Computer-Integrated System for Estimating the Costs

of Building Projects
Ahmad Jrade1 and Sabah Alkass2

Abstract: The cost estimate is considered one of the most important and critical phases of a construction project. Preparing reliable and
accurate estimates to help decision makers is the most challenging assignment that cost engineers and estimators face. For decades,
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practitioners in the construction industry focused only on estimating the initial cost of a facility, neglecting costs associated with operating
and maintaining it. Today, more interest lies in investigating the economics of facility management, which include the cost of owning and
operating a building over its useful life. This paper presents a methodology that can be used for an integrated conceptual cost estimating
and life-cycle cost analysis for construction projects during their initial phase. The methodology describes the development and imple-
mentation of a system that automates the preparation of parametric cost estimates and forecasts future running costs of building projects.
The system integrates relational databases, a parametric cost estimate module, an AutoCAD module, a global module, a cost estimate
forecasting and decision support system module, and a life cycle costing and sensitivity analysis module. The system will automatically
generate a new parametric estimate upon any modification in building design. Once the capital costs are identified, the system forecasts
the cost of running and maintaining the new building throughout its expected service life. After assigning the range of deviation, a
sensitivity analysis is conducted, which identifies the most sensitive parameters for further consideration and analysis. Designing the
system in a user-friendly environment allows owners and decision makers to envision the feasibility of new building projects within their
anticipated life cycles. Moreover, it assists architects and cost engineers in generating parametric cost estimates in a dynamic environment.
A numerical case example is presented to illustrate the usefulness and capabilities of the developed system.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲1076-0431共2007兲13:4共205兲
CE Database subject headings: Computer aided drafting 共CAD兲; Cost estimates; Life cycles; Integrated systems; Databases; Fea-
sibility studies; Sensitivity analysis.

Introduction not include the opportunity to visualize a prototype of the pro-

A construction project goes through many phases during its ex-
pected life, including 共1兲 conception phase; 共2兲 development
phase; 共3兲 construction phase; 共4兲 completion phase; 共5兲 occupa-
tion phase; and 共6兲 disposal phase. During each of the first four
phases, a new cost estimate must be prepared, depending on the
availability of design drawings and specifications. It is during the
initial phase that feasibility studies and parametric cost estimates
are most likely to be carried out. During this phase, it is common
practice for owners to acquire estimates from architects and cost
engineers of the cost of constructing a proposed project. Normally
at this stage, the cost estimate is based on the estimator’s experi-
ence, imagination, and a wide range of assumptions, including
appraisals of previous projects similar in scope. The estimate
lacks considerable information about the construction cost, does
1
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil and Construction Engineering,
Western Michigan Univ., Kalamazoo, MI 49008.
2 liminary design phase is greatly dependent on the experience of
Professor and Chair, Dept. of Building, Civil, and Environmental
Engineering, Concordia Univ., Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Note. Discussion open until May 1, 2008. Separate discussions must
be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by one
month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing Editor.
The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible
publication on January 23, 2006; approved on March 12, 2007. This
paper is part of the Journal of Architectural Engineering, Vol. 13, No.
4, December 1, 2007. ©ASCE, ISSN 1076-0431/2007/4-205–223/$25.00.
posed project, and ignores the future costs of running the facility
over its anticipated service life.
Despite these deficiencies, feasibility studies and parametric
cost estimates play an important role in determining whether a
project could be realized based on the available budget. However,
if these estimates are poorly prepared, very little can be done to
improve them. Rast and Peterson 共1999兲 indicate that accurate
and consistent cost estimates are critical to any organization re-
sponsible for budget submission, contract negotiations, and finan-
cial decision making. Such estimates are first developed at the
order-of-magnitude level with an accuracy of +50% to −30%.
They are later refined to the budget/conceptual level with an ac-
curacy of +30% to −15%, and the definitive level with an accu-
racy of +15% to −5%. Oberlender and Trost 共2001兲 agree with
the construction industry that the accuracy of an estimate is
measured by how well the estimated cost compares to the actual
total installed cost. Park et al. 共1999兲 believe that, since no par-
ticular rules of measurement for building elements exist in the
industry, the reliability and accuracy of the estimate in the pre-
individual cost estimators. It is obvious that the estimator’s ex-
perience, the quality of and amount of information available, and
the amount of time spent preparing the estimate affect the accu-
racy of the estimate. This paper focuses on parametric estimates,
which are mainly generated by owners at the conceptual stage
of a construction project when the level of definition is not yet
identified.

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J. Archit. Eng. 2007.13:205-223.

 Parametric Estimate
Bajaj et al. 共2002兲 agree with the declaration that states that para-
metric estimates can be quite accurate if the historical data used in
their preparation are properly captured from the source. Further-
more, parametric cost estimates use factors based on engineering
parameters to develop accurate cost estimates 共Meyer and Burns
1999兲. These engineering parameters are developed from histori-
cal cost databases, construction practices, and engineering/
construction technology. Bajaj et al. 共2002兲 consider that paramet-
ric estimation is effectively used by the construction industry, and
that its main application is to reduce the time involved in bidding
on a job. Melin 共1994兲 believes that parametric estimating is used
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to generate detail for the early budget stages of design when there
is no formal design; however, one must first have a few available
parameters and cost data for a completed project that is similar in
scope to that of the new design. Furthermore, Ellsworth 共1998兲
believes that the simplest method to establish a reasonable esti-
mate of facility costs is to identify the costs of similar projects
and compare these costs with the cost of the new facility. Never-
theless, in many instances, cost information is unavailable for
facilities of comparable size, so facilities of different sizes may
have to be considered when developing cost estimates. The para-
metric approach to cost estimating is a procedure involving the
use of a constant parameter 共with variable values兲 as a reference
for other variables 共Melin 1994兲. The parameters from which
parametric cost estimates are derived include physical properties
that describe project definition characteristics such as size, build-
ing type, foundation type, exterior closure materials, roof type
and material, number of floors, and functional space and utility
system requirements 共Meyer and Burns 1999兲.
Parametric Cost Model
Dysert 共1999兲 indicates that a parametric cost model is an ex-
tremely useful tool for preparing early parametric estimates, when
there is little technical data or engineering deliverables to provide
a basis for using more detailed estimating methods. Moreover,
Meyer and Burns 共1999兲 believe that the use of the parametric
model helps to avoid the errors and omissions common in tradi-
tional cost estimating procedures, particularly during planning
and early design phases. The data models used in the preparation
of a parametric estimate are essential to the process. Before a
parametric estimate can be generated, estimate data models must
be created; the model’s basic requirements are based on quantita-
tive takeoffs of past estimated projects 共Melin 1994兲. Modeling
the parametric cost estimate requires that specific techniques and
methods be followed in order to improve the accuracy and reli-
ability of that estimate. The most basic method is to identify the
intended scope of the project; for buildings, this would be mea-
sured in gross square feet and referred as the “square foot”
method. This method generally has an accuracy of ±20%; the R.
S. Means’ Estimating Handbook supports this issue 共Larson
2002兲. Furthermore, Karshenas 共1984兲 mentions that one of the
most common methods used in parametric estimates is the square
foot method. In it, historical building cost data or cost books are
used to get an estimate of the cost per square foot of the type of
building under consideration. The estimated unit cost is then mul-
tiplied by the gross floor area of the proposed building after being
adjusted for factors as location, size, and the expected quality of
the proposed building. Therefore, besides the methods, param-
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J. Archit. Eng. 2007.13:205-223.
eters, and the historical data used, modeling the process of para-
metric estimates is a prime requirement for the preparation of a
liable and accurate estimate.
In this paper, the process of preparing parametric cost esti-
mates in both imperial and metric units is modeled based on R. S.
Means’ square foot cost data having assembly as the work break-
down structure. The parameters used consist of the following: 共1兲
building area; 共2兲 building perimeter; 共3兲 floor area; 共4兲 number of
floors; 共5兲 floor-to-floor height; 共6兲 exterior wall type; and 共7兲
floor and roof structure. The utilized data are normalized for lo-
cation, inflation, size, height, and exterior wall and structure type.
Life-Cycle Costing
Usually, the attentiveness of owners and decision makers is relied
upon to control and constrain the total construction costs of new
buildings within their estimated values. Despite the increase in
the cost of ownership and maintenance of these facilities at their
operation stage, this is often not considered during the feasibility
phase, resulting in extra costs. Decision makers need additional
data, efforts, and information to realize these costs in their esti-
mates. Thus, the application of life-cycle costing 共LCC兲 becomes
one of the main requirements set by owners. Abraham and Dick-
inson 共1998兲 believe that life-cycle costing studies show that the
cost of owning and operating a system 共ownership cost兲 can be
quite significant, and may often exceed acquisition costs. Thus,
decisions based solely on acquisition cost may not turn out to be
the best selection in the long term.
Fuller and Petersen 共1995兲 define LCC as the total discounted
dollar cost of owning, operating, maintaining, and disposing of a
building or a building system over a period of time. Furthermore,
they define life-cycle cost analysis 共LCCA兲 as an economic evalu-
ation technique that determines the total cost of owning and op-
erating a facility over its assumed life. We consider LCCA as a
process of evaluating the feasibility of a new project that consid-
ers all involved costs, from initial to disposal. Life-cycle cost
analysis is an essential design process for controlling the initial
and future costs of owning a building. LCCA can be implemented
at any level of the design process and can be used effectively as a
tool to evaluate the systems of an existing building.
The LCC equation includes the following three variables: 共1兲
the pertinent “costs” of ownership; 共2兲 the “study” period over
which these costs are incurred; and 共3兲 the “discount rate” that is
applied to future costs to equate them with present day values.
Fuller and Petersen 共1995兲 consider the LCC method of economic
analysis as the basic building block of LCCA. Dell’Isola and Kirk
共1995兲 consider that a common methodology for LCC, when
dealing with architecture/engineering 共A/E兲 systems such as
buildings, includes 共1兲 identification of significant costs for each
alternative; 共2兲 summation of costs per year; 共3兲 discounting the
costs back to a common base; 共4兲 selecting the lowest cost alter-
native; and 共5兲 evaluating the final selection with additional non-
economic considerations.
Applying the LCC approach for any facility is not an easy task
for cost engineers and estimators. Many problems arise, depend-
ing on the facility type and the owner’s needs. Assaf et al. 共2002兲
have drawn up five categories of problems, which are as follows:
共1兲 knowledge problems; 共2兲 data problems; 共3兲 procedural prob-
lems; 共4兲 management problems; and 共5兲 cost problems.
Management Information System
The availability of historical data is indispensable for the prepa-
ration of cost estimates. The data must be properly organized and
 convenient in order for cost engineers and estimators to manipu-
late, edit, and modify according to the project estimating needs.
This is done by applying the management information system
共MIS兲 through relational databases. The MIS has enhanced many
aspects of construction processes by storing project data and by
making them available, when they are needed, to all parties in-
volved. However, implementing a reliable MIS depends on the
modeling methodology followed in its design, and on the reliabil-
ity of the data involved.
Management information is normally produced from a shared
database that stores data from many sources; thus, data analysis
and database design become critical to MIS design 共Whitten and
Bentley 1998兲. Databases and database technology are having a
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major impact with the growing use of computers. It is fair to say
that databases will play a critical role in almost all areas where
computers are used 共Elmasri and Navathe 2000兲. By definition,
database is a collection of interrelated stored data that serves the
needs of multiple users within one or more organizations 关Teorey
共1994兲; Elmasri and Navathe 共2000兲; Whitten and Bentley
共1998兲兴. Spainhour and Rasdorf 共1996兲 state that good database
implementation depends on how accurately and completely the
data involved in the domain can be modeled.
One way to ensure the development of a good data model is
by using a formal modeling methodology that enables a data-
base schema to be designed in a systematic fashion. Whitten and
Bentley 共1998兲 describe data modeling as a technique for orga-
nizing and documenting a system’s data, whereas Elmasri and
Navathe 共2000兲 consider a data model as a set of concepts that
can be used to describe the structure of a database. This set in-
cludes the data types, relationships, and constraints that should
hold for the data. Loucopoulos and Zicari 共1992兲 believe that a
consistent information system depends on the integration between
databases, programming languages, and software engineering; its
life cycle incorporates the interrelated technologies of conceptual
modeling and database design.
Spainhour and Rasdorf 共1996兲 think that modeling the func-
tional application requirements and information system compo-
nents at a conceptual level is important, given the growing
demand for information systems of ever-increasing size, scope,
and complexity. Aouad et al. 共1995兲 believe that the conceptual
modeling of construction management information models the in-
formation for the activities performed at the post design stage.
The resulting conceptual models form the basis for developing
construction management databases, which can monitor time,
cost, and quality aspects of a construction project. Whitten and
Bentley 共1998兲 state there are several notations for data modeling.
The actual model is frequently called an entity-relationship dia-
gram 共ERD兲 because it depicts data in terms of the entities and
relationships described by the data. Entity-relationship 共ER兲 mod-
els are frequently used for the conceptual design of database ap-
plications. The ER model describes data as entities, relationships,
and attributes. Entities and relationships are appropriate for rep-
resenting design information 共Elmasri and Navathe, 2000兲.
The data stored in the relational database can be accessed and
queried by using a language named Structure Query Language
共SQL兲. SQL is a language that controls user access by specifying
security constraints. It allows sophisticated data management pro-
cesses to be performed on databases that are based upon highly
orthogonal, yet simple principles 共Kibert and Hollister 1994兲.
3D CAD Modeling
Presently, many industries are using computer-aided design
共CAD兲 systems in their engineering and design processes.
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J. Archit. Eng. 2007.13:205-223.
AutoCAD is considered the most popular application in the con-
struction industry. Research has been conducted in modeling
the design procedure of all aspects of construction through the
application of 3D-CAD modeling, concluding that the system’s
capability could be enhanced through the application of 3D-CAD
modeling. This enhancement allows visualization of the project
from any point in the workspace, thereby helping to eliminate
design errors and to reduce costs. Kunigahalli 共1997兲 believes a
3D-CAD modeling system that facilitates efficient computer-
based storage and manipulation of geometric and topological in-
formation is required in order to develop powerful CAD systems
for a rapid design process and for fast and cost-effective construc-
tion. Such an improvement can be achieved by integrating differ-
ent computer applications.
Computer-Integrated Construction
Lipman and Reed 共2000兲 believe that effective project delivery
depends on making current and correct information available to
all project participants, wherever they are and whenever they
need it. Hemiö and Salonen 共2000兲 believe that data transfer in
the future will be based more on sharing than on sending. This
process is normally called computer-integrated construction
共CIC兲. Kim et al. 共2000兲 consider that CIC is a good project
management and communication tool by which all the informa-
tion produced during the entire project life cycle can be efficiently
shared, managed, and controlled among various business func-
tions within an organization. Dunston and Bernold 共2000兲 think
that computer-integrated construction still remains an area with
unrealized potential for impacting construction, specifically as it
is extended to support automated and robotized processes. The
integration process minimizes errors, secures data integrity, and
improves the efficiency of communication between participants in
the design and construction of a project.
Consequently, this paper describes a methodology to prepare
parametric cost estimates for a proposed project, taking owning
and operating costs into consideration. The methodology is imple-
mented through the design and development of a system that
automates the preparation of parametric cost estimates for build-
ing projects and that forecasts their running costs throughout their
life cycles. The methodology emphasizes the integration of life-
cycle costing, the management information system, 3D-CAD
modeling, and computer-integrated construction, thereby provid-
ing a reliable tool to owners, architects, cost engineers, estima-
tors, and all participants involved in the construction of a project.
The methodology incorporates an integrated computer system
capable of guiding users when performing feasibility studies for
proposed projects. It also incorporates algorithms to execute nec-
essary calculations in the following five modules: 共1兲 cost estima-
tion; 共2兲 3D-CAD; 共3兲 parameter adjustment calculations; 共4兲 life-
cycle costing forecasting and sensitivity analysis; and 共5兲 decision
support systems and cost estimate forecasting. Each of the first
four modules is linked to one or more databases containing nec-
essary data and information. The fifth module incorporates lists of
linear regression equations that have been derived to forecast the
costs of facilities based on their size or budget entries. Numerous
types of software used in the construction industry, such as Au-
toCAD, Microsoft Access, Microsoft Excel, and Visual Basic,
were used in the development of this integrated system.
The successful implementation of such a system represents a
significant advance in the ability to conduct feasibility studies
 during the early stages of proposed building projects, to generate
parametric cost estimates, and to predict the anticipated costs of
owning and maintaining such projects.
Methodology
The aim is to develop an automated method with which to prepare
parametric cost estimates and life-cycle costs of proposed build-
ing projects. In order to achieve that objective, the following steps
are carried out:
Data Collection
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Data on 13 high-rise building projects constructed in Canada and
the USA have been obtained from a construction company in
Canada. The company is an owner-builder firm that usually sub-
contracts the design of new projects to private consulting compa-
nies. The company uses its own cost data to conduct a quick
feasibility study for new proposed projects. Since the gathered
data is limited to one type of building project, published data have
been used to overcome this gap. The data used in system devel-
opment are based on the following: 共1兲 Means’ Square Foot Costs
and Means’ Assemblies Cost Data books 共R. S. Means 2000a,b兲;
共2兲 Building Owners and Managers Association 共BOMA兲 publi-
cations 共BOMA 1984 to 1997兲; and 共3兲 the Consumer Price Index
共CPI兲 from years 1981 to 2002 共Statistics Canada 2002兲. The data
from the actual projects will be applied in testing the performance
of the developed system.
Development of the System
Since the system integrates many applications, the development
will be divided into the following five phases:
• Phase 1 consists of designing the system’s relational databases
for parametric cost estimates, life-cycle costing and sensitivity
analysis, and 3D-CAD drawings.
• Phase 2 includes the design of AutoCAD’s internal modules
and the customization and creation of new drop-down menus.
• Phase 3 involves the design of a global module that acts as a
platform to manage the project cost data retrieval and that
executes all required adjustments and calculations for paramet-
ric estimates.
• Phase 4 covers the design of a LCC module to forecast the
running costs of the facility during occupation. This includes
the application of the sensitivity analysis method to predefined
parameters.
• Phase 5 incorporates the applications of the linear regression
method to generate sets of equations. These equations are
based on the building’s exterior wall and framing type, and on
the size or budget entry. Furthermore, the system incorporates
a decision support system 共DSS兲, which automates the selec-
tion of project type and its associated 3D-CAD drawings from
the databases based on the budget entry.
Each of these phases is discussed separately in the following
paragraphs.
System Components and Architecture
The system consists of components designed in a modular format,
incorporating five modules: 共1兲 AutoCAD module; 共2兲 cost esti-
mate module; 共3兲 global visual basic module; 共4兲 life-cycle
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J. Archit. Eng. 2007.13:205-223.
costing and sensitivity analysis module; and 共5兲 decision support
system and forecasting module. Fig. 1 shows the system’s com-
ponents. The AutoCAD module is linked to an external database,
which in turn is linked to the four parametric cost estimates and
the LCC databases. These databases are managed by a database
management system. The functions performed within each of the
system components and their local developments are described in
upcoming paragraphs.
Based on the user’s input, the system guides the user through
the estimating process. The global visual basic module manages
the process of accessing required data based on the estimate’s
type, as well as executing all required adjustments and calcula-
tions. The system incorporates the imperial and metric parametric
databases using R. S. Means’ published cost data in both master
format and assembly work breakdown structures, assisting the
user in normalizing the costs of a previous project. This normal-
ization is done for city cost index, inflation, size, perimeter,
height, external walls, and structure frame types. The user will be
able to quickly prepare a parametric estimate for any similar
project listed in the provided database in both metric and imperial
units.
The AutoCAD modules read the 3D-CAD drawing param-
eters, including the following: Floor area, floor-to-floor height,
and building perimeter 共length兲. These parameters are written to
an external database, which is linked to the parametric cost data-
bases. The life-cycle cost module, which is linked to the life-cycle
costing and parametric cost databases, executes and forecasts the
income, maintenance, and operating costs based on BOMA data.
Fig. 2 shows the system architecture.
System Development Process
As mentioned earlier, the system incorporates five different
phases; therefore, the development is implemented in the sequen-
tial process described in the following sections.
System Databases „Phase 1…
The development of this phase starts by designing and imple-
menting the system’s relational databases. This process is divided
into two steps: The conceptual modeling and the implementa-
tion data model. Fig. 3 shows the system’s database development
process.
Conceptual Modeling
The conceptual modeling step includes problem investigation,
user requirements, model components, and architecture. The da-
tabase necessities are identified based on the user needs and the
system workability. Afterwards, the conceptual design is carried
out, and the conceptual schema 共ERD兲 is derived. The problem
investigation and user requirements are set and identified. The
model’s components and architecture have already been identified
in previous paragraphs. The conceptual design can be established
by identifying the components of the conceptual schemas. Fig. 4
illustrates a portion of the conceptual schema designed for the
parametric cost estimate database in both units and assembly
work breakdown structure. A similar process has been followed in
designing the AutoCAD external database, 3D-CAD drawing da-
tabase, and LCC and sensitivity analysis databases. Once the re-
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Fig. 1. System components

Fig. 2. System architecture

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Fig. 3. Systems database development process

Fig. 4. Conceptual schema

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Fig. 5. Reading and writing parameters to the Database
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quired conceptual schema of each database is drawn, the concep-
tual modeling step is accomplished, and subsequently the
implementation data model can be carried out.
Implementation Data Model
This step includes the transformation process from conceptual to
logical design by mapping the data model and executing the
physical design, and then deriving the internal schema. The
data model mapping consists of transferring all the conceptual
schema’s components into various relations. This is accomplished
by using the entity relationship-to-relational mapping approach,
in which a relation is created for each entity, weak entity, sub-
class, multivalued or composite attribute, and many-to-many re-
lationships include the corresponding attributes. Once the data
model mapping is finished, the physical design can begin. A table
Fig. 6. Systems workflow structure diagram
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J. Archit. Eng. 2007.13:205-223.
is created in the database for each relation of the data model
mapping, and each column in the table presents an associated
attribute.
AutoCAD Module Design „Phase 2…
This phase consists of customizing AutoCAD to fit the modularity
requirements of the system. The first step is to design and im-
plement a visual basic module capable of automatically reading
the compulsory parameters from the 3D-CAD drawings. The pa-
rameters are then written to the external database, as illustrated in
Fig. 5.
To automate the writing process to the external database, a
connection has to be made between AutoCAD and that database.
Microsoft OLE DB Provider for ODBC Drivers is applied where
MS Access Database is the machine data source for the connec-
tion string.
Global Visual Basic Module „Phase 3…
This module is considered the gateway that incorporates the para-
metric estimate module and manages the access to other modules
and data retrieval. To simplify the development of this module, a
workflow diagram was structured to show the procedures fol-
lowed in contacting the required modules and data. Fig. 6 illus-
trates the system’s workflow structure diagram. Drop-down
menus were developed to assist in the selection of the estimate
type and to accordingly choose the work breakdown structure,
unit, cost, and data type. Data associated with the project type,

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Fig. 7. Phase 4 process flow diagram
area, exterior wall, and frame type is retrieved for the parametric
cost estimate. The module retrieves size, perimeter, and floor-to-
floor height parameters from the modified drawings and automati-
cally adjusts them, using procedures and equations derived for
this purpose. Adjustments for exterior wall enclosure and frame
structure type are inherent in the module and are automatically
made depending on the user selection.
Life-Cycle Costing Module „Phase 4…
This phase consists of designing a module that automatically fore-
casts the operating cost of the building and its predictable yearly
income based on its lifespan. This includes using the sensitivity
analysis method on sets of predefined parameters to determine
the most critical ones. Fig. 7 illustrates the process flow of the
module.
The first step is to collect all the data needed during the design
and development process of this phase. Normally, in-house data
are collected from previously executed projects so that an accept-
able level of confidence can be achieved. Published data can also
be used after identifying the source and level of accuracy. This
paper uses data published by the Building Owners and Managers
Association 共BOMA from year 1984 to 1997兲 and the Consumer
Price Index 共CPI兲 共published by Statistics Canada from year 1984
to 2002兲. The components of LCC used in this paper include the
following: 共a兲 Rent; 共b兲 retail; and 共c兲 total operating expenses
plus fixed expenses plus leasing costs 共TOEFEL兲. The first two
are sources of income, whereas the third is expense and consists
of cleaning, repair and maintenance, utilities, administration,
fixed expenses, leasing expenses, and road ground and security
expenses. Since the data used are based on BOMA reports, ad-
justment factors have to be applied for the LCC components.
Known as impact factors 共Zhang 1999兲, these factors include ad-
justments for the following: 共1兲 city; 共2兲 location, 共i.e., downtown/
suburban兲; 共3兲 height of the building 共i.e., number of floors兲; and
共4兲 age and size 共i.e., building age and size in unit area兲. The
factors applied to the components used in this paper are as fol-
lows:
• Income factors include: Income city factor, income location
factor, income height factor, income size factor, and income
age factor.
• Expense factors include: Expense city factor, expense location
factor, expense height factor, expense size factor, and expense
age factor.
The gathered data are analyzed so that new sets of data are
determined using overall and weighted-average methods. Further-
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J. Archit. Eng. 2007.13:205-223.
more, moving average, smoothed forecasting, and economy-
influenced forecast are techniques used in the forecasting proce-
dures to derive equations that can help to predict the future costs
of running the proposed facilities. Once the rent, retail, and
TOEFEL anticipated values are calculated and written by the
module to the database, the user is provided with the option to
apply the sensitivity analysis method to identify all the sensitive
parameters. This is accomplished after deriving and drawing the
associated LCC’s cash flow. The present value for each compo-
nent of the derived cash flow is calculated by the module based
on the interest and inflation rates entered by the user. Afterward, a
new cash flow is generated. Subsequently, the module computes
the total net present value, and the saving investment ratio. As
soon as the user inputs the range of deviation for the sensitivity
analysis, the module computes the present worth for each compo-
nent separately, based on the inputted deviation, and writes these
values into the database. In order to automate the process of
drawing the sensitivity analysis graph, Microsoft Excel is used
due to its ability to execute this task. However, an internal module
in Excel is created and its drop-down menu is customized so that
the user is allowed to draw the graph by a single click from that
menu.
Forecasting and DSS Module „Phase 5…
This phase integrates a forecasting and DSS module that forecasts
the costs of the proposed project when users select the forecasting
equations used in the parametric estimate. This module incorpo-
rates three different submodules. Two of these modules forecast
the cost based on either the size or budget, whereas the third
encompasses a DSS that automatically selects the best project and
its associated 3D-CAD drawings, based on the user’s budget. To
simplify the design and implementation procedures of this phase,
Fig. 8 shows a workflow diagram depicting the different steps of
each of the three submodules. Fig. 9 shows a process flow dia-
gram for the two submodules.
First, all the cost data are organized into a tabulated format
depending on four parameters: 共1兲 project type; 共2兲 exterior wall
type; 共3兲 framing system type; and 共4兲 total floor area. The area is
the key that links the perimeter value and all cost data, including
materials, installation, division/elements, total square feet, and
project costs. The forthcoming sections present detailed explana-
tions of the procedures taken during the design of each of the
three submodules.
Forecasting Estimate Based on Size Entry Submodule
In this submodule, cost data are classified and tabulated based
on the total floor area and the square foot cost of each of the
parameters mentioned in the foregoing paragraph. The data for
each division and its associated elements are organized and tabu-
lated as percentages according to the total floor area. Once all the
pertinent cost data are organized into sets of tables, graphs are
developed for each set of data using spreadsheets. Associated
equations of the best-fitted lines are derived. All the derived equa-
tions are included in the submodule to forecast the costs of the
proposed project. Once the user selects the project type, exterior
wall, and framing system type, the module will forecast the
project’s costs.
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Fig. 8. Workflow diagram of Phase 5

Forecasting Costs Based on Budget Entry Submodule
This submodule’s design is similar to the previous one, except
that the cost data are organized and stored based on the total cost
and on the cost per square foot of each of the parameters men-
tioned in the previous paragraph. All necessary equations are de-
rived and used to forecast the area of the proposed project and the
estimated costs based on the budget entry.
Decision Support System Based on Budget
Entry Submodule
In this submodule, a DSS is designed in order to assist users in
selecting the best project size from the database and its associated
3D-CAD drawings within their anticipated budget. In Phase 2, in
order to store 3D-CAD drawings, a special database is designed,
which the DSS uses in selecting the best-fit drawing, based on the
forecasted area. This paper uses the rule-based reasoning ap-
proach in the design and implementation of the DSS. The system
contains a total of 70 rules related to the system functionality.
These rules are divided into three groups as follows: 共1兲 wide,
containing 20 rules; 共2兲 intermediate, containing 20 rules; and 共3兲
narrow, containing 30 rules. A workflow process diagram has
been designed in order to identify the steps that this submodule
will execute, as shown in Fig. 10. The process begins by inputting
the budget, then selecting the rule type. The system automatically
searches for projects in which the direct construction costs rank
within the budget entered by the user. In case of an empty listing,
the system stops the search until the user changes the rule type. In
case a list is provided, a selection of the project is made, and the
submodule forecasts the area accordingly, using the derived equa-
tions. Once the user accepts this value, the submodule forecasts
the whole estimated costs using the same stated equations. Upon
the user’s request, the DSS selects from the specified database the

Fig. 9. Phase 5 process flow diagram Fig. 10. DSS workflow process diagram

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Fig. 11. Summarized format of the retrieved cost data
most suitable 3D-CAD drawing, which it makes available to the
user to animate and modify. Routed on the drawing’s modifica-
tion, the new parameters are read and written to the database, and
immediately a new estimate is forecasted and provided. After-
wards, the user can forecast the running costs of the proposed
project and apply sensitivity analysis as mentioned in previous
paragraphs.
Numerical Case Example
The preceding paragraphs explored in detail the methodology fol-
lowed in developing the integrated system. This section validates
the capabilities of the system. The performance of the system is
examined through an actual high-rise building project constructed
in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, by an owner-developer
firm. The project consists of 80 units and has a ribbed precast
concrete panel as the exterior wall type and steel frame as the
structural framing type. Furthermore, it has a gross area of
129,095 ft2, and its construction was consummated in 1996 for a
direct construction cost of $10,254,326. The total project costs
were $23,029,641; included in these costs is an indirect cost of
$12,775,315, out of which $5,042,964 is the cost of land. The
system’s capabilities and performance are measured using the de-
veloped estimating tools, which are the database, forecasting
equations based on size, and forecasting equations based on bud-
get 共by using the DSS and manual selection兲.
Estimating Using Database
Since all the cost data used in the system are based on the national
average costs for the year 2000, it is necessary to update the
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J. Archit. Eng. 2007.13:205-223.
project direct construction cost from 1996 to 2000. Thus, an in-
flation rate of 3% is used; this brings the project’s actual construc-
tion costs in 2000 amount to $11,541,334. Next, the estimating
tool is applied to select a project involving a high-rise building
with an area close to 129,095 ft2 is selected from the database.
The process starts by selecting the estimating tool to be used from
the main form. Afterwards, once we select the project type, which
is “apartment, 8–24 story,” the system asks to select a combina-
tion of area, exterior wall type, and framing system type. At this
stage, the selected parameters that are compatible with the actual
project are the following: 129,000 ft2, ribbed precast concrete
panels, and steel frame, respectively. Based on this selection, the
system contacts the database and queries the cost data related to
the entered parameters. It retrieves and provides the information
in three different formats that are summarized, detailed by divi-
sions, and detailed by elements. Fig. 11 demonstrates one of these
formats. Clicking the “associated AutoCAD drawing” button
opens the associated 3D-CAD drawing as shown in Fig. 12. That
drawing has a total floor area of 129,000 ft2, a floor area of
8,600 ft2, 15 stories, and a perimeter of 547 ft; therefore, it has to
be adjusted in a way that meets the actual values of the project at
hand. Hence, we have modified the floor area from 8,600 to
4,621 ft2, the perimeter from 547 to 401 ft, the number of floors
from 15 to 28, and the total floor area to 129,033 ft2. Based on the
parameters retrieved from the modified drawing, a new cost esti-
mate is generated after executing all needed adjustments. These
adjustments are based on size, perimeter, inflation, and location as
exemplified in Fig. 13. Note that the floor height has not been
changed, so no adjustment is required. Since the direct construc-
tion cost of the actual project has already been adjusted from year
1996 to 2000, adjustment for inflation is not needed. Therefore, a
value of zero is entered in the “Inflation Rate” and the “Number
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Fig. 12. Associated 3D-CAD drawing

Fig. 13. Adjusted square foot cost

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Fig. 14. Detailed by divisions format of the adjusted cost data
of Years” as shown in Fig. 13. Nevertheless, an adjustment for
location is required, so a new square footage cost is computed. A
new cost estimate is generated as displayed in Fig. 14. Adjusting
the $10,592,190 shown in Fig. 11 from the national average cost
to Vancouver gives us a value of $11,481,934; this is for an area
of 129,000 ft2 and a perimeter of 406 ft. Comparing this value
with the new project estimated cost given in Fig. 14 共i.e.,
$12,882,156 for an area of 129,033 ft2 and perimeter of 401 ft兲
shows a difference of $1,400,222, which is around 12.2%. Based
on AACE International Classification 共18R-97兲, the expected
range of accuracy for Class 5 estimates, where the level of project
definition is between 0% and 2%, is from −50% to 100%. For a
Class 4 estimate that has a project level of definition ranging
between 1% and 5%, the expected accuracy level is −30% to
+50%. Therefore, the system’s validation is above the acceptable
level, which means its outcomes are dependable and hold a high
level of accuracy.
After entering the indirect costs as percentages, the system
provides users with a list of four different types of output reports,
consisting of two graphical and two tabulated, and users are asked
to select the desired one共s兲. Yet, as mentioned previously, the total
project costs of $23,029,641 include a land fee of $5,042,964. If
we remove this value, the actual project cost for 1996 would be
$17,986,677 and for 2000 would be $20,244,163. The value cal-
culated by the system after entering the indirect costs is
$18,073,665. Comparing the two values shows a difference of
− $ 2,170,498, which corresponds to −12.00%. This is an accept-
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J. Archit. Eng. 2007.13:205-223.
able result, and accordingly demonstrates the capability of the
system to supply a high level of accuracy for proposed projects at
their feasible stage.
We were not able to gather actual data about the cost of run-
ning the actual building. For that reason we will use the system to
forecast these costs without any level of comparison. By selecting
the “life-cycle costing” top menu and the “forecast project LCC”
button, the system immediately opens the form shown in Fig. 15,
and asks us to enter some necessary data so that the module can
forecast the LCC. The data needed consists of: 共1兲 land area; 共2兲
land price/ ft2; 共3兲 office rental area; 共4兲 retail space area; 共5兲 other
income; 共6兲 salvage value; 共7兲 LCC period of study; 共8兲 office
rental rate/ ft2; 共9兲 interest rate; and 共10兲 inflation rate, as exem-
plified in Fig. 15. Once all these data are entered, the system
supplies us with a list of output reports from which to select; Figs.
16 and 17 show two of these reports. The first provides a break-
down of the expenses per square foot cost based on their fixed
percentages. The second shows the life-cycle costing analysis re-
sult, which calculates the saving investment ratio, used to identify
whether the proposed project is feasible.
Forecasting the Costs Based on Size
The same cost data used in the previous section is used to validate
the system using linear regression equations based on the size
entry. To start, we have to make a group of selections that in-
cludes the area, exterior wall type, and framing type. The system
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Fig. 15. LCC’s data entry form

Fig. 16. Percentage breakdown of expenses report

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Fig. 17. Life-cycle costing analysis report

prompts the user to enter the area 共129,095 ft2兲 and, once entered,
forecasts the cost based on the entered value using linear regres-
sion equations. The system searches for the best-fitted 3D-CAD
drawing from the database that has an area close to the one en-
tered when the user clicks on the “associated AutoCAD drawing”
button. Associated drawing adjustments then have to be made
based on the new parameters extracted from the drawing.
The linear regression equations are based on the national av-
erage cost for the year 2000, and since we have adjusted the direct
construction cost of the actual project from year 1996 to 2000, we
considered the inflation rate and number of years as zero. How-
ever, an adjustment for location is made to have the final square
footage cost adjusted for the city of Vancouver, which gives us a
value of $100/ ft2. Based on this value, the system forecasts the
new estimate and provides us with four different formats. As seen
in Fig. 18, the new forecasted construction cost of the modified
drawing is $12,929,712 for the year 2000, whereas the value of
the actual project at the same year is $11,541,334. There is a
difference of + $ 1,388,378, which corresponds to +12.03%.
Based on AACE International Classification 共18R-97兲, this is a
very good accuracy level for this type of cost estimate. Adding
the indirect costs to the forecasted one, the system provides a total
cost of $18,140,386 compared to $20,244,163 for the actual
project in 2000. This gives a difference of − $ 2,103,777, matching

Fig. 18. Summarized format of the new forecasted costs

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Fig. 19. Using the DSS’s “narrow” rule case
a −11.59%. We can forecast the running costs of the project by
following the same procedures taken in the previous paragraph.
Forecasting the Costs Based on Budget
To use this estimating tool, we have to adjust the actual direct
construction cost from 1996 to 2004. The reason for doing so is
that, in this tool, the system brings back the budget-entered value
to the year 2000 and national average cost because the derived
linear regression equations derived previously were based on this
type of cost for the mentioned year. Thus, the actual direct con-
struction cost of $10,254,326 is adjusted for year 2004 by consid-
ering an inflation rate of 3%; the new value is $12,989,873. Once
the budget is entered, the system identifies the city where the
project is located, in this case Vancouver, and changes the default
value of the city. The new computed value has to be brought to
year 2000; for this reason, the system needs the inflation rate,
which is 3%, in our case. The system automatically identifies the
number of years by reading the current year from the computer’s
date and then adjusts the costs to year 2000. At this stage, the
system asks for the project’s category, which is “commercial,”
and after that whether to run the DSS or manually select the
project type. We select to run the DSS as seen in Fig. 19. Before
running the DSS, we select the “narrow” rule type, and based on
this selection, the DSS provides two projects, the direct costs of
which are compatible with the entered one. One of these projects
is “apartment, 8–24 story” that has “ribbed precast concrete
panel” as the exterior wall type and “steel” as the framing type, as
illustrated in Fig. 20. Once the “continue” top menu is clicked,
the system bases its calculations on the value of $10,646,987 to
forecast the area that is found to be 129,003 ft2. This value is
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J. Archit. Eng. 2007.13:205-223.
different from the actual one by −92 ft2, which corresponds to
−0.071%. Afterward, the system forecasts all the components of
the estimate, and supplies them in three different formats. Fig. 21
shows a summary. Selecting the “associated AutoCAD drawing”
button in that form runs the DSS in an attempt to find a 3D-CAD
drawing that has the closest area to the forecasted one; the se-
lected drawing has an area of 129,500 ft2 and a perimeter of
548.09 ft, and is shown in Fig. 22. This drawing is modified in a
way such that its area is 129,033 ft2 and perimeter is 401 ft. Af-
terward, these parameters are sent to the external database, and all
required adjustments are automatically executed by the system.
Ultimately, a new cost estimate is generated and provided by
the system in four different formats, as described in previous
sections. Moreover, the system provides four different formats of
output reports to select from following the input of the indirect
percentages; Fig. 23 exemplifies a summarized report. Normally,
the system forecasts the running costs of the selected project after
sets of input are made, as mentioned previously. To apply the
sensitivity analysis method, we input the range of errors 共−50% to
+50% with a step of 5兲, and the system executes all necessary
calculations and draws the graph as seen in Fig. 24.
Summary
This paper presents a methodology for modeling the procedures
of generating parametric cost estimates and life-cycle costing of
building projects by the integration of 3D-CAD drawings and
relational databases with a workable system. The system includes
a parametric cost estimate module, an AutoCAD module, a global
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Fig. 20. List of findings supplied by the DSS

Fig. 21. Forecasted costs based on budget entry of selected project

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Fig. 22. Area and perimeter of the provided drawing by the DSS

visual basic module, a life-cycle costing and sensitivity analysis
module, and a linear regression and decision support system mod-
ule. The system’s databases are based on R. S. Means’ national
average costs data 共R. S. Means, 2000a,b兲 for the parametric cost
estimate, and on the Building Owners and Managers Association
共BOMA, 1984 to 1997兲 publications for life-cycle costing calcu-
lations. The developed system is intended to assist owners, archi-
tects, and cost engineers in generating an understanding of the
cost of construction projects and their anticipated running costs at
the very earliest stages. Furthermore, the system allows users to

Fig. 23. One of the output reports provided by the system

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Fig. 24. Sensitivity analysis graph
create different scenarios through the integration of 3D-CAD
drawings, enabling them to design a project that meets their tech-
nical requirements and limited budget. Time reduction, fast cal-
culation execution, easy drawing modification, efficient estimated
and running costs predictions, effective project selection, and
professional-output report generation are some of the system’s
advantages.
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