leakage of carbon monoxide
into the home.[11] Thus, it is recommended—and in some countries even mandatory—that
chimneys be inspected annually and cleaned on a regular basis to prevent these problems. The
workers who perform this task are called chimney sweeps or steeplejacks. This work used to
be done largely by child labour, and as such features in Victorian literature. In the Middle
Ages in some parts of Europe, a crow-stepped gable design was developed, partly to provide
access to chimneys without use of ladders.
Masonry (brick) chimneys have also proven to be particularly prone to crumbling during
an earthquake. Government housing authorities in cities prone to earthquakes such as San
Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego now recommend building new homes with stud-
framed chimneys around a metal flue. Bracing or strapping old masonry chimneys has not
proven to be very effective in preventing damage or injury from earthquakes. It is now possible
to buy "faux-brick" facades to cover these modern chimney structures.
Other potential problems include:
 "spalling" brick, in which moisture seeps into the brick and then freezes, cracking and
flaking the brick and loosening mortar seals.
 shifting foundations, which may degrade integrity of chimney masonry
 nesting or infestation by unwanted animals such as squirrels, racoons, or chimney swifts

 chimney leaks
 drafting issues, which may allow smoke inside building[12]
 issues with fireplace or heating appliance may cause unwanted degradation or hazards to
chimney

 Dual-use chimneys:
In some cases the chimneys of power stations are used also as pylons. However this type of
construction, which is used at several power stations in the former Soviet Union, is not very
common, because of corrosion problems of conductor cables.
 Cooling tower used as an industrial chimney:
At some power stations, which are equipped with plants for the removal of sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides, it is possible to use the cooling tower as a chimney. Such cooling
towers can be seen in Germany at the Power Station Staudinger Grosskrotzenburg and at
the Power Station Rostock. At power stations that are not equipped for removing sulfur
dioxide, such usage of cooling towers could result in serious corrosion problems which are not
easy to prevent.
 Silos oil and gas installation :
Silos & Smokestacks National Heritage Area (SSNHA), also known as America's Agricultural
Heritage Partnership is one of 49 federally designated heritage areas in the nation and is an
Affiliated Area of the National Park Service. [1] Through the development of a network of sites,
programs and events, SSNHA's mission is to interpret farm life, agribusiness and rural
communities-past and present.
Silos & Smokestacks was designated as a national heritage area in 1996. The name is intended to
reflect both the farms and industries that constitute agribusiness. The Silos & Smokestacks region
covers the northeast third of the state of Iowa, including thirty-seven counties.[1] The cities of Des
Moines, Cedar Rapids, Davenport, Waterloo, Dubuque, and Iowa City are all located within the
region. The National Park Service recognizes over 90 community and privately operated sites in
the area that interpret the story of American agriculture. These range from dairy farms and
museums to vineyards and tractor assembly plants. [2] Included in the area are the Amana
Colonies, Living History Farms, and Brucemore, a few of Iowa's best known tourist attractions.
[3]
Silos & Smokestacks also includes several state-designated scenic byways and the nationally
designated Great River Road along the west bank of the Mississippi River.
CHAPTER 6
Safety in Demolition operations

Demolition: Construction in Reverse, with Additional Hazards:
OSHA Compliance Safety and Health Officers often face a somber task as they identify and
document the violation of safety and health standards which lead up to the latest worker
tragedy. Demolition worker impaled on rebar. Worker electrocuted during demolition work. Two
demolition workers die of burns after flash fire at warehouse. Employee in aerial lift killed when
roof collapses. However, the hazards of demolition work can be controlledand eliminated with
the proper planning, the right personal protective equipment, necessary training,
and compliance with OSHA standards. This Safety & Health Topics page is dedicated to the
demolition workers who died on the job.
Demolition is the dismantling, razing, destroying or wrecking of any building or structure or any
part thereof. Demolition work involves many of the hazards associated with construction.
However, demolition involves additional hazards due to unknown factors which makes demolition
work particularly dangerous. These may include:
 Changes from the structure's design introduced during construction;
 Approved or unapproved modifications that altered the original design;
 Materials hidden within structural members, such as lead, asbestos, silica, and other
chemicals or heavy metals requiring special material handling;
 Unknown strengths or weaknesses of construction materials, such as post-tensioned

concrete;
 Hazards created by the demolition methods used.
To combat these, everyone at a demolition worksite must be fully aware of the hazards they may
encounter and the safety precautions they must take to protect themselves and their employees.
Demolition hazards are addressed in specific standards for the construction industry.
Hazards
PLAN ahead to get the job done safely
Proper planning is essential to ensure a demolition operation is conducted with no accidents or
injuries. This includes, but is not limited to:
 An engineering survey completed by a competent person before any demolition work takes
place. This should include the condition of the structure and the possibility of an unplanned
collapse.
 Locating, securing, and/or relocating any nearby utilities. For help, call 811 before you dig.
 Fire prevention and evacuation plan.
 First Aid and Emergency Medical Services.
 An assessment of health hazards completed before any demolition work takes place.
PROVIDE the right protection and equipment

The employer must determine what Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) will be required. In
demolition operations, PPE may include:
 Eye, face, head, hand, foot protection

 Respiratory protection
 Hearing protection
 Personal Fall Arrest Systems (PFAS)
 Other protective clothing (for example, cutting or welding operations)
It is not enough to provide PPE. Employees must be trained on the selection, use, fitting,
inspection, maintenance, and storage of PPE.
TRAIN all employees about hazards and how to use the equipment safely
Under the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act), Public Law 91-596, employers have a
responsibility to provide a safe workplace for employees. Employers must instruct employees how
to recognize and avoid or remove hazards that may cause an injury or illness based on their
assigned duties. Certain OSHA construction standards require that employees receive training in
specific topics. Employers must provide this safety training in a language and vocabulary their
workers can understand.
Methods of demolition:
This section describes common ways of bringing down buildings, and includes safety advice.
In practice, more than one method can be used to demolish a building.
6.1 Demolition by hand

Hand demolition is not a quick method, because only hand tools are used. However, cranes and
shear legs may be used to hold or lower beams during cutting. Chutes, or crane-and-skip are
usually used to get debris safely from the upper stories to the ground.
Safe access must be provided. If work cannot be carried out safely on the building, a scaffold or
machine-lifted platform should be used.
Demolish only one storey at a time. It is usually safest to demolish the building in the reverse order
to building it, so the roof should go first. Next, part of each floor is taken out so that the debris can
fall through. On some jobs, the debris can be dropped down the lift shaft, in which case, guardrails
must be provided around openings - refer to section 5.6.3 of this guideline.
Debris must be removed regularly and not allowed to pile up on floors. An overloaded floor could
collapse onto the floor below, which in turn, could collapse on the floor below it. Without propping
from the floors, the walls of the building could collapse. Walls could also collapse if debris is piled
against them.
If people have to work in a place with a fall risk without guardrails or barriers to isolate them from
a fall, other protective measures must be implemented, including wearing a properly anchored
safety harness. Harnesses are only to be implemented if all other controls cannot be used. The
employer shall need to undertake a hazard assessment to effectively determine the appropriate
controls beforehand. All persons using any fall arrest systems must be fully trained in the correct
and safe use of this equipment. Refer to section 5.6.4 for further information.

At the end of each day, make sure the building is safe. Guying or propping may be necessary to
avoid hazards from wind or vibration. If only part of the building is knocked down, make sure that
what is left can stand safely.
Figure 15: Multi-storey demolition with ball and crane
6.2 Demolition with the ball

Most structures can be demolished by balling, but it is a skilled practice that cannot be self-taught.
Balling is a viable and effective method of demolition when demolishing multi-storey structures
that have suffered structural damage, where all other methods have been considered, and a hazard
assessment has determined that this method is the most appropriate.
Hazards associated with this demolition method include, but are not limited to:
 noise;
 dust;
 vibration to adjoining structures/buildings;
 flying debris;
 uncontrolled unintentional collapse; and
 limited waste minimisation.

Trainees must be instructed by trained and experienced people, and work under close supervision
until they are competent.
Balling is hard on the machine: not all cranes can swing and control a demolition ball safely.
Converted drag lines are the best machines for this work as they are robust and stable. Cranes with
hydraulic rams must not be used for balling.
Cranes used for balling should be fitted with a FOPS cab and should be enclosed, strong and
debris-proof. Cranes used solely for lifting on a demolition project need not be fitted with a FOPS
cab; however operations that could cause flying debris should not be carried out close to the crane.
Some guidelines and warnings are provided:
1. The boom angle when balling should not be more than 60˚to the horizontal. The top of the
boom should not be less than three metres above the wall being knocked down.
2. The SWL for the machine must be at least three times the weight of the ball.
3. When not being dropped, the ball should be used with a tag line to keep it under control.
Swinging the ball by slewing is particularly hard on the machine.
4. This work can be done safely only on very robust machines driven by very skilled
operators.
5. The ball should be positively fixed in such a manner to prevent it becoming disconnected
by slack in the load line or other causes. These connections should be checked hourly.
6. Beware of a trapped ball: getting it free may overload the crane.
7. Always operate from outside the building.
8. Any other building nearer than a distance equal to half the height of the building being
demolished is in danger.
9. Keep the public well away from balling operations.
10. Keep employees clear of the demolition area and make sure that the area is clear each time
demolition resumes after a break.
11. Remember that the shocks from a building being knocked down can be felt in any attached
building. Avoid damage to attached buildings by detaching them: hand demolition is
necessary for this.
12. When a building is being demolished by ball and crane, the crane should provide for
sufficient drop height and the ball should be of sufficient weight to enable suitable force to
pass through all floor levels of the building.
13. Avoid build-up of debris on floors and against walls.

14. A heavy-duty swivel joint must be provided between the ball and the end of the crane rope.
15. Check the ball, swivel, rope and the rigging hourly.
16. Note the location of all overhead power lines and be aware of these when turning the crane
from the normal work face.
6.3 Demolition by pusher arm

Hydraulically-operated excavators and loaders can be fitted with various attachments for
demolition work. Excavator buckets, boom-mounted hydraulic percussion breakers and pusher arm
equipment have been successfully used with these machines.
The main advantages of such machines are that they are extremely mobile, have a high output, and
are able to work on vertical faces and floors above standing level. Their disadvantages are that the
machines need adequate access, a firm and relatively flat base to work from, and can only work
within the reach of their booms. To operate these machines efficiently, the length of boom when
fully extended should be at least 1.5 metres above the height of the building being demolished.
The pusher arm method is not suitable for large buildings on confined sites, but it is good for
masonry infill structures. The building is pushed over in stages by a horizontal force from the
machine. An arm is fitted to the lower boom instead of a bucket. The arm is extended forward
against the facing wall and the force of the excavator pressing forward provides the push.
When using this method, always take the following precautions:
1. Ensure that the site has been secured safely to prevent unintentional entry by unauthorised
personnel during demolition.
2. Work from outside the building, and never let anyone enter the building while plant is
wrecking the building.
3. Be sure that the operator has been trained in the work, or is being instructed by a trained
person.
4. Use hand demolition to get the building to a level where pushing can start.
5. Separate the building from any attached buildings using hand methods.
6. Make sure that debris does not build up too high against the walls: this may push the wall
onto the machine.
7. If terraces (ramping) of debris are used to enable the machine and its pusher arm to gain
height, ensure that the terraces are well-consolidated and the machine can be maintained
level during operation.

6.4 Demolition by deliberate collapse
This method requires engineering expertise to decide which key structural members should be cut
or removed to cause a collapse. Once this method has begun, it is likely the structure will remain
unstable until it is down. This method is best suited for bridges, silos, chimneys and structures on
isolated or heavily controlled and secure sites.
A survey may be required to give the height and radius of the structure so that the fall area can be
properly ascertained and protected to prevent unintentional entry during the collapse.
1. Ensure that the site is level enough to allow employees to get clear safely.
2. Consider the safety of the remaining parts of the building at each stage.
3. Use this method only where there is plenty of space for the building to fall safely.
4. Instruct workers of their roles, tell them where they are to work and to where to withdraw
to before the collapse. Radio-telephone communication is strongly recommended for on-
going communication between all personnel.
5. Know the location of every person on the site.
6. Keep the public a distance from the building of at least one and a half times its height. If
flying debris is expected, the public will need to be kept back further.
Figure 16: Demolition of silos by pusher arm
6.5 Demolition by wire rope pulling

This method is a form of deliberate collapse. Cables and wire ropes are fixed to key structural
members, then pulled down by tractors or winches. It is suitable for detached buildings where there

is plenty of surrounding room. The method can be used for timber-framed buildings, bridges,
brick, masonry or steel chimneys, and for spires and masts.
1. Use wire ropes of at least 16 mm in diameter, and check them regularly. Wire ropes must
have a factor of safety of 6.
2. Anchor the machine securely, and set it so that the rope is flatter than 1 in
3. Do not let anyone stand between the tractor and the building, or beside the rope.
4. Have a full ROPS and FOPS canopy on the tractor to protect the operator from broken
ropes and falling objects.
5. Never let anyone enter the building while pulling is in progress.
6. Ensure the ropes are properly secured before commencing the pull.
7. Ensure that the pulling ropes are kept clear of overhead power lines, especially when taking
up the rope slack.
8. Remember that pylons and masts can twist as they are pulled. If the legs are of different
lengths, the pylon could fall at right angles to the pull.
Figure 17: Step-by-step implosion deconstruction (US)
6.6 Demolition by explosion or implosion

Implosion or explosion deconstruction is an effective and efficient method of deconstruction, and
can reduce both cost and time to bring dangerous multi-storey structures to ground in comparison
to conventional demolition methods.
This is a method favoured in the United States to safely and quickly demolish structures where
significant hazards are posed to persons through exposure during the demolition process. In most
cases, the building is stripped to structure to allow for clean blasting; however in many cases,
where risk to personnel is high, this is not necessary.
In many cases, implosion can reduce the demolition period by up to 80% with the majority of time
being spent in both the preparation period and the clean-up following implosion.
Demolition by explosion/implosion is a job for the expert. In New Zealand, HSNO restrictions and
requirements for this method must be followed. Any inquiries should be directed to your nearest
Department of Labour office.
Most structures, except timber-framed and brick structures, can be demolished this way. Even
structures that have been previously compromised can be effectively demolished in this manner;
however, the implosion expert will give instructions on any collateral damage that may occur.
The usual method is to cut or disintegrate key structural members by loading drilled holes with
explosives, or fixing plaster charges to the outside of these members.
1. Have an experienced approved handler (explosives) in charge of the work.
2. Consult with a suitably experienced, IPENZ-registered engineer to ensure that the method
planned is feasible.
3. Give a plan of the demolition to a Department of Labour health and safety inspector at least
four working days before starting. NOTE | This work is notifiable under the Regulations.
4. Beware of strong columns that may make the building "sit down" rather than topple.
5. Use mats and small charges to stop flying debris.
6. Advise the local authority and New Zealand Police of the proposals, and notify the New
Zealand Fire Service.
7. Have safe escape routes open.
8. Keep the public at a safe distance - a minimum of 200 meters from the blast site; however,
this is dependent on the type and quantity of the explosives used.
9. Plan and inform all employees of the evacuation plan.
10. Prepare procedures for dealing with misfires, remembering that the building may be grossly
unsafe due to being partly demolished.
11. Use electric shot firing.
12. Beware of shock damage from large amounts of detonating fuse.
Environmental effects to be considered if planning demolition by explosives include:
1. shock vibration effect to adjacent properties and to the structural stability of underground
and overhead services;
2. adjacent property damage from flying debris during collapse;
3. dust and airborne particles;
4. degree of rubble spread to the vicinity; and
5. traffic and pedestrian management and control.
Note problems with either undercharging or overcharging. Undercharging can leave the
structure standing, but in a much weakened condition. Overcharging leads to excessive and
possibly dangerous flying debris.
6.7 Demolition using grapples and shears
Figure 18: Demolition of reinforced block building by shears
Power shears may be used to crop and cut through concrete and metal such as reinforcing steel or
beams, particularly where there might be a risk of fire, or where the more precise cutting of a torch

is not required. An additional feature is the reduction in noise onsite. Care should be taken to
ensure that any member to be severed is either effectively supported or, if to be allowed to fall, will
not endanger remaining structures or personnel.
Power grapples may be used to handle waste material, either to move it about the site or to load
other vehicles when disposing of the waste. As some debris resulting from demolition has a high
density, care should be taken to avoid overloading the equipment. Damage to the equipment itself
should be avoided. Avoid the risk of the machine overturning as a result of instability induced by a
heavy load.
At all times, the machines should only be operated in strict accordance with manufacturer's
recommendations.
6.8 High-reach (or Long-reach) demolition excavators
Figure 19: High-reach excavator demolition of multi-storey structure
A high-reach excavator is defined as one that has a particularly long boom, allowing controlled
deconstruction of multi-storey or high structures to a safe height where conventional excavators
can continue. Boom lengths can vary in size from 19 to over 50 meters and come with a variety of
specialist attachments to allow the operator precision and accuracy during the demolition process.
The following is recommended for the use of high-reach excavators:
1. Machines are to be operated in strict accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations.

2. Machines to be operated only by trained and competent operators.
NOTE | An experienced Digger Operator is not a fully trained and skilled High-Reach
Operator.
3. High-reach diggers should be operated facing the front of the tracks, NOT SIDE-ON. Side-
on will result in rollover or overloading. Some long-reach excavators are fitted with a boom
angle warning system to alert the operator of this possibility. If this warning system is
installed within the excavator, the operator(s) must not disconnect the system.
4. Machines are to be fitted with ROPS/FOPS.
5. Full written maintenance inspection checks must be performed daily by a competent person
before use.
6. High-reach machines are not designed as cranes, nor should they be used to carry out any
form of lifting duties except where they are required to grab elements of the structure being
demolished.
 Attachments should be matched to the weight and type of work carried out.
 Machines have safe operating limits and distances which must be adhered to in
order to carry out demolition.
7. Working platforms must be checked for stability before any work can be performed to
prevent roll-overs. Any ramps or working platforms constructed from recycled material,
such as concrete and rubble, should be inspected by the operator regularly to identify any
protruding steel or reinforcing that may obstruct or lock up in the excavator's tracks.
8. The operator must ensure that the machine remains within the prescribed safe working
radius at all times. Radius charts should be available for the operator to refer to at all times
within the cabin of the excavator.
9. The operator must watch the fall zone, as falling debris/steel can spear or bounce towards
his or her operating position.
 It is important to work within the safe distances of the machine and also maintain a
fall zone for the debris to travel to the ground.
 A tier system and periodic clearing of debris from the fall zone by another machine
may be required.
10. operator must avoid overloading his or her working tool as this can cause roll-over.
6.9 Underwater demolition

Divers must also hold a construction diving Certificate of Competence, which is issued by the
Department of Labour. Underwater demolition is also notifiable under the Regulations.
The primary danger to divers who are cutting or welding is from electric shocks and explosions of
trapped gas in the structure being worked on. Divers must be familiar with the precautions
necessary to keep safe when doing this type of work.
Underwater electrical circuits should have a positive on/off switch located where the tender has
immediate access. Unless the diver is actually welding, the switch must be in the open or "off"
position.
All welding machine frames must be earthed before starting operations. An earth wire should be
used to connect the machine directly to the work.
Power supply cables must be kept clear of welding cables. Insulated gloves should be used by the
diver during underwater electrical welding or welding operations.
Any underwater compartments containing unidentified or explosive gases, or residues that could
release gases, must be purged or flooded prior to cutting or welding operations.
Compartments of structures, which could accumulate welding gas, should be vented prior to the
start of operations.
6.10 Other methods

Other methods, including thermic lances, drilling and sawing can be used in conjunction with the
methods outlined in this section. These are specialised uses, and must be carried out only by fully
trained and competent personnel.
Demolition safety
5.1 General
Accidents have been caused during demolition by:
1. people falling from unprotected workplaces and through openings;
2. people being struck by falling objects;
3. people being struck by flying objects;
4. sudden collapse of buildings or structures;
5. unprotected electrical cables, wiring or equipment;
6. collision with mobile plant and equipment;
7. fires caused through hot works or burst gas mains;
8. insecure materials in or on the structure;

9. plant being used on elevated slabs without proper precautions being taken;
10. people harmed by cutting equipment; and
11. road accidents caused from overloading or insecure loads during transport.
Safety precautions must be taken to safeguard persons working on the site and members of the public who
are in the vicinity, as well as to protect property likely to be affected by the demolition.
5.2 Buildings
To prevent injury from broken glass, all glass should be removed from windows before demolition begins.
Window openings on street frontages or adjacent to access ways must be blocked off to prevent
unauthorised entry.
Openings in walls, floors, roofs and stairwells, through which people could fall, should be boarded up or be
provided with a guardrail and toe-board, or other suitable barrier. Access to areas where flooring has been
removed must be barricaded off, and notices erected to warn of the danger at each point of entry.
All stairs or installed ladders must be checked before use. Never assume that they are sound: it may have
been years since they were last used. If in good condition, leave them as a means of access for as long as
possible.
When dismantling pitched roof trusses, the last frame should be guyed before the second-to-last truss is
removed, as its stability depends on the support from adjacent members. As supports and buttresses are
removed, bracing should be provided to stabilise the remaining structure.
When demolishing a reinforced concrete floor, it may be necessary to remove a small section first in order to
determine the direction of the main steel. Provide support for beams before cutting them free of columns
and walls, if necessary. Columns must be guyed before cutting or weakening the base, so that their fall can
be controlled. Clear openings should be made in floors to allow debris to pass through.
5.3 Pre-stressed concrete structures

The demolition of pre-stressed concrete structures is hazardous. Professional advice must be obtained from
a suitably qualified IPENZ-registered engineer. A demolition plan or method statement is also required.
In general, the only safe way to demolish a structure containing pre-stressed concrete is to dismantle the
structure in the reverse order in which it was originally erected. Some buildings will be straightforward, but
special care will be needed in the following circumstances:
1. continuous structures over more than one support or cantilevered structures;
2. suspended structures;

3. structures that had been progressively stressed during construction;
4. structures made of pre-cast members stressed together once erected; and
5. shells, ring beams, tension ties and stressed tanks.
Care must be taken in handling pre-stressed components. For example, long "slender" beams may become
unstable if allowed to tip onto their sides. In general, pre-stressed beams should only be supported near
their ends.
Demolition using "conventional" methods such as balling or concrete breakers may be unsatisfactory due to
the possibility of an uncontrolled collapse, or the sudden release of the stressing steel.
Ducts for post-tensioned pre-stressing tendons have been known to "float" up during concreting, causing
additional hazards for demolition contractors. It may be necessary to confirm the location of stressing
cables or ducts prior to commencement.
5.4 Demolition of fire-damaged buildings

Construction Safety Notes

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ADVANCE DIPLOMA IN INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

SUBJECT : CONSTRUCTION SAFETY (23110)

SAHYADRI COLLEGE OF FIRE

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 SCOPE OF SAFETY IN CONSTRUCTION WORK

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1. Motivate their subordinates to attend to safety.

The main safety measures suggested were -

1. Compulsory use of safety helmets.

Occupational health diseases were studied by Englund, Triebig, Duivenbooden and

Its cause wise breakup is as under:

One study of construction accidents in our country gives following figures.

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• Site Planning and Layout :

Good housekeeping Program should include –

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• SAFETY CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY:

• Lifting Appliances and Gear :

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• Transport, Earth-moving and Material Handling Equipment:

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 Structural Soundness of Buildings:

 KEY WORDS : Concrete, soundness, deterioration, Non Destructive testing, structural

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 NEED TO EVALUATE SOUNDNESS OF EXISTINGSTRUCTURES

1.Assessing the load carrying capacity of building.

Hazardous Materials Handling and Disposal:

Hazardous waste (general):

 Unless otherwise specified, all generated hazardous waste shall be

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Light tubes, bulbs, and lamps:

Electronic devices (e-waste):

Treated wood waste (TWW):

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 Covered and off of the ground, in a secured area

Disposal of TWW is restricted to landfill(s) pre-approved by the University. Contractor shall

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs):

Fluorescent light ballasts -

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Paint and other surface coatings

Mechanical system fluids:

Laboratory decommissioning and closure:

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Radioactive building materials:

Miscellaneous hazardous materials:

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The following are important factors to consider:

■ stability under all foreseeable operating conditions;

Vehicle inspection and maintenance:

Planned inspection and maintenance needs to follow manufacturer’s instructions and

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 MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS AND MEN

Some general precautions are as under:

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 Plant Machinery, Equipment and Hand Tools:

 Concrete Vibrators : Vibrating unit should be completely enclosed and belt be

 Pneumatic Tools : Operating triggers on portable pneumatic tools should be so

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 Hand Tools: They should be tempered, dressed or repaired by a competent person.