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Shallow groundwater, the primary water source in the Bengal Basin, contains up to 100 times the World Health Organization
(WHO) drinking-water guideline of 10 μg l–1 arsenic (As), threatening the health of 70 million people. Groundwater from a depth
greater than 150 m, which almost uniformly meets the WHO guideline, has become the preferred alternative source. The vulner-
ability of deep wells to contamination by As is governed by the geometry of induced groundwater flow paths and the geochemical
conditions encountered between the shallow and deep regions of the aquifer. Stratification of flow separates deep groundwater
from shallow sources of As in some areas. Oxidized sediments also protect deep groundwater through the ability of ferric
oxyhydroxides to adsorb As. Basin-scale groundwater flow modelling suggests that, over large regions, deep hand-pumped wells
for domestic supply may be secure against As invasion for hundreds of years. By contrast, widespread deep irrigation pumping
might effectively eliminate deep groundwater as an As-free resource within decades. Finer-scale models, incorporating spatial
heterogeneity, are needed to investigate the security of deep municipal abstraction at specific urban locations.
T
he Bengal Basin hosts the largest case of mass poisoning in deep groundwater environments of the Bengal Basin (Box 1). With
the world1. Excessive concentration of As occurs in shallow reference to recent modelling results17,18, we focus on the vulnerability
groundwater 2 used for domestic supply by 70 million people, of deep groundwater to invasion by As. Any development of deep
30% of the combined population of Bangladesh and West Bengal, groundwater should be accompanied by chemical monitoring and
India. Half the shallow hand-pumped wells have As concentrations consideration of the possible requirement for treatment to mitigate
of 10–1,000 μg l–1 (ref. 2) and most inhabitants have no alternative constituents such as iron, manganese and boron (ref. 19).
water source. The use of groundwater was initiated in the 1960s;
as a result much of the adult population has been exposed to toxic distribution of arsenic
levels of As for three decades. The health impacts are potentially Arsenic-rich groundwater occurs in reducing 9, grey-coloured,
catastrophic3. Arsenic-affected groundwater has also been identi- Holocene sediments20 at depths less than 150 m (Box 1). The As
fied in fluvio-deltaic settings elsewhere in southeast Asia1,4,5. originates in association with a ferric oxyhydroxide coating of
The enormous scale of As contamination of shallow wells Himalayan-derived sediment 21. Reducing conditions, sustained by
became apparent during the 1980s in West Bengal6 and the 1990s organic carbon, favour As release to groundwater by microbially
in Bangladesh7. No solutions have since been implemented that mediated22 reductive dissolution21 of the ferric oxyhydroxide. Spatial
provide As-free water to most of the affected population. (By As-free, variability of As at the 10–20 km2 scale has been related to organic-
we mean water containing less than 10 μg l–1 As, the WHO drink- carbon availability 23, local sedimentology 24–26 and groundwater
ing-water guideline, rather than the regulatory limit in Bangladesh flow 27–30. Present uncertainties include the sources of carbon23,31,
and West Bengal, which is 50 μg l–1 As). Of the mitigation options, the As sorption capacity of aquifer sediments32 and future trends in
installation of wells to As-free depths in the aquifer 8, usually taken As concentrations33.
to be greater than 150 m (ref. 9), offers the most popular, practical Where reductive As release is absent, and yellowish-brown
and economic solution1,10. In Bangladesh, more than 75,000 deep oxidized sediments with a capacity for As sorption exist, ground-
hand-pumped wells had been installed1 by 2007. Since 2000, deep water is As-free, notably in Pleistocene and older deposits deep
wells yielding 2,500 m3 d–1 have been installed by local initiatives beneath reduced Holocene sediments34,35 and at shallow depth
in over 100 rural supply schemes11. Previously, the Bangladesh in the vicinity of Pleistocene inliers2,36 (Box 1). Arsenic-free
Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE) had fitted deep conditions also occur in grey, reduced Pleistocene sediments
wells with pumps, each capable of yielding 4,500 m3 d–1, at more at depth37. In a national survey of Bangladesh2, of the wells at a
than 20 towns (DPHE, personal communication). Deep ground- depth greater than 150 m (which were principally in the coastal
water continues to be targeted, however there is concern12 that region), fewer than 1% exceeded 50 μg l–1 and 95% had less than
it may be vulnerable to invasion of As from shallow depths as a 10 μg l–1. Arsenic concentration was generally negligible at depths
consequence of pumping. greater than 200 m, attributed to the geochemical context 31,37, the
Deep wells offer a solution to another problem: saline ground- refractory nature of sedimentary organic matter 27 and/or history
water occurring at intermediate depth across most of the coastal of groundwater flushing 2,38. A compilation of surveys2, 12,19,39 giving
region13–16. Here, pumping ‘deep groundwater’ may induce invasion a broader coverage of the basin (Fig.1) indicates that As exceeds
by saline groundwater, which would be expected to precede arrival 10 μg l–1 in 18% of deep hand-pumped wells sampled, but whether
of As at deep wells, owing to the different distributions and geo- this is a result of breached well casings or hydrological response to
chemical behaviour of As and salinity. Our purpose is to review the pumping remains uncertain.
Department of Earth Sciences, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK, 2Department of Geological Sciences, University of
1
Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, USA, 3US Geological Survey, 431 National Center, Reston, Virginia 20192, USA, 4US Geological Survey, Box 25046 MS
964D, Denver, Colorado 80225, USA, 5Department of Geology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh. *e-mail: william.burgess@ucl.ac.uk
The Bengal Basin (a) bounded by Precambrian shield and hilly areas, Formation of the BAS over Plio-Quaternary time (b) took place
internally comprises a sedimentary sequence of Late Cretaceous– under conditions of eustatic cyclicity, with deposition, subsidence
recent age, up to 20 km thick. The long history of predominantly and erosion occurring in channels and interfluves across
alluvial/fluviatile/deltaic deposition across the region, and basin the floodplain. Arsenic-rich groundwater occurs in reducing9
subsidence50, provide the geological basis for expectation of perme- grey-coloured Holocene sediments20 at depths less than 150 m.
able sediments to depths of many hundreds of metres. Groundwater Accommodation from subsidence50 of 2 mm yr–1 broadly across
is pumped from the basin sediments from a present maximum the basin allowed approximately 200 m of sediment to accumulate
depth of 350 m. Excessive As concentrations are largely restricted over the past one million years (Myr). This time interval includes
to the uppermost 100 m across the floodplains (a). A marine clay ten eustatic cycles, each with an effective sedimentation time of
of basin-wide extent, the Mio-Pliocene Upper Marine Shale, prob- ten thousand years (kyr) (b). These sediments host ‘deep’ ground-
ably acts as a hydraulic basement at roughly 1,200–2,000 m depth water in the south of the basin (b,c). They include yellowish-
to the aquifer system (called here the Bengal Aquifer System, BAS), brown, oxidized sands containing ferric-oxyhydroxides that
comprised of Plio-Pleistocene–Holocene sediments (b). The BAS adsorb As and grey sediment with As largely bound to pyrite
hosts a number of regional aquifers that are hydraulically connected (Supplementary Fig. S2).
on a basin-wide scale. Plio-Pleistocene sands and silts deposited Stacking of stable channel sands and adjacent interfluve
in a braided to meandering fluvial setting44 make up the Dupi Tila deposits produced by repeated eustatic cycles resulted in the
Formation which forms aquifers44 across the Madhupur and Barind occurrence of belts of thick sands, and finer materials with
tracts. Episodes of sustained weathering during eustatic sea-level limited lateral extents (c) across the southern part of the basin
low stands from the Early Pleistocene are reflected in the regionally (Supplementary Fig. S1). However, channel migration and
extensive oxidation of sediments of the central and northern part dynamics of the depositional engine distributed the strata such
of the basin. These sediments yield As-free groundwater to depths that nearly all boreholes intersect multiple layers of high and
of at least 250 m, as illustrated in c, a conceptual, bimodal sand– low hydraulic conductivity. Groundwater flow systems ranging
clay representation of the aquifer environments. Holocene sands, from shallow to deep are developed within the BAS, driven by
silts and silty clays beneath the active floodplains overlie Pleistocene topography17 and influenced by the presence of layers of low
sediments to a depth generally of about 100 m in the south. hydraulic conductivity.
a b
SSW
Himalaya NNE Madhupur Tract
BHUTAN Bay of Bengal
NEPAL 0
<20 kyr
?
100
Depth (m)
? 20 kyr to 1 Myr
200 Fault
River
1 to 3.5 Myr ?
300
Shillong Plateau
aputra
Top of ‘Upper
? Marine Shale’
~1,500 >3.5 Myr
Barind
Brahm
100 km
Tract Sylhet Basin
ld
ie
Ga
ng BANGLADESH
Ind
Hill Range
r
es
ive
Riv Dhaka
aR
e
r
Holocene Holocene Recent
ghn
WEST
an
Indo-Burm
BENGAL
Khulna
Kolkata c Late and Early Holocene–Late
Pleistocene boundary Pleistocene boundary
? Subsiding
? subbasin
~50 km
As-
Holocene Water affected area Oxic sand Oxic clay Grey sand Grey clay
r Rive
metasediments
layering leading to an effective large-scale vertical anisotropy 41 in
aputra
Shillong Plateau
hydraulic conductivity. The resulting isolation of deep groundwater Barind
Brahm
flow from shallow flow, and maintenance of vertical differences in 25° N Tract
Pleistocene
Sylhet Basin
Latitude
hydraulic head, is similar to the effects of extensive aquitards. The
d
iel
Madhupur
Sh
distinction is that discontinuous aquitards could locally focus ver- Ga Tract
ian
Hill Range
r
ng BANGLADESH
ive
es
tical flow 25, providing pathways for invasion of deeper sediments
Ind
24° N Riv Dhaka Tertiary
aR
er
by shallow groundwater where deep pumping imposes a downward
ghn
Me
WEST
an
hydraulic gradient. At issue is the conceptualization of lithological
Indo-Burm
BENGAL
Khulna
heterogeneity and its representation in models. The effective anisot- 23° N
Kolkata
Holocene
ropy provided by multiple discontinuous layers of silty-clay has been
applied to describe a single, anisotropic aquifer at the scale of the N Sundarbans
entire Bengal Basin18. We summarize the As-free, deep groundwater 22° N Water
Bay of Bengal
environments of the Bengal Aquifer System (BAS) in the context of 0 50 100
km
the basin’s geological evolution (Box 1). 87° E 88° E 89° E 90° E 91° E 92° E
Longitude
defences against invasion of deep groundwater by as As concentration: < 10 µg l–1 10–50 µg l–1 > 50 µg l–1
Groundwater flow paths to deep pumping wells provide an element
of protection if As concentrations in recharge areas are low, or travel
times to deep wells are long. This is called the ‘flow-pattern defence’.
Figure 1 | Arsenic concentration at hand-pumped wells in the Bengal Basin,
The potential for sediments along induced flow paths to adsorb or
depths greater than 150 m. Data (1,165 records) compiled from refs 2, 12, 19
otherwise trap As provides a ‘geochemical defence’. Wells should
and 39 are all reported as laboratory analyses. Generalized geology and
optimally be screened in locations protected by a combination of
structural elements are indicated.
flow pattern and geochemistry, but where deep groundwater is ulti-
mately vulnerable, the elapsed time before As arrival at pumping
wells is critical. Geological interpretation can define the contexts of ten times that of domestic pumping 44. Simulations17,18 show that
deep groundwater vulnerability, and the timescale of As arrival may deep irrigation pumping would amplify downward flow, consider-
be estimated using groundwater models and geochemical analyses, ably shortening travel times to deep wells, to as little as 30 years,
but acceptable timescales for security of supply are an economic and and would create large drawdowns in water level (for example, of
political consideration1. 20 m to 40 m at pumping depth), disabling deep hand-pumps and
rendering some powered pumping uneconomic. Deep irrigation
Flow-pattern defence of deep groundwater. Groundwater flow pumping thereby risks eliminating deep As-free groundwater as a
paths to wells are controlled by spatial patterns of aquifer proper- source of domestic supply (Fig. 2b). In contrast, shallow irrigation
ties, hydrological surface conditions, aquifer geometry and the pumping does not compromise the flow-pattern defence of deep
distribution of pumping. Flow patterns in the BAS have recently groundwater (Fig. 2c), but provides extra protection by creating a
been evaluated by groundwater model analysis17,18 using a single, hydraulic barrier against downward As migration.
basin-scale, vertically anisotropic, homogeneous aquifer representa- Basin-scale analysis captures large-scale flow processes, but
tion41, calibrated against groundwater heads and ages17. Conditions geological heterogeneity might locally allow more rapid penetra-
at the coast were represented by prescribing the equivalent freshwa- tion of As to deep groundwater. A zone of excessive As in deep
ter head of water with a density of 1.025 kg l–1 and depth determined groundwater of west-central Bangladesh, where more than 10% of
by bathymetry over an extensive offshore region, with a no-flow wells at depths greater than 200 m have concentrations of As higher
boundary at the southern limit of the model. Model robustness was than 50 μg l–1, is attributed to the presence of thick Pleistocene pal-
demonstrated across a variety of boundary conditions and a range aeochannel sands of the proto-Ganges allowing migration of As
of parameter values17. The recharge provenance of ‘deep’ groundwa- to depth1. Future modelling analysis at subbasinal scale should be
ter relative to shallow As sources, and the travel time from recharge applied within the larger-scale framework and incorporate spatial
to deep wells, were evaluated for basin-wide groundwater devel- heterogeneity, particularly where layers of low hydraulic conduc-
opment and a range of development scenarios17,18 (Fig. 2). Deep tivity are rare and earlier As breakthrough might occur. While
pumping for domestic supply, with and without shallow irrigation spatial heterogeneity continues to generate uncertainty, factors of
pumping, was found to minimally perturb the subhorizontal safety are desirable, such as the 1,000-year timeframe of the basin-
flow paths from distant recharge zones. The flow-pattern defence scale models.
protected groundwater at depths greater than 150 m across more
than 90% of the As-affected area (Fig. 2c) indefinitely (modelled Geochemical defence of deep groundwater. The geochemical
as more than 1,000 years18) if deep groundwater abstraction was defence is restricted neither by depth nor stratigraphy but by reac-
limited to domestic supply and distributed among hand-pumped tivity within the sediment. The hydraulic characteristics of grey
wells18. A south-central subregion stands out as more vulnerable and yellowish-brown BAS sediments are similar, but their distinct
to vertical flow on account of basin geometry, consistent with the chemical characteristics, evident in contrasting groundwater compo-
south-central As anomaly (Fig. 1). sitions25,35, reflect the geochemical processes that may retard As in the
Suggestions that high-As irrigation water leads to accumulation groundwater flow field.
of As in rice grains42, human exposure, and threats to sustainable Ferric oxyhydroxides have a large capacity for adsorbing dissolved
agriculture43, might prompt widespread use of deep As-free ground- As (refs 45,46) (Fig. 3a) as demonstrated for oxidized, Pleistocene
water for irrigation. However, the rate of irrigation pumping is about sediments west of Dhaka35 and in central Bangladesh32. Adsorption
a b c
km
N
0 40 80 160 240
India
Bangladesh
Bangladesh
India
Figure 2 | Simulated regional outcomes of strategies for pumping deep groundwater from the BAS, based on the flow-pattern defence. a–c, Land-
surface elevation is shown in grey-scale. The dashed black contour encloses the high-As region (As concentration greater than 50 μg l–1 in shallow
groundwater). The black contour represents the Bangladesh border. The high-As region is coloured red (a), and the blue contour indicates the model
boundary. b, Deep pumping for domestic supply and irrigation: regions with As-free recharge areas or travel times longer than 1,000 years to deep wells
are coloured green; regions with travel times shorter than 1,000 years from high-As recharge areas are coloured red; hatching indicates regions where
domestic well lift would be more than 8 m. c, Deep pumping for domestic supply, with shallow pumping for irrigation: colours and symbols as in b. Figures
reproduced with permission from ref. 18: a–c, © 2008 NAS.