+0)26-4

Heat and Mass Transfer

 102
Thermal Engineering Data Handbook
3. Composite wall Dx1 Dx2 Dx3 hi = Inside heat transfer
R= + + 2.8
k1 A k2 A k3 A coefficient, W/m2K
Composite wall h o = Outside heat transfer
coefficient, W/m2K
Q T1
U = Overall heat transfer
T2
T3 coefficient, W/m2K
T4 ko = Thermal conductivity at 0°C,
W/mK
k1 k2 k3
b = Co-efficient of thermal
Dx1 Dx2 Dx3 expansion

4. Plane wall with convection ends 1 Dx 1

R= + + 2.9a
hi A kA h0 A
Ti, hi K1 Q = UA(DT) 2.9b
T1
1
where, U =
T2 A. R

To, ho
Dx

5. Plane wall with variable thermal Dx

R= 2.10
conductivity km A

LM (T1 + T2 ) OP
N
where, km = K0 1 + b
2 Q
Replace K by Km for linear variation of
thermal conductivity
6. Radial systems – cylinder ro r = Radius, m
ln
ri L = Length of the cylinder, m
R= 2.11
2 pKL

K Ti
ro
ri To

7. Multilayer cylinder r2 r r
ln ln 3 ln 4
r1 r2 r3
R= + + 2.12
2 pK1L 2 pK2 L 2 pK3 L
K3
K2
K r1
1 r2
T1 r3
T2
T3 r4
T4

Length of the cylinder - L

8. Cylinder with convective boundary r Ai = Inside area of the cylinder,

ln o

Heat and Mass Transfer

conditions 1 ri 1 m2 = 2pri L
R= + + 2.13a
Heat flow hi Ai 2 pKL ho Ao A o = Outside area of the cylinder,
m2
Q = Ui Ai DT = Uo A o DT 2.13b
= 2 pro L
1
where, Ui =
ho Ai R
To,
ri ro
K
1
Uo =
Ao R
Ti, hi L

103
 104
Thermal Engineering Data Handbook
9. Spherical systems – sphere
R=
LM
1 1 1
-
OP 2.14
N
4 pK ri ro Q
K ri ro
To
Ti

10. Sphere with convective boundary

R=
1
+
1 LM
1 1
- +
OP 1
2.15
Ai = Inside area of the sphere, m 2
conditions
N
hi Ai 4 pK ri ro Q
ho Ao A o = Outside area of the sphere,
m2
where, Ai = 4pri2
ro
ri Ao = 4pro2
K
To, ho
Ti, hi

11. Circular hole centered in a square 1 0.54 W

R= ln for L >> W 2.16
solid of length L 2 pKL R

K T1
T2
W
2R L
W
12. Eccentric circular hole (Radius, R1) in 1 KA, KB, KC, KD
R= cosh–1 [(R12 + R22 + e2)/(e R1R2)] 2.17
a cylindrical solid (Radius, R2) of 2 pKL = Thermal conductivity of A,
length L
B, C, D
L = Thickness
AA, AB, AC, AD
= Area perpendicular to heat
flow of A, B, C, D
1
R

e T1 R2 T A A = AB + AC = AD
2

L
K

13. Series - Parallel composite wall R = R1 + R2 + R3 2.18

T1 LA
R1 =
A B D K A . AA
Q
RB RC
C R2 =
RB + RC

Heat and Mass Transfer

T2 LB LC
LA LB= LC LD RB = , RC =
KB . AB KC AC

LD
R3 =
KD AD

105
 106
Thermal Engineering Data Handbook
2.1.3 Conduction with Heat Generation
Sl. No. Description Correlation Eq. No. Notations

1. Plane wall with heat sources Tx - To x LM OP 2 2L = Thickness of the

Tw - To
=
L N Q 2.19a plane wall, m
Tw = Temperature of the
x
 2
qL wall at x = L
To = + Tw 2.19b
2K T o = Temperature of the
x = o, To

wall at x = o
 2L
Q = qA 2.19c
q q = Heat generated per
unit volume, W/m3
TW Tx = Temperature at
TW distance x
Tr = Temperature at
distance r
L L Tµ = Temperature of the
fluid
h = Convective heat
2. Cylinders with heat sources Tr - Tw FG r IJ 2
transfer coefficient,
Fluid
To - Tw
=1–
H RK 2.20a
W/m2 K
L = Length of the
h, Ta  2
qR
TW r To = + Tw 2.20b cylinders, m
4K
A = Area normal to the
o, T o
r= Q = q pR2L = hA[Tw – Tµ] 2.20c direction of heat
flow, m2

qR
Tw = T¥ + 2.20d
r 2h
R
TW
3. Sphere with heat sources Tr - Tw FG r IJ 2

Fluid
To - Tw
=1–
H RK 2.21a

h, Ta 4
Q = q pR3 = hA [Tw – Tµ] 2.21b
r 3
TW 
qR
R Tw = Tµ + 2.21c
3h

 2
qR
To = Tw + 2.21d
6K
4. Plane wall with
boundary condition
asymmetric
Tx =
qLLM
 2 x2
1- 2
OP + (T w2 - Tw 1 ) x
.
2K N L Q 2 L

(Tw1 + Tw2 )
+ 2.22
2

TW
1
TW
2

L L
5. Hollow cylinder with asymmetric q
Tr = To + [Ro2 – r 2] +
boundary condition 4K

LM(T - T ) + q [R - R ] ln r OP
2
i
2
o
2.23
N R Q
Ro i o

Heat and Mass Transfer

r
4K o

Ri

Ti
To

6. Hollow cylinder with inner surface T = T + q [R 2 – r 2] + q R 2 ln r 2.24

r o o i
adiabatic 4K 2K Ro
7. Hollow cylinder with outside surface q
[R i2 – r 2] +
q
Ro2 ln
FG r IJ
adiabatic Tr = Ti +
HR K 2.25

107
4K 2K i
2.1.4 Fins (or) Extended Surfaces

108
Sl. No. Description Correlation Eq. No. Notations

Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

1. Rectangular fin Tµ, h P = 2W + 2t 2.26a Tb = Base
A = W.t 2.26b temperature of
Q
the fin
t Tµ = Temperature of
Tb the fluid
K
L = Length of the

W
L fin, m
W = Width of the
fin, m
X
t = Thickness of the
2. Pin fin Q P = pD 2.27a fin, m
Tµ, h p 2 K = Thermal
A= D 2.27b conductivity of
k
Tb D the fin, W/mK
hP h = Convective heat
m= 2.27c
L
KA transfer
coefficient,
M= hPKA qo 2.27d W/m2K
q = Excess
3. Circumferential fins temperature
q I (mr ) K1 ( mr2 ) + K0 (mr ) I 1 (mr2 )
= o 2.28a = T – Tµ
r qb I 0 (mr1 ) K1 (mr2 ) + K0 ( mr1 ) I 1 (mr2 )
q b = Tb – Tµ

Q = 2pK t qb (mr1)
LM K (mr ) I (mr ) - I (mr ) K (mr ) OP
1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
2.28b
qL = Tx=L – Tµ

N I (mr ) K (mr ) + K (mr ) I (mr ) Q

0 1 1 2 0 1 1 2
q o = T – To

2 r /m L K (mr ) I ( mr ) - I ( mr ) K ( mr ) O
M P
t
1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
h = 2.28c
( r - r ) N I ( mr ) K (mr ) + K (mr ) I ( mr ) Q
f 2 2
L 2 1 0 1 1 2 0 1 1 2

r1 where, I0 & K0 are modified zero order Bessel functions of the

r2 first and second kind I1 & I2 are modified first order Bessel
functions of the first and second kind (refer Table 2.21)
4. Circumferential, Rectangular, Q = hf Af .h [Tb – Tµ] 2.29 hf = Fin efficiency
Triangular fins A f = Surface area of
the fin, m2
Table .1 Equations for Temperature distribution and rate of heat transfer for fins of uniform cross-section

Sl. No. Case Tip (or) end condition Temperature distribution (q/qb) Heat flow (Q)
(x = L)
1. Very long fin (L ® ¥) q(L) = 0 e–mx M
2. Finite length insulated end dq cosh m ( L - x)
=0 M tan h mL
dx x=L cosh mL

3. Finite length, heat loss by convection h h

dq cosh m (L - x) + sinh m ( L - x ) sinh mL + cosh mL
at end mK mK
hq(L) = –K M
dx h h
x=L cosh mL + sinh mL cosh mL + sinh mL
mK mK
4. Prescribed temperature FG q IJ sinh mx + sinh m (L - x) FG cosh mL - q IJ
Hq K H q K
L L

b b
q(L) = q L M
sinh mL sinh mL

Table . Efficiency of common fin shapes (straight fins)

Sl. No. Description Surface Area (Af ) Efficiency of the fin (h f)
Corrected Length (LC )

1. Rectangular straight fin 2h tanh mLC

m=

Heat and Mass Transfer

Kt mLC
Af = 2WLC

FG t IJ
LC = L +
H 2K
t
W

109
 110
Thermal Engineering Data Handbook
2. Triangular straight fin 2h 1 I 1 ( 2 mL)
m=
Kt mL I0 (2 mL )

L FtI O
A = 2W M L + G J P
2 1/2

MN H 2 K PQ
2
f

W
L

3. Parabolic straight fin

2h 2
m= 1/2
Kt 2
4 ( mL ) + 1 +1

LM L2 FG
t IJ OP
A f = W C1 L +
N t
ln
H
L
+ C1
KQ
t
L FtI O
W

2 1/2
= M1 + G J P
MN H L K PQ
L C1

4. Pin fin
4h tanh m LC
m=
KD m LC
D Af = pDLC
D
L LC = L +
4
5. Triangular pin fin 4h 2 I2 (2 mL )
m=
KD mL I 1 ( 2 mL)

LM FG IJ OP
1
2 2
D pD 2 D
MN H K PQ
Af = L +
L 2 2

6. Parabolic pin fin 4h 2

m=
LM 4 (mL) + 1OP
1
KD
2 2

pL3LM L 2DC4 FG IJ OP N9 Q +1
D

L
Af =
8D
C3 C4 -
N 2D
ln
L H
+ C3
KQ
F DI
= 1 + 2G J
2
C3
H LK

Heat and Mass Transfer

L F DI O
1

= M1 + G J P
2
C4
N H L KQ

111
112 Thermal Engineering Data Handbook
100
R t
LC = S|L + 2 rectangular fin
80 t
T|L triangular fin
RtL
Fin efficiency hf, percent

S| t
c rectangular fin
L Am =
60 T| 2 L triangular fin
40
t
L
20
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
3/2 1/2
Lc (h/kAm)
Fig. 2.1 Efficiencies of rectangular and triangular fins
100
t
Lc = L +
2
r2c = r1 + Lc
80 Am = t(r2c – r1)
r2c/r1 t
Fin efficiency hf, percent

60
L r1
2
r2
40
3
4 5
20
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
3/2 1/2
Lc (h/kAm)
Fig. 2.2 Efficiencies of circumferential fins of rectangular profile
2.1.5 Multidirectional Steady State Conduction
Sl. No. Description Correlation Eq. No. Notations
1. Heat flow Q = S.K.DT 2.30 Q = Heat transfer, W
Conduction through a plane wall A K = Thermal
S= conductivity of the
L
material, W/mK
DT = Overall temperature
difference
A S = Shape factor, m

2. Conduction through the edge of adjoining walls S = 0.54D 2.31

L
D>
5
D

Heat and Mass Transfer

L

3. Conduction through corner of three walls with a S = 0.15L 2.32

temperature difference DT across the walls
L

113
 114
4. Isothermal cylinder of length L, at T1 placed 2 pL
S=
FG h IJ 2.33

Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

horizontally in a semi-infinite medium having a
surface temperature at T2
cosh - 1
H RK
T2 for L >> R
K
e
R

5. Isothermal cylinder of length L, at T1 placed 2 pL

vertically in a semi-infinite medium having a surface
S=
FG IJ
4L
2.34
at T2
ln
H K
D

T2 for L >> D

T1 L

6. A horizontal circular cylinder buried midway 2 pL L = Length of the

between two faces of a slab
S=
FG IJ
8h
2.35
cylinder
ln
H K
pD
T2
D
for L >> D, h >
2
T1 h

T2
7. Conduction between two cylinders of diameters D 2 pL
and d, of length L
S=
cosh - 1
LM 4 P 2
- D2 - d 2 OP 2.36

T2
MN 2 Dd PQ
T1
for L >> D, d, P
D d

8. An isothermal sphere at T1 placed in a semi-infinite 4 pR

medium having a surface temperature, T2
S=
F RI 2.37

T2
1- GH 2 h JK
D
K for h >
h 2

R
T1

9. An isothermal sphere at T1 placed near the insulated 4 pR

boundary of a semi-infinite medium at T2
S=
F RI 2.38
1+ GH 2 h JK

Heat and Mass Transfer

Insulated
D
for h >
2
h
R

T2

115
 116
10. Two isothermal spheres buried in infinite medium 4p
S= 2.39
LM F r I 4 OP
MM1 - GH p JK PP - 2r
1

Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

r2 2
r1 r2 r1 MM 1 - F r I 2
PP p
T2 MN GH p JK2
PQ
p

11. Hemisphere buried in semi-infinite medium S = pD 2.40

12. Thin rectangular plate of length L, buried in semi- 2 pW

infinite medium having isothermal surface
S=
FG
4W IJ 2.41a
ln
LH K
for h >> W, W > L
Isothermal
pW
S=
F 4W IJ
ln G
2.41b
h HLK
L for h = 0, W > L
W 2 pW
S=
FG IJ
2 ph
2.41c
ln
LH K
for W >> L, h > 2W
13. Parallel disks buried in infinite medium 4p
S=
Lp F rIO
2 M - tan G J P -1
2.42

MN 2 H p K PQ
r

P
4. Interior corner with convection h.Dx
2[Tm–1, n + Tm, n+1] + Tm+1, n + Tm,n–1 + 2 Tµ
boundary Dx K
m, n + 1
LM
– 2 3+
h. Dx OP Tm, n = 0 2.49
Dy N K Q
m – 1, n m, n m + 1, n
Fluid h, Ta
m, n – 1

5. Node near curved boundary with 2 2 2 T1 2 T2

Tm+1, n + Tm, n–1 + +
specified temperature 1+a 1+b a ( 1 + a) b ( 1 + b)

m, n + 1 –2 LM 1 + 1 OP Tm, n = 0 2.50
Dy
T2 Na bQ
T1 bDy
m – 1, n m, n m + 1, n
a Dx
Dx m, n – 1

6. Node at a plane surface with Tm, n+1 + Tm,n–1 + 2Tm–1, n – 4Tm, n = 0 2.51
insulated boundary

m, n + 1
Dy
Insulated

m – 1, n m, n

Heat and Mass Transfer

m, n – 1
Dx

7. Node at a plane surface with uniform 2 q. Dx

heat flux (2Tm–1, n + Tm, n+1 + Tm,n–1) + – 4Tm, n = 0 2.52
K
m, n + 1
Dy

m – 1, n m, n q

m, n – 1
Dx

119
2.1.7 Transient Conduction

120
Sl. No. Description Correlation Eq No. Notations

Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

1. General equation - One dimensional - ¶ 2T 1 ¶6 Tt = Temperature at time ‘t’
= 2.53
unsteady state ¶x 2 a ¶J Ti = Initial temperature of the
2. Transient heat conduction in solids Tt - t µ body
with infinite thermal conductivity = e–[hA/rcV].t 2.54a Tµ = Surrounding fluid
Ti - t µ
(or) with negligible Internal = e–[h /rcLc].t 2.54b temperature
resistance - Bi .Fo h = Average heat transfer
= e 2.54c
coefficient on the solid
Tµ, h valid for Bi < 0.1 surface, W/m2k
Q i = –hA[Ti – Tµ] e–Bi.Fo 2.55 C = Specific heat of the solid,

z
Ti
J kJ/kg°C
Q = QE dJ r = density of the solid, kg/m3
K a o
K = Thermal conductivity of the
= rcV[Ti – Tµ][e–Bi.Fo – 1] 2.56 solid, W/m°C
a = Thermal diffusivity, m2/sec
3. Transient heat flow in a semi-infinite Bi ® a = K/rc
solid at constant surface temperature T( x ,t ) - tµ
= erf
LM x OP 2.57 L c = Characteristic dimension =
V
TE - tµ N 2 aJ Q A
Tµ KA[Tµ - Ti ] V = Volume, m3
Ti
Q= 2.58 A = Surface area, m2
pat
X h L?
Bi = Boit Number =
T(x, o)= Ti k
T(o, t) = Tµ F o = Fourier Number
at
=
4. Constant heat flux
FG at IJ 1/2
LM - x OP
L2c
H pK LM x OP
2
2q Qi = Instantaneous heat flow rate,
eN 4
at Q
T(x,t) – Ti = – q . x erf 2.59
Ti
K K N 2 aJ Q W
Q = Total heat flow rate, W
q
erf = Gauss, error function
X
T(x, o)= Ti (Refer table 2.22)
T(x,t) = Temperature at time ‘t’ and
¶T
–K =q depth ‘x’
¶x x=0
q = Heat flux, W/m2
5. Transient heat conduction with T( x ,t ) - TiLM x OP – LMexp F hx + h aJ I OP2

N 2 aJ Q MN GH K K JK PQ
surface convection boundary = erf 2
T -T
conditions ¥ i

LM erf x + h at OP

Tµ, h
Ti
2.60
MN 2 at K PQ
X
T(x, o)= Ti
¶T
-K = h [Tµ - T( o , t ) ]
¶x x=0

6. Chart solutions: T( x ,t ) - Tµ
=f LM x , hL , at OP 2.61
convection boundary conditions Ti - Tµ NL K L Q 2

7. Heisler charts To - Tµ
Vs Fo for various values of 1/Bi
Ti - Tµ To = Temperature at mid plane
T( x ,t ) Tµ x
1 x =o
Vs for various values of L
To - Tµ Bi L
T( x ,t ) TµTo - Tµ T( x ,t ) Tµ
= ´ 2.62
Ti - Tµ Ti - Tµ To - Tµ
(refer Figure 2.4 to 2.9)

8. Grober charts Q h 2aJ

Vs for various values of Bi
Qi K2
(refer Figure 2.10 to 2.12) To = Surface temperature i.e., at

Heat and Mass Transfer

Qi = rcL[Ti – Tµ] 2.63 x = o at any time ‘t’
2p
9. Systems with periodic variation qo = To – Tm = qo, max cos wt 2.64 w = 2pf =
to
q(x,t) = qo,max exp - w /2 a . x cos wt - x w /2a 2.65 f = Frequency of temperature
wave i.e., number of
where, qo max = To,max – Tm
complete cycles per unit time
2 to = Period of temperature
Q= KA qo, max 2.66
wa oscillations
a = Thermal diffusivity, m2/sec

121
K = Thermal conductivity, W/mk
122 Thermal Engineering Data Handbook
1.0
0.8
0.4
0.2
Ti – T¥
T– T¥

h at
3 k
=1–

0.1 0.6 1
T¥ – Ti
T– Ti

0.08
0.3
0.06
0.1
0.05
0.04
0.02
0.01
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
x/2 at
Fig. 2.3 Temperature distribution in the semi-infinite solid with convection boundary condition
 1.0
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3 100
90
0.2 14 80
12 70
60
10
0.1 9 50
1.0 45
8
0.07 0 40
0 .8 7
0.05 0. .7 6
35
6
qo 0.04 30
0. .4
5

5
25
0 3

qt 0.03
0.

20
0.

0.02

18
2

16
0.1 .06

2.5
2.0
0 0

1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2

0.01 L
0.007 k/h
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.002

Heat and Mass Transfer

0.001
0 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 130 150 200 300 400 500 600 700
at/L = Fo
2

Fig. 2.4 Mid plane temperature for an infinite plate of thickness 2L

123
 124
Thermal Engineering Data Handbook
1.0
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3 5
4
0.2 3.5 25
3.0
2.5 30
18 100
0.1 2. 16
0 90
14
1.8 .6 80
1 4
0.07 12
1.

70
1.2

10
0.05
1.0

60
qo 0.04

9
0.8

8
50
0.6.5

7
0

qt 0.03
0.43

45
0.

6
0.2

40
0.1
0

35
0.02

30
0.01
hr0
0.007 k/
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.002

0.001
0 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 200 300 350
at/r02 = Fo

Fig. 2.5 Axis temperature for an infinite cylinder of radius r0

 1.0
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
1
0.2 9 00
80 0
11 70
60
12
0.1 3 5
2 .0 45 0
2 .8 10 40
0.07 2.4.6 35
2.2 9
2. 30
0.05 8
1.8 0
qo

25
0.04 1.
6
7

20 8
qt
1.

1 6
0.03 4

1
1.2

5
0.02
1.0

4
3.5
0.7
5

0.01
0.5

0.007
0.35

r
0.005 k/h 0
0.2

0.004
0.1 5
0.0
0

0.003
0.002

Heat and Mass Transfer

0.001
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 90 130 170 210 250
at/r0 = Fo
2

Fig. 2.6 Center temperature for a sphere of radius r0

125
 126
Thermal Engineering Data Handbook
1.0 0
x/L = 0.2

0.9
0.4
0.8

0.7

0.6
0.6

q 0.5
q0

0.4
0.8

0.3

0.9
0.2

0.1
1.0

0
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2 3 5 10 20 50 100
k
hL

Fig. 2.7 Temperature as a function of center temperature in an infinite plate of thickness 2L

 0
1.0
r/r0 = 0.2

0.9

0.4
0.8

0.7

0.6 0.6

q
0.5
q0

0.4

0.8
0.3

0.2 0.9

Heat and Mass Transfer

0.1
1.0
0
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2 3 5 10 20 50 100
k
hr0

Fig. 2.8 Temperature as a function of axis temperature in an infinite cylinder of radius r0

127
 128
Thermal Engineering Data Handbook
0
1.0
r/r0 = 0.2

0.9

0.8 0.4

0.7

0.6
0.6
q
0.5
q0

0.4

0.3 0.8

0.2 0.9

0.1
1.0
0
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2 3 5 10 20 50 100
k 1
=
hr0 Bi

Fig. 2.9 Temperature as a function of center temperature for a sphere of radius r0

 1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

001

0.005
2
= 0.

0.01

0.02

0.05

0.1

0.5
0.2
0.00
0.6

2
hL/k

10

50
20
Q
0.5
Q0
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 1 10 10 10 10

Heat and Mass Transfer

2
h aT 2
2 = FoBi
k

Fig. 2.10 Dimensionless heat loss Q/Q0 for an infinite plane of thickness 2L with time

129
 130
Thermal Engineering Data Handbook
1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

.001
0.6

0
0 k=

2
Q

0.00

0.005
hr /
0.5

0.01
Q0

0.02

0.05

0.1
0.2
0.4

0.5

1
2

10

20
0.3

50
0.2

0.1

0 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 1 10 10 10 10
2
h at 2
2 = FoBi
k

Fig. 2.11 Dimensionless heat loss Q/Q0 for an infinite cylinder of radius r0 with time
2.1.8 Two-Dimensional Time-Dependent Conduction: The finite-difference equations (DN = DO)

132
Sl. No. Description Explicit Nodal Equations Eq. No. Implicit Nodal Equations Eq. No.

Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

1. Interior node Ti+1m,n = Fo [T im–1,n + T im,n+1 + T im+1,n (1 + 4Fo)T i+1 i+1
m,n – Fo (T m–1, n + T i+1
m,n+1
m, n + 1 + T im, n–1] + [1 – 4Fo]T im,n 2.67a + T i+1 i+1 i
m+1,n + T m,n–1) – T m,n =0 2.67b
Dy

m – 1, n m, n m + 1, n

Dx m, n – 1

2. Node at plane surface with T i+1 i i i

m,n = Fo [2 T m–1,n + Tm,n+1 + Tm,n–1 [1 + 2Fo (2 + Bi)]T i+1 i+1 i+1
m,n – Fo (T m,n+1 + T m,n–1
convection boundary i i
+ 2(Bi) Ta] + [1 – 4Fo – 2Fo Bi] T m,n 2.68a + 2T i+1 i+1 i
m–1,n + 2Bi T a ] – T m,n = 0 2.68b
Dx
m, n + 1 a Dt a = Thermal diffusivity, m2/s
Dy Fo = Grid Fourier number = 2
Fluid h, Tµ ( Dx) Dt = Time Interval
m – 1, n
m, n Bi = Biot number based on grid spacing h = Convective heat transfer coefficient,
h.Dx W/m2°C
=
m, n – 1 K K = Thermal conductivity, W/m°C

3. Node at Interior corner with T i+1

m,n =
2 i
F [2Tm,n+1 i
+ Tm+1,n i
+ 2T m-1,n LM1 + 4F FG 1 + B IJ OP T i+1 2
F [2T i+1
H 3 KQ
i
convection boundary 3 o –
m, n + 1 + i
Tm,n–1 + 2Bi T ia] +
N o m,n
3 o m–1,n

+ T i+1 i+1 i+1 i+1

m, n–1 + 2T m,n+1 + T m+1,n + 2Bi Ta ]
Dy LM1 – 4F –
4 O
F B PT i
2.69a
i
– T m,n =0 2.69b
m – 1, n m, n m + 1, n
N o
3 Q
o i m,n

Fluid h, Tµ

Dx m, n – 1

4. Node at exterior corner with T i+1 i i i

m,n = 2Fo [Tm–1,n + Tm,n–1 + 2BiTa] [1 + 4Fo (1 + Bi)]T i+1 i+1
m,n – 2 Fo[T m–1,n
convection boundary i
+ [1 – 4Fo – 4Fo Bi] Tm,n 2.70a i+1 i+1 i
+ T m,n–1 + 2Bi Ta ] – Tm,n = 0 2.70b
------Dashed lines indicate element volume
m – 1, n Fluid h, Tµ
m, n Subscripts = ‘m’ for the horizontal position and ‘n’ for the vertical position of the
Dy node or control volume.
m, n – 1 Superscripts = ‘i’ is to denote the time dependence of T and the time derivative is
Dx expressed in terms of the difference in temperatures associated with the
new (i+1) and previous (i) times.
2.2.2 Forced Convection - External Flow

134
External Flow: Properties are to be evaluated at Tf = [Tw + T¥]/2 (unless otherwise stated)

Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

Sl. No. Flow Condition Restrictions Correlation Eq. No. Notations
1. Flow Over Flat Plate: x = Distance from
a. Laminar flow Rex < 5 ´ 10 5 leading edge
Rex = Reynolds number at
b. Boundary layer thickness d = 5x Rex–1/2 2.71
a distance ‘x’
c. Local friction coefficient Cfx = 0.664 Rex–1/2 2.72 Tf = Film temperature
d. Average friction coefficient C fx = 1.328 Rex–1/2 2.73 Tw = Plate surface
temperature
e. Thermal boundary layer dt = d Pr –1/3 2.74
thickness Tµ = Free stream fluid
temperature
f. Turbulent flow 5 ´ 105 < Rex < 109 ReL = Reynolds number at
g. Boundary layer thickness d = 0.381 Rex–1/5 2.75 a distance ‘L’
h. Local friction coefficient 5
5 ´ 10 < Rex < 10 7
Cfx = 0.0592 Rex–1/5 2.76a L = Length of the plate
107 < Rex < 109 Cfx = Friction coefficient
Cfx = 0.37 (log Rex)–2.594 2.76b
at a distance ‘x’
i. Average friction coefficient ReL < 108 –1/5 –1
C f L = 0.074 ReL – 1742 ReL 2.77 C fx = Average friction
dt ~ d 2.78 coefficient at a
j. Thermal boundary layer
distance ‘x’
thickness
C fL = Average friction
2. Flow over flat plate for constant Rex < 5 ´ 105 Nux = 0.332 Rex1/2 Pr1/3 2.79 coefficient at a
wall temperature, Laminar flow 0.5 £ Pr £ 50 distance ‘L’
N ux = 0.664 Rex1/2 Pr1/3 2.80
(Tw = constant)
Rex < 5 ´ 105 Nux = Local Nusselt
0.3387 Re1/2
x Pr1/3
Nux = 2.81
Rex .Pr > 100
LM1 + FG 0.0468 IJ OP
2 /3
1/4 number at
distance of ‘x’
a

MN H Pr K PQ N ux =Average Nusselt
number at a
3. For liquid metals Rex < 5 ´ 105 Nux = 0.564 (Rex .Pr)1/3 2.82
distance of ‘x’
Pr << 1
Stx = Stanton number at a
4. For constant surface heat flux Rex < 5 ´ 105 Nux = 0.453 Rex1/2 Pr1/3 2.83 distance ‘x’
(qw = constant) 0.6 < Pr < 50 Subscripts = x, L, D, ... .
Rex < 5 ´ 105 0.4637 Re1/2
x Pr
1/3
indicates the characteristic
Nux = 2.84
LM1 + FG 0.0207 IJ 2 /3
OP 1/4
length

MN H Pr K PQ
 136
103 – 2 ´ 105 0.26 0.6
2 ´ 105 – 106 0.076 0.7

Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

If Pr £ 10, n = 0.37
Pr > 10, n = 0.36
12. Cross flow of liquids across the 0.1 < ReD < 105 NuD = [0.35 + 0.56 ReD0.52] Pr0.3 2.97
cylinders
13. Cross flow of gases and liquids 1 < ReD < 103
NuD = (0.43 + 0.50 ReD0.5) Pr 0.38 LM Pr OP
f
0. 25

2.98
N Pr Qw

103 < ReD < 105

NuD = 0.25 ReD0.6 Pr0.38
LM Pr OP
f
0. 25

2.99
Prf at Tf
Prw at Tw
N Pr Q
w

14. Flow of air, water and liquid 102 < ReD < 107 NuD = 0.3 +
sodium Ped > 0.2
1/2
0.62 Re D Pr1/3 L F Re I
. M1 + G
5/8 4 /5OP
MN H 282,000 JK
D
2.100
LM F I OP
0.4 2/3
1/4
PQ
MN GH JK PQ
1+
Pr

40 < ReD < 105

NuD = [0.4 ReD0.5 + 0.06 Re2/3 0.4 LM m OP
a
0. 25

0.65 < Pr < 300 D ] ´ Pr

ma
Nm Q
w
0.25 < < 5.2 2.101
mw
ma at Tµ
m W at Tw
15. Flow over non-circular cylinders NuD = C ReDm Pr1/3 2.102
Geometry ReD C m
Square
V
D 5 ´ 103 – 105 0.246 0.588

V
D 5 ´ 103 – 105 0.102 0.675
 Hexagon
V
D 5 ´ 103 – 1.95 ´ 104 0.160 0.638
4 5
1.95 ´ 10 – 10 0.0385 0.782
V
D 5 ´ 103 – 105 0.153 0.638
Vertical Plate

V
D 4 ´ 103 – 1.5 ´ 104 0.228 0.731

16. Flow of gases across a single, NuD = C ReDn 2.103

non-circular long cylinder of
Geometry ReD n C
various geometries
V 2500 - 7500 0.624 0.261
D
5000 - 100000 0.588 0.222

V 2500 - 8000 0.699 0.160

D
5000 - 100000 0.675 0.092

V
D 5000 - 100000 0.638 0.138

V
D
5000 - 19500 0.638 0.144
19500 - 100000 0.782 0.035

Heat and Mass Transfer

V 4000 - 15000 0.731 0.205
D

V D 3000 - 15000 0.804 0.085

V D 2500 - 15000 0.612 0.224

137
 138
17. Flow across a sphere 3.5 < Re < 8 ´ 104
Nu = 2 + [0.4 Re1/2 + 0.06 Re2/3].Pr0.4
LM m OP 0. 25
NL = Number of rows of
0.7 < Pr < 380
Nm Qw tubes

Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

mW at TW
2.104
1 < Re < 2000 Nu = 0.97 + 0.68 Re0.5 Pr0.3 2.105
18. Liquid metals across the sphere 3.65 ´ 104 < Re < Nu = 2 + 0.386 (Re.Pr)0.5 2.106
1.525 ´ 105
19. Flow of gases over the sphere 25 < Re < 105 Nu = 0.37 Re0.6 2.107
20. Flow through packed bed of Re < 120 1/2
Nu = 1.63 Re Pr 1/3
2.108
spheres Re > 120 Nu = 0.69 Re0.67 Pr1/3 2.109
21. Flow across tube bank 2000 < ReD < 40000 NuD = C ReDm 2.110
SL Pr = 0.7
D NL £ 10
2000 < ReD < 40000 NuD = 1.13 C ReDm Pr1/3 2.111
Pr ³ 0.7
NL ³ 10
ST
ST /D
SL/D 1.25 1.5 2.0 3.0
Aligned tube bank C1 m C1 m C1 m C1 m
Aligned
SL
SD 1.25 0.348 0.592 0.275 0.608 0.100 0.704 0.063 0.752
D 1.5 0.367 0.586 0.250 0.620 0.101 0.702 0.068 0.744
2.0 0.418 0.570 0.299 0.602 0.229 0.632 0.198 0.648
ST 3.0 0.290 0.601 0.357 0.584 0.374 0.581 0.286 0.608
Staggered
0.6 – – – – – – 0.213 0.636
0.9 – – – – 0.446 0.571 0.401 0.581
1.0 – – 0.497 0.558 – – – –
1.125 – – – – 0.478 0.565 0.518 0.560
Staggered tube bank 1.250 0.518 0.556 0.505 0.554 0.519 0.556 0.522 0.562
1.50 0.451 0.568 0.460 0.562 0.452 0.568 0.488 0.568
2.00 0.404 0.572 0.416 0.568 0.482 0.556 0.449 0.570
3.00 0.310 0.592 0.356 0.580 0.440 0.562 0.428 0.574
2.2.3 Forced Convection - Internal Flow

140
Internal Flow: Properties are evaluated at bulk mean temperature Tb = (Ti + To)/2

Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

Sl. No. Flow Condition Restrictions Correlation Eq. No. Notations
1. Tube Flow: Laminar flow ReD < 2300 D = Diameter of the
Friction factor f = 64/ReD 2.121 tube
L = Length of the tube
Ti = Inlet flow
2. Laminar flow, fully developed NuD = 4.36 2.122
temperature
with uniform heat flux (q =
constant) To = Outlet flow
temperature
3. Laminar flow, fully developed NuD = 3.66 2.123 Tw = Surface
with uniform surface temperature of
temperature (Tw = constant) the tube
4. Laminar flow in the entrance FG D IJ Re Tb = Bulk mean
region of a circular tube with
NuD = 3.66 +
0.0668
H LK D .Pr
2.124
temperature
constant surface temperature
LF D I O
2

1 + 0.04 M G J Re .PrP
3

NH L K D
Q
5. Laminar flow in a circular tube 0.48 < Pr < 16,700
L Re .Pr OP LM m OP
1
at constant surface temperature
F m IJ < 9.75
0.004 < G NuD = 1.86 M
3
0. 14

2.125
Hm K
w N L /D Q N m Q w

ms at Tw
6. Turbulent flow ReD > 2300 NuD = 0.023 ReD0.8 Prn 2.126
Fully developed turbulent flow 0.6 < Pr < 100 n = 0.4 for heating
n = 0.3 for cooling
0.7 £ Pr £ 16,700
FmI 0. 14
ReD ³ 10,000
mW at TW
NuD = 0.027 ReD4/5 Pr1/3 GH m JK
w
2.127

0.5 < Pr < 2000

FG f IJ (Re - 1000) Pr
3000 < ReD < 5 ´ 106
NuD =
H qK D
2.128
F fI
1 + 12.7 G J (Pr
1 /2

H qK
2 /3
- 1)
 7. Friction factor Re < 2 ´ 104 f = 0.136 Re–0.25 2.129a
2 ´ 104 < Re < 3 ´ 105 f = 0.184 Re–0.2 2.129b

–2
3000 £ ReD £ 5 ´ 106 f = [0.790 ln ReD – 1.64] 2.129c
8. Turbulent flow at entry region L FG D IJ 0. 055
10 <
D
< 400 NuD = 0.036 ReD0.8 Pr1/3
H LK 2.130

9. Fully developed turbulent flow 3.6 ´ 103 < ReD < NuD = 4.82 + 0.0185 PeD0.827 2.131
with constant heat flux - Liquid 9.05 ´ 105
metals 10 < PeD < 104
2

10. Fully developed turbulent flow PeD > 100 NuD = 5.0 + 0.025 PeD0.8 2.132
with constant surface
temperature (Tw = constant) –
Liquid metals
11. Reynolds analogy Pr = 1 f
StD = 2.133
q
12. Colburn analogy Pr ¹ 1 f
StD .Pr 2/3 = 2.134
q
13. Flow through the concentric tube hiDh hD
Nui = , Nuo = o h 2.135 Dh = Hydraulic diameter
annulus – fully developed K K
Laminar flow Di = Inner diameter of

Heat and Mass Transfer

D h = Do – D i the concentric tube
Do = Outer diameter of
Di/Do Nui Nuo the concentric tube
0 – 3.66
0.05 17.46 4.06
0.10 11.56 4.11
0.25 7.37 4.23
0.50 5.74 4.43
1.00 4.86 4.86

141
 144
12. Free convection on Inclined q < 88° NuL = 0.56 (GrL Pr Cos q)1/4 2.151
plates: 10 < GrL Pr < 1011
5

For an Inclined plate with the 88° < q < 90° NuL = 0.58 (GrL Pr)1/5 2.152

Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

heated surface facing downward
13. For an Inclined plate with the GrL Pr < 1011 NuL = 0.145 [(GrL Pr)1/3 – (Grc .Pr)1/3]
heated surface facing upward –15° < q < –75° + 0.56 (Grc.Pr cos q)1/4 2.153
Heated All Physical Properties are evaluated at
surface Tf = TW – 0.25 [TW – T¥] and b is evaluated at
T¥ + 0.25 (TW – T¥)
q q, degrees Grc
–
5 ´ 109
+
–15
–30 109
–60 108
Heated
surface
–75 106
14. Free convection from horizontal NuD = C[GrD .Pr]m 2.154
cylinders
GrD .Pr C m
–10 –2
10 – 10 0.675 0.058
10–2 – 102 1.02 0.148
102 – 104 0.85 0.188
104 – 107 0.48 0.25
107 – 1012 0.125 0.333
15. Free convection from horizontal
cylinders
GrD .Pr £ 1012
R| U| 2

|
= S 0 .6 +
1/6 |
NuD
0.387 (Gr .Pr)
D

|| M1 + FG 0.559 IJ OP
L 9 /16 8 /27
V| 2.155

|T MN H Pr K PQ ||
W
16. Heat transfer from horizontal
NuD = 0.53[GrD .Pr2]1/4 2.156
cylinders to liquid metals
17. Free convection from spheres Pr ³ 0.7 0.589 RaD1/4
NuD = 2 + 2.157
RaD £ 1011 LM1 + FG 0.469 IJ OP
9 /16
4 /9

MN H Pr K PQ
18. Free convection heat
transfer from spheres to air
19. Spheres with water
20. Free convection in
1 < GrD .Pr < 105 NuD = 2 + 0.43(GrD .Pr)1/4 2.158 Ra = Gr.Pr.
Ra = Rayleigh number
3 ´ 105 < GrD.Pr < 8 ´ 108 NuD = 2 + 0.5(GrD .Pr)1/4 2.159 RaW = Rayleigh number
with characteristic
length W
104 < RaW < 107 FG L IJ -0. 3

rectangular cavities 1 < Pr < 2 ´ 104

NuW = 0.42(RaW)0.25 (Pr)0.012
HWK 2.160a L = Length of the
rectangular cavity
L W = Width of the
10 < < 40
W enclosure
(Characteristic
106 < RaW < 109 NuW = 0.046(RaW)1/3 2.160b
length)
1 < Pr < 20
L
1< < 40
W
21. Free convection in 102 < Rac < 107 2p Keff [Ti - To ] di = Outer diameter of
concentric cylinders
enclosure
q=
FG d IJ 2.161 the Inner tube

Hd K
o
ln do = Inner diameter of
i the outer tube
L = do – di = The
k eff
= 0.386 M
L Pr OP 0 . 25

[Ra *c]
characteristic length
k N 0.861 + Pr Q of the annular
enclosure
LMln F d I OP 4 keff = Effective thermal

MN GH d JK PQ Ra

Heat and Mass Transfer

o conductivity
i
Ra c = L
q = Heat flux (or) rate
L3 [di- 0.6 + d0- 0 .6 ]5 of heat flow
Ti & To are the tempera-
gb [Ti - To ] L3 tures of the Inner and the
RaL = .Pr
g2 outer cylinder walls

1
L= (do – di)
2

145
 148
2. Critical heat flux for nucleate pool L s. g (r - r ) OP

Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

1/4 kl = Thermal conductivity of
boiling qmax = 0.149 h r M l w
2.168 saturated liquid, W/m°C
N r Qfg w 2
w
(DT)A = Excess Temperature
3. Minimum heat flux from a large
horizontal plate qmin = C.r h M
L gs (r - r ) OP l w
1/4

2.169
= Tw – TSat
Tw ,TSat = Temperature of wall and
N (r + r ) Q
w fg
l w
2
Saturation Temperature,
where, c is constant equals to 0.09 respectively
kv = Thermal conductivity for
4. Stable film boiling (or) film pool
boiling in the absence of radiation hb
LK r
= 0.62 M
3
v w (rl - r w ) g ( h fg + 0.4 Cpw DTe ) OP 1/4
Saturated vapour, W/m°C
MN m w d DTe PQ Cpw = Specific heat of Saturated
vapour, J/Kg°C
2.170
mW = Vapour viscosity, Kg/m.s
5. Considering radiative heat transfer
LM D OP 0. 33
d = Tube diameter
NDQ
>
h = hb + hr 2.171
h b = Average heat transfer
coefficient in the absence
s I e [6M4 - 65=J
4
] of radiation, W/m2°C
hr = 2.172
(6M - 6I=J ) h = Total heat transfer
coefficient, W/m2°C
6. Simplified relations for boiling heat Surface q, KW/m2 h, W/m2°C 2.173
transfer with water at atmospheric hr = Radiation heat transfer
pressure Horizontal q < 16 1042 (DTe)1/3
coefficient, W/m2°C
16 < q < 240 5.56 (DTe)3 e = Emissivity of the surface
Vertical q<3 537 (DTe)1/7 ss = Stefan Boltzmann constant
3 < q < 63 7.96 (DTe)3 = 5.67 ´ 10–8 W/m2K4
q = Heat flux, KW/m2
7. Boiling heat transfer with water at
different pressures hp = h
LM P OP 0. 4

2.174 hp = Heat transfer coefficient at

NP Q
1 some pressure ‘p’
2 = System Pressure
21 = Standard atmospheric
pressure
2.2.6 Condensation
Sl. No. Description Correlation Eq. No. Notations
1. Laminar film wise condensation on a
vertical plate hm = 1.13
LM gr (r - r ) h K OP
l l w fg
3 1/4
l
2.175
hfg = Latent heat of
condensation J/Kg
MN m [T - T ] L PQ
l v w L = Length of vertical plate
for Re < 1800 Tv,Tw = Vapour and wall
Physical Properties are evaluated at the film temperature, respectively
temperature m& = Mass flow rate of
condensate, Kg/sec
1
Tf = [Tw + Tv] P = Wetted Perimeter
2
At = Condensing surface area,
2. Film condensation on a vertical plate
for turbulent flow hm = 0.0077 (Re)0.4
3 2
Kl rl g
1/3
LM
2.176
OP
m2
m l2 N Q
hm = Average condensation heat
transfer coefficient W/m2°C
for Re > 1800
4m & N = Number of tubes
Reynolds number Re = L = Length of the tube
ml . P
h
P = Wetted perimeter for a vertical plate of m, vert = hm for vertical tube
width ‘w’ hm, horz = hm for horizontal tube
= pD for a vertical tube of outside diameter D
= 2L for horizontal tubes each of length L
arranged in vertical tiers
At hm [Tv - Tw ]

Heat and Mass Transfer

& =
m
h fg

3. Film condensation on Inclined plates replace g by g Cos q in above equations

4. Film condensation on horizontal tube
and on horizontal tube banks hm = 0.725
LM g r (r - r ) h K
l l w fg l
OP
3 1/4
2.177
MN m [T - T ] Nd
l v w PQ
5. Comparison for film wise hm , vert Ld O
= 1.3 M P
1/4

condensation on a vertical tube of

length ‘L’ and a horizontal tube of
hm , horz NLQ 2.178

diameter ‘d’

149
10. If Ch < Cc Thi - Tho Ch, C c = Heat capacity of hot and
e= 2.189
Thi - Tci cold fluid, W/k
N = Number of Transfer Units
11. If Cc < Ch Tco - Tci
e= 2.190 (NTU)
Thi - Tci
f = Friction factor
12. Correction factor
R2 + 1
ln
LM 1 - P OP V t = Mass velocity of the tube
fluid, Kg/m2 s
R-1 N 1 - RP Q L = Length of the tube
F=
L ( 2 /P ) - 1 - R + OP 2.191
ln M
R2 + 1 n = Number of tube passes
MN (2/P) - 1 - R - R2 + 1 PQ
g = Gravitational acceleration,
9.8 m/s2

Where, P= M
L T - T OP
co ci
rt = Density of tube fluid,
Kg/m3
NT - T Q
hi ci di = Inside diameter of a tube

R= M
L T - T OP
hi ho
f = Viscosity correction factor
Vs = Shell side mass velocity,
NT -T Q
co ci Kg/m2 s
13. Tube-side pressure drop N = Number of shell passes
f Vt2 . L. n
DPt = 2.192 rs = Density of shell fluid,
2 g rt di ft
Kg/m3
Where, ft = (m/mw)m, m = 0.14 Re > 2100 Dh = Hydraulic diameter of the
= 0.25 Re < 2100 shell
14. Shell-side pressure drop for an Di = Inside diameter of the shell
f Vs2 . L. N
unbaffled shell DPs = 2.193 d o = Outside diameter of the
2 g r s Dh f s

Heat and Mass Transfer

tube

Where, fs =
LM m OP 0. 14 N t = Number of tubes in the
shell
Nm Q
w

4 [( p Di2 / 4 ) - ( p do2 Nt )]
Dh =
p do Nt + p Di

15. Shell-side pressure drop for a shell

f Vs2 Di ( Nb + 1)
with segmental baffles DPs = 2.194
2 g rs Dh f s

151
Nb = Number of bottles
8. n shell passes, 2n, 4n, 6n .... tube [(1 - e pC)/(1 - e p )]n - 1 F E - 1I
passes (ep = effectiveness of each e =
[(1 - e pC)/( 1 - e p )]n - C
N = – (1 + C2)–1/2 ln GH E + 1 JK
shell pass, n = number of shell
passes)
2 /e p - ( 1 + C)
E=
(1 + C 2 )1/2

F-1
ep =
F -C

F=
LM eC - 1 OP 1/n

N e-1 Q
9. All exchangers with C = 0 e = 1 – e–N N = – ln (1 – e)

Heat and Mass Transfer

153
 154
Thermal Engineering Data Handbook
T1

t2
t1

T2
1.0

0.2
0.9

2.0
Correction factor F

R = 4.0

0.6
3.0

0.4
1.5

1.0

0.8
0.8

0.7

T1 – T2
0.6 R=
t2 – t1

0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t2 – t1
P=
T1 – t1

Fig. 2.13 Correction factor plot for exchanger with one shell pass and two, four, or any multiple of tube passes
 T1

t2

t1

T2
1.0

0.9
0.4
Correction factor F

2.0 1.5 0.8

R = 4.0
3.0 1.0 0.6 0.2
0.8

0.7

T1 – T2
0.6 R=
t2 – t1

Heat and Mass Transfer

0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t2 – t1
P=
T1 – t1

Fig. 2.14 Correction factor plot for exchanger with two shell pass and four, eight, or any multiple tube passes

155
 156
T1

Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

t1 t2

T2

1.0

0.9

R=
0.2

4.0
Correction factor F

1.5 0.8
1.0 0.6 0.4
2.0
0.8
3.0

0.7

T1 – T2
0.6 R=
t2 – t1

0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t2 – t1
P=
T1 – t1

Fig. 2.15 Correction factor plot for single pass cross flow heat exchangers, both fluids unmixed
 T1

t1 t2

T2
1.0

0.9

3.0 2.0
Correction factor F

0.8
0.6 0.4 0.2
0.8
1.5 1.0
R = 4.0

0.7
T1 – T2

Heat and Mass Transfer

R=
t2 – t1
0.6

0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

t2 – t1
P=
T1 – t1

157
Fig. 2.16 Correction factor plot for single pass cross flow heat exchangers, one fluid mixed and the other unmixed
160 Thermal Engineering Data Handbook
Mixed
fluid
Unmixed fluid
100
,¥ 0.25
=0
d 4
ixe
m
Un
80 /C 0.5
d
2
e
ix
CM

0.75
1.33
Effectiveness, e%

1
60
40
20
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of transfer units NTUmax = AU/Cmin
Fig. 2.19 Effectiveness for cross flow exchanger with one fluid mixed
 Heat and Mass Transfer 161
(mc)c
cold fluid
(mc)h
hot fluid
100
0
= 5
ax 0.2
/C
80 m
0
in 0.5
Cm 0.75
Effectiveness, e%

1.00
60
40
20
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of transfer units, NTUmax = AU/Cmin
Fig. 2.20 Effectiveness for cross flow exchanger with fluids unmixed
162 Thermal Engineering Data Handbook
Shell fluid (mc)s = Cs
Tube fluid (mc)t = Ct
One shell pass
2, 4, 6 etc., tube passes
100
0
=
ax
/C
80 m
in 5
Cm 0.2
0
0.5
0.75
Effectiveness e. %

60
1.00
40
20
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of transfer units, NTUmax = AU/Cmin
Fig. 2.21 Effectiveness for 1-2 parallel counter flow exchanger performance
 Heat and Mass Transfer 163
Shell fluid (mc)s = Cs
2
shells
Tube fluid (mc)t = Ct
Two shell passes
4, 8, 12 etc., tube passes
100
0
= 5
ax 0.2
/C
80 m
0
in 0.5
Cm
0.75
1.00
Effectiveness e. %

60
40
20
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of transfer units, NTUmax = AU/Cmin
Fig. 2.22 Effectiveness for 2-4 multi pass counter flow exchanger performance
 166

Table 2.4a View factor and Interchange factor for different configurations
Sl. No. Configuration View factor (F12) Inter change factor (f12) Notations
1. Infinite Parallel Plates e1 & e2 = emissivity of body 1
1 and 2, respectively
FG 1 + 1 - 1IJ
1
He e K 2

2. Body 1 completely enclosed by 1 e1

body 2, body 1 is very small
3. Body 1 completely enclosed by 1
Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

body 2, body 1 is very large 1

1 A 1
+ 1 -1
FG IJ
e 1 A2 e 2 H K
4. Concentric spheres or Infinitely 1
long concentric cylinders 1
1 A 1
+ 1 -1
FG IJ
e 1 A2 e 2 H K
5. Two rectangles with common 1 e1 e2
side at right angles to each other
6. Radiant exchange between two F12 e1 e2
small gray bodies
7. Radiant exchange between two F12 1
black surfaces
 1.0

0.8
8
7
6
0.6
5
Radiation between parallel
4 planes directly opposed
0.4 3 1-2-3-4 Direct radiation between the planes, F

Shape-factor F or F
5-6-7-8 Planes connected by non-conducting
2 but reradiating walls, F
1 5 Discs 3-7 2 : 1 Rectangle
1 2-6 Squares 4-8 long. narrow rectangles
0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Smaller side or diameter
Ratio
distance between planes

Fig. 2.23 Shape factor for equal and parallel squares, rectangles and discs
Heat and Mass Transfer
167
 168

1.0
Ratio Y/D = 10
A 5
3
Y A1
D 2
0.5 1.5

A2 1.0
0.8
0.3
0.6

0.2
0.4

0.3
Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

0.1 0.2

F1 – 2
0.05 0.1

0.03

0.02

0.01
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 5 10 20
Ratio X/D

Fig. 2.24 Radiation shape factor for radiation between parallel rectangles
 Heat and Mass Transfer 169

1.0

x
0.8
d

0.6

F1– 2
0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ratio d/x

Fig. 2.25 Radiation shape factor for radiation between parallel discs

0.7

X
Z
0.6
A2
Y

0.5 A1

Ratio Y/X = 0.1

0.2
0.4
F1 – 2

0.4
0.6
0.3

1.0
1.5
0.2
2.0

4.0
0.1
6.0
10.0
20.0
0
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 5 10
Ratio Z/X

Fig. 2.26 Radiation shape factor for radiation between perpendicular rectangles with a common edge
170 Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7

L/
0.6

r2
F22
4

=
¥
0.5
2
0.4
1
0.3
0.5
0.2
0.25
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
r1/r2
(a)

1.0
L A2

0.8 r1
r2

A2
0.6 ¥
=
r2
F2 – 1

L/
2
1
0.4
0.5

0.25
0.1
0.2

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

r1/r2
(b)

Fig. 2.27 Radiation shape factor for two concentric cylinders of finite length (a) Outer cylinder to itself
(b) Outer cylinder to inner cylinders
 Heat and Mass Transfer 171

1.0
r2 L = 8
2 r2
0.9
6 5
4 L
0.8
3
1
0.7 r1
2 1.5

0.6
1.25

0.5
F1 – 2

1.0
0.4
0.8
0.3

0.6
0.2
0.5

0.1 0.4
r2 L = 0.3

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10
L /r 1

Fig. 2.28 Radiation shape factor for radiation between two parallel concentric disks
 174

18. Turbulent flow hD C & n are constants taken from the

Sc 2/3 = 0.0296 Rex–1/5 2.236
ua following table
Re C n
19. Flow over cylinders and spheres ShD = C (ReD )h Sc1/3 2.237
0.4-4 0.989 0.330
20. Flow through the pipe Laminar flow Sh = 3.66 2.238 4-40 0.911 0.385
Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

for uniform wall mass concentration 40-4000 0.683 0.466

(ReD < 2000) 4,000-40,000 0.193 0.618
21. Laminar flow for uniform wall mass Sh = 4.36 2.239 40,000-4,00,000 0.027 0.805
flux (ReD < 2000)
22. Turbulent flow (ReD > 2000) Sh = 0.023 Re0.83 Sc1/3 2.240
23. Simultaneous heat and mass transfer h
= rCp Le 2/3 2.241
hD
Table 2.5 Property Values for Metals**
Metal Properties at 20°C Thermal conductivity k, W/m°C
5
r, Cp, k, a ´ 10 , –100°C 0°C 100°C 200°C 300°C 400°C 600°C 800°C 1000°C 1200°C
kg/m3 kJ/kg W/m m2/s
°C °C
Aluminum: Pure 2,707 0.896 204 8.418 215 202 206 215 228 249
Al-Cu (Duralumin) 2,787 0.883 164 6.676 126 159 182 194
94-96% Al, 3-5% Cu
Al-Si
86.5% Al, 1% Cu 2,659 0.867 137 5.933 119 137 144 152 161
Al-Si (Alusil), 78-80%
Al, 20-22% Si 2,627 0.854 161 7.172 144 157 168 175 178
Al-Mg-Si, 97% Al,
1% Mg, 1% Si, 1%Mn 2,707 0.892 177 7.311 175 189 204
Lead 11,373 0.13 35 2.343 36.9 35.1 33.4 31.5 29.8
Iron: Pure 7,897 0.452 73 2.034 87 73 67 62 55 48 40 36 35 36
Wrought iron, 0.5% C 7,849 0.46 59 1.626 59 57 52 48 45 36 33 33 33
Steel (C max ~ 1.5%):
Carbon steel C ~ 0.5% 7,833 0.465 54 1.474 55 52 48 45 42 35 31 29 31
1.00% 7,801 0.473 43 1.172 43 43 42 40 36 33 29 28 29
1.50% 7,753 0.486 36 0.97 36 36 36 35 33 31 28 28 29
Nickel steel Ni ~ 0% 7,897 0.452 73 2.026
20% 7,933 0.46 19 0.526
40% 8,169 0.46 10 0.279
80% 8,618 0.46 35 0.872
Invar 36% Ni 8,137 0.46 10.7 0.286
Chrome steel Cr = 0% 7,897 0.452 73 2.026 87 73 67 62 55 48 40 36 35 36
1% 7,865 0.46 61 1.665 62 55 52 47 42 36 33 33
5% 7,833 0.46 40 1.11 40 38 36 36 33 29 29 29
Heat and Mass Transfer

20% 7,689 0.46 22 0.635 22 22 22 22 24 24 26 29

175
178 Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

Wood (across the grain):

balsa, 8.8 lb/ft3 30 0.055 140
Cypress 30 0.097 460
Fir 23 0.11 420 2.72 0.96
Maple or oak 30 0.166 540 2.4 1.28
Yellow pine 23 0.147 640 2.8 0.82
White pine 30 0.112 430
Insulating material
Asbestos: Loosely packed –45 0.149
0 0.154 470-570 0.816 3.3-4
100 0.161
Asbestos-cement 20 0.74
Boards
Sheets Felt, 51 0.166
40 laminations/in 38 0.057
150 0.069
260 0.083
20 laminations/in 38 0.078
150 0.095
260 0.112
corrugated, 4 plies/in 38 0.087
93 0.100
150 0.119
Asbestos cement - 2.08
Balsam wool, 2.2 lb/ft3 32 0.04 35
Cardboard, corrugated - 0.064
Celotex 32 0.048
Corkboard, 10 lb/ft3 30 0.043 160
Cork, regranulated 32 0.045 45-120 1.88 2-5.3
Ground 32 0.043 150
Diatomaceous earth (sio-o-cel) 0 0.061 320
Felt, hair 30 0.036 130-200
Wool 30 0.052 330
Fiber, insulating board 20 0.048 240
Glass wool, 1.5 lb/ft3 23 0.038 24 0.7 22.6
Insulex, dry 32 0.064
0.144
Kapok 30 0.035
Magnesia, 85% 38 0.067 270
93 0.071
150 0.074
204 0.080
 Heat and Mass Transfer 179

Rock wool, 10 lb/ft3 32 0.040 160

Loosely packed 150 0.067 64
260 0.087
Sawdust 23 0.059
Silica aerogel 32 0.024 140
Wood shavings 23 0.059
**
Constructed based on the data compiled in Refs. [15-26]

Table 2.7 Properties of Saturated Liquids**

T, °C p, kg/m3 cp v, m2/s k, a, m2/s Pr b, K–1
kJ/kg. °C W/m °C
Ammonia, NH3
–50 703.69 4.463 0.435 ´ 10–6 0.547 1.742 ´ 10–7 2.60
–40 691.68 4.467 0.406 0.547 1.775 2.28
–30 679.34 4.476 0.387 0.549 1.801 2.15
–20 666.69 4.509 0.381 0.547 1.819 2.09
–10 653.55 4.564 0.378 0.543 1.825 2.07
0 640.10 4.635 0.373 0.540 1.819 2.05
10 626.16 4.714 0.368 0.531 1.801 2.04
20 611.75 4.798 0.359 0.521 1.775 2.02 2.45 ´ 10–3
30 596.37 4.890 0.349 0.507 1.742 2.01
40 580.99 4.999 0.340 0.493 1.701 2.00
50 564.33 5.116 0.330 0.476 1.654 1.99
Carbon dioxide, CO2
–50 1,156.34 1.84 0.119 ´ 10–6 0.0855 0.4021 ´ 10–7 2.96
–40 1,117.77 1.88 0.118 0.1011 0.4810 2.46
–30 1,076.76 1.97 0.117 0.1116 0.5272 2.22
–20 1,032.39 2.05 0.115 0.1151 0.5445 2.12
–10 983.38 2.18 0.113 0.1099 0.5133 2.20
0 926.99 2.47 0.108 0.1045 0.4578 2.38
10 860.03 3.14 0.101 0.0971 0.3608 2.80
20 772.57 5.0 0.091 0.0872 0.2219 4.10 14.00 ´ 10–3
30 597.81 36.4 0.080 0.0703 0.0279 28.7
Sulphur dioxide, SO2
–50 1,560.84 1.3595 0.484 ´ 10–6 0.242 1.141 ´ 10–7 4.24
–40 1,536.81 1.3607 0.424 0.235 1.130 3.74
–30 1,520.64 1.3616 0.371 0.230 1.117 3.31
–20 1,488.60 1.3624 0.324 0.225 1.107 2.93
–10 1,463.61 1.3628 0.288 0.218 1.097 2.62
182 Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

Table 2.8 Properties of Water (Saturated Liquid)**

°C cp r, m, k, Pr Grx Pr
kJ/kg. °C kg/m2 kg/ms W/m °C

0 4.225 999.8 1.79 ´ 10–3 0.566 13.25

4.44 4.208 999.8 1.55 0.575 11.35 1.91 ´ 109
10 4.195 999.2 1.31 0.585 9.40 6.34 ´ 109
15.56 4.186 998.6 1.12 0.595 7.88 1.08 ´ 1010
21.11 4.179 997.4 9.8 ´ 10–4 0.604 6.78 1.46 ´ 1010
26.67 4.179 995.8 8.6 0.614 5.85 1.91 ´ 1010
32.22 4.174 994.9 7.65 0.623 5.12 2.48 ´ 1010
37.78 4.174 993.0 6.82 0.630 4.53 3.3 ´ 1010
43.33 4.174 990.6 6.16 0.637 4.04 4.19 ´ 1010
48.89 4.174 988.8 5.62 0.644 3.64 4.89 ´ 1010
54.44 4.179 985.7 5.13 0.649 3.30 5.66 ´ 1010
60 4.179 983.3 4.71 0.654 3.01 6.48 ´ 1010
65.55 4.183 980.3 4.3 0.659 2.73 7.62 ´ 1010
71.1 4.186 977.3 4.01 0.665 2.53 8.84 ´ 1010
76.67 4.191 973.7 3.72 0.668 2.33 9.85 ´ 1010
82.22 4.195 970.2 3.47 0.673 2.16 1.09 ´ 1011
87.78 4.199 966.7 3.27 0.675 2.03
93.33 4.204 963.2 3.06 0.678 1.90
104.4 4.216 955.1 2.67 0.684 1.66
115.6 4.229 946.7 2.44 0.685 1.51
126.7 4.250 937.2 2.19 0.685 1.36
137.8 4.271 928.1 1.98 0.685 1.24
148.9 4.296 918.0 1.86 0.684 1.17
176.7 4.371 890.4 1.57 0.677 1.02
204.4 4.467 859.4 1.36 0.665 1.00
232.2 4.585 825.7 1.20 0.646 0.85
260 4.731 785.2 1.07 0.616 0.83
–5
287.7 5.024 735.5 9.51 ´ 10
315.6 5.703 678.7 8.68
184 Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

Table 2.10 Properties of Gases at Atmospheric Pressure**

T, K r, kg/m3 cp, m, kg/m s V, m2/s k, W/m.°C a, m2/s Pr
kJ/kg. °C
Helium
–7
144 0.3379 5.200 125.5 ´ 10 37.11 ´ 10–6 0.0928 0.5275 ´ 10–4 0.70
200 0.2435 5.200 156.6 64.38 0.1177 0.9288 0.694
255 0.1906 5.200 181.7 95.50 0.1357 1.3675 0.70
366 0.13280 5.200 230.5 173.6 0.1691 2.449 0.71
477 0.10204 5.200 275.0 269.3 0.197 3.716 0.72
589 0.08282 5.200 311.3 375.8 0.225 5.215 0.72
700 0.07032 5.200 347.5 494.2 0.251 6.661 0.72
800 0.06023 5.200 381.7 634.1 0.275 8.774 0.72
Hydrogen
–7
150 0.16371 12.602 5.595 ´ 10 34.18 ´ 10–6 0.0981 0.475 ´ 10–4 0.718
200 0.12270 13.540 6.813 55.53 0.1282 0.772 0.719
250 0.09819 14.059 7.919 80.64 0.1561 1.130 0.713
300 0.08185 14.314 8.963 109.5 0.182 1.554 0.706
350 0.07016 14.436 9.954 141.9 0.206 2.031 0.697
400 0.06135 14.491 10.864 177.1 0.228 2.568 0.690
450 0.05462 14.499 11.779 215.6 0.251 3.164 0.682
500 0.04918 14.507 12.636 257.0 0.272 3.817 0.675
550 0.04469 14.532 13.475 301.6 0.292 4.516 0.668
600 0.04085 14.537 14.285 349.7 0.315 5.306 0.664
700 0.03492 14.574 15.89 455.1 0.351 6.903 0.659
800 0.03060 14.675 17.40 569 0.384 8.563 0.664
900 0.02723 14.821 18.78 690 0.412 10.217 0.676
Oxygen
–6
150 2.6190 0.9178 11.490 ´ 10 4.387 ´ 10–6 0.01367 0.05688 ´ 10–4 0.773
200 1.9559 0.9131 14.850 7.593 0.01824 0.10214 0.745
250 1.5618 0.9157 17.87 11.45 0.02259 0.15794 0.725
300 1.3007 0.9203 20.63 15.86 0.02676 0.22353 0.709
350 1.1133 0.9291 23.16 20.80 0.03070 0.2968 0.702
400 0.9755 0.9420 25.54 26.18 0.03461 0.3768 0.695
450 0.8682 0.9567 27.77 31.99 0.03828 0.4609 0.694
500 0.7801 0.9722 29.91 38.34 0.04173 0.5502 0.697
550 0.7096 0.9881 31.97 45.05 0.04517 0.641 0.700
Nitrogen
–6
200 1.7108 1.0429 12.947 ´ 10 7.568 ´ 10–6 0.01824 0.10224 ´ 10–4 0.747
300 1.1421 1.0408 17.84 15.63 0.02620 0.22044 0.713
186 Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

Carbon monoxideT
220 1.55363 1.0429 13.832 ´ 10–6 8.903 ´ 10–6 0.01906 0.1176 ´ 10–4 0.758
250 1.3649 1.0425 15.40 11.28 0.02144 0.15063 0.750
300 1.13876 1.0421 17.843 15.67 0.02525 0.21280 0.737
350 0.97425 1.0434 20.09 20.62 0.02883 0.2836 0.728
400 0.85363 1.0484 22.19 25.99 0.03226 0.3605 0.722
450 0.75848 1.0551 24.18 31.88 0.0436 0.4439 0.718
500 0.68223 1.0635 26.06 38.19 0.03863 0.5324 0.718
550 0.62024 1.0756 27.89 44.97 0.04162 0.6240 0.721
600 0.56850 1.0877 29.60 52.06 0.04446 0.7190 0.724
Fuel GasesT
273 1.295 1.043 15.78 ´ 10–6 12.20 ´ 10–6 22.79 ´ 10–3 0.1688 ´ 10–4 0.72
373 0.950 1.068 20.38 21.54 31.28 0.30833 0.69
473 0.748 1.097 24.49 32.80 40.12 0.48888 0.67
573 0.617 1.122 28.22 45.81 48.38 0.70000 0.65
673 0.525 1.151 31.68 60.38 56.99 0.94166 0.64
773 0.457 1.185 34.84 76.30 65.59 1.21111 0.63
873 0.405 1.214 37.85 93.61 74.19 1.51666 0.62
973 0.363 1.239 40.68 112.1 82.69 1.83888 0.61
1073 0.329 1.264 43.37 131.8 91.53 2.19722 0.60
1173 0.301 1.290 45.9 152.5 100.13 2.58055 0.59
1273 0.275 1.306 48.35 174.3 108.97 3.03333 0.58
1373 0.257 1.323 50.69 197.1 117.46 3.45555 0.57
1473 0.240 1.340 52.98 221.00 126.77 3.9525 0.56
Sulphur dioxideT
273 2.926 0.607 1.23 ´ 10–6 4.14 8.37 ´ 10–3 0.0472 ´ 10–4 0.874
373 2.140 0.662 1.64 7.51 12.33 0.0872 0.863
473 1.690 0.712 2.04 11.80 16.63 0.1244 0.856
573 1.395 0.754 2.43 17.10 21.28 0.2014 0.848
673 1.185 0.783 2.81 23.30 25.82 0.2777 0.834
753 1.033 0.808 3.19 30.40 30.70 0.3666 0.822
853 0.916 0.825 3.57 38.30 35.80 0.4722 0.806
953 0.892 0.837 3.94 46.80 41.05 0.5972 0.788
1073 0.743 0.850 4.30 56.50 46.29 0.7333 0.774
1173 0.681 0.858 4.66 66.80 51.87 0.8888 0.755
1273 0.626 0.867 5.02 78.30 57.57 1.0611 0.740
T
Constructed based on the data compiled in Refs. [18, 23]
Table 2.11 Physical Properties of Some Common Low-Melting-Point Metals**
Metal Melting point, Normal boiling Temperature, Density, Viscosity Heat capacity, Thermal Prandtl
°C point, °C °C kg/m3 ´ 10–3 kg/m-sec ´ 103 kJ/kg °C conductivity number
W/m °C
Bismuth 271 1477 316 10.01 1.62 0.144 16.4 0.014
760 9.47 0.79 0.165 15.6 0.0084
Lead 327 1737 371 10.5 2.40 0.159 16.1 0.024
704 10.1 1.37 0.155 14.9 0.016
Lithium 179 1317 204 0.51 0.60 4.19 38.1 0.065
982 0.44 0.42 4.19
Mercury –39 357 10 13.6 1.59 0.138 8.1 0.027
316 12.8 0.86 0.134 14.0 0.0084
Potassium 63.8 760 149 0.81 0.37 0.796 45.0 0.0066
704 0.67 0.14 0.754 33.1 0.0031
Sodium 97.8 883 204 0.90 0.43 1.34 80.3 0.0072
704 0.78 0.18 1.26 59.7 0.0038
Sodium potassium: 19 826 93.3 0.848 0.49 0.946 24.4 0.019
22% Na
760 0.69 0.146 0.883
56% Na –11 784 93.3 0.89 0.58 1.13 25.6 0.026
760 0.74 0.16 1.04 28.9 0.058
Lead bismuth, 125 1670 288 10.3 1.76 0.147 10.7 0.024
44.5% Pb
649 9.84 1.15
Heat and Mass Transfer
187
 188

Table 2.12 Physical properties of liquid metals**

Metal Melting Boiling T, °C r, kg/m3 C p, m ´ 104 v ´ 106, k, a ´ 106, Pr
point, °C point, °C kJ/(kg.°C) kg/(m.s) m2/s W/(m.°C) m2/s
Bismuth 271 1477 315 10,011 0.144 16.2 0.160 16.4 11.25 0.0142
538 9,739 0.155 11.0 0.113 15.6 10.34 0.0110
760 9,467 0.165 7.9 0.083 15.6 9.98 0.0083
Lead 327 1737 371 10,540 0.159 2.40 0.023 16.1 9.61 0.024
704 10,140 0.155 1.37 0.014 14.9 9.48 0.0143
Lithium 179 1317 204.4 509.2 4.365 5.416 1.1098 46.37 20.96 0.051
315.6 498.8 4.270 4.465 0.8982 43.08 20.32 0.0443
426.7 489.1 4.211 3.927 0.8053 38.24 18.65 0.0432
537.8 476.3 4.171 3.473 0.7304 30.45 15.40 0.0476
Mercury –38.9 357 –17.8 13,707.1 0.1415 18.334 0.1342 9.76 5.038 0.0266
100 13,384.5 0.1373 12.420 0.0928 10.51 5.716 0.0162
Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

200 13,144.9 0.1570 10.541 0.0802 12.34 6.908 0.0116

Sodium 97.8 883 93.3 931.6 1.384 7.131 0.7689 84.96 56.29 0.0116
204.4 907.5 1.339 4.521 0.5010 80.81 66.80 0.0075
315.6 878.5 1.304 3.294 0.3766 75.78 66.47 0.00567
426.7 852.8 1.277 2.522 0.2968 69.39 64.05 0.00464
537.8 823.8 1.264 2.315 0.2821 64.37 62.09 0.00455
648.9 790.0 1.261 1.964 0.2496 60.56 61.10 0.00408
760.0 767.5 1.270 1.716 0.2245 56.58 58.34 0.00385
Potassium 63.9 760 426.7 741.7 0.766 2.108 0.2839 39.45 69.74 0.0041
537.8 714.4 0.762 1.711 0.2400 36.51 67.39 0.0036
648.9 690.3 0.766 1.463 0.2116 33.74 64.10 0.0033
760.0 667.7 0.783 1.331 0.1987 31.15 59.86 0.0033
NaK (56% Na, –11.1 784 93.3 889.8 1.130 5.622 0.6347 25.78 27.76 0.0246
44% K)
204.4 865.6 1.089 3.803 0.4414 26.47 28.23 0.0155
315.6 838.3 1.068 2.935 0.3515 27.17 30.50 0.0115
426.7 814.2 1.051 2.150 0.2652 27.68 32.52 0.0081
537.8 788.4 1.047 2.026 0.2581 27.68 33.71 0.0076
648.9 759.5 1.051 1.695 0.2240 27.68 34.86 0.0064
**
Data collected from Ref. [23]
 Heat and Mass Transfer 189

Table 2.13 Normal Fouling Factors**

Type of fluid Fouling factor, m2°C/W
Sea water below 50°C 0.0001
Above 50°C 0.0022
Treated boiler feed water above 50°C 0.0002
River water below 50°C 0.0002 – 0.001
Fuel oil 0.0009
Refrigerating liquid 0.0002
Industrial air 0.0004
Steam, non-oil bearing 0.00009
Steam, oil bearing 0.0003 – 0.0004
Alcohol vapours 0.00009
Quenching oil 0.0007
Organic vapours 0.00009
Organic liquids 0.00018
Brine (Cooling) 0.00018
Exhaust steam 0.00018
Liquid gasoline and liquefied petroleum gases 0.0002 – 0.0004
Vegetable oil 0.0005
Caustic solution 0.0004
Methanol, ethanol and ethylene glycol solutions 0.0004
Natural gas 0.0002 – 0.0004
Compressed air 0.0002
Solvent vapours 0.0004 – 0.0005
**
Constructed based on data compiled in Refs. [15 – 24]

Table 2.14 Magnitude of the Overall heat transfer coefficients**

Sl. No Fluid Combination U, W/m2 K
1. Water to Water 850 – 1700
2. Water to Oil 110 – 350
3. Steam condenser (Water in tubes) 1000 – 6000
4. Ammonia condenser (Water in tubes) 800 – 1400
5. Alcohol condenser (Water in tubes) 250 – 700
6. Finned tube heat exchanger (Water in tubes, air in cross flow) 25 – 50
7. Finned tube heat exchanger (Steam in tubes, air in cross flow) 28 – 280
8. Gas to Gas 10 – 40
9. Gas to Water 10 – 250
10. Light organics to Water 370 – 730
11. Heavy organics to Water 25 – 370
12. Steam to Water 1000 – 3500
 Heat and Mass Transfer 191

Table 2.16 Diffusion coefficients of gases and vapors in air at 25°C and 1 atm**
Substance D, cm2/s Sc = V/D Substance D, cm2/s Sc = V/D
Ammonia 0.28 0.78 Formic acid 0.159 0.97
Carbon dioxide 0.164 0.94 Acetic acid 0.133 1.16
Hydrogen 0.410 0.22 Aniline 0.073 2.14
Oxygen 0.206 0.75 Benzene 0.088 1.76
Water 0.256 0.60 Toluene 0.084 1.84
Ethyl ether 0.093 1.66 Ethyl benzene 0.077 2.01
Methanol 0.159 0.97 Propyl benzene 0.059 2.62
Ethyl alcohol 0.119 1.30

Table 2.17 Diffusion coefficients of gases and organic solutes at low concentration in water**
Solute D ´ 109 (m2/s) Solute D ´ 109(m2/s)
Acetone 1.16 Glycerol 0.72
Air 2.5 Hydrogen 4.5
Benzene 1.02 Nitrogen 2.6
Carbon dioxide 1.92 Oxygen 2.1
Chlorine 1.25 Propane 0.97
Ethanol 0.84 Urea 1.2
Ethylene glycol 1.04 Vinyl chloride 1.34
**
Constructed based on data compiled in Refs. [15,18]

Table 2.18 Normal emissivity of surfaces**

Surface T, °C en Surface T, °C en
Metals Metals
Aluminum Black oxidized 37 0.78
Highly polished, plate 200-600 0.038-0.06 Gold, polished 37-260 0.02
Bright, foil 21 0.04 Iron
Heavily oxidized 100-500 0.20-0.33 Polished 425-1025 0.14-0.38
Brass Oxidized 100 0.74
Highly polished 250-360 0.028-0.031 Cast iron, oxidized 200-600 0.64-0.78
Dull plate 50-350 0.22 at 600°C
Oxidized 200-500 0.60 Cast plate, smooth 22 0.80
Chromium, polished 37-1100 0.08-0.40 Cast plate, rough 22 0.82
Copper Lead
Polished, electrolytic 80 0.018 Pure, polished 260 0.08
Polished 37-260 0.04-0.05 Gray, oxidized 23 0.28
Calorized 37-260 0.18 Oxidized at 200°C 200 0.63
 Heat and Mass Transfer 193

Table 2.19 Solar absorptivity of surfaces (receiving surface at room temperature)**

Surface a Surface a
Metals Non metals
Aluminum Asphalt
Polished 0.10 Pavement 0.85
Anodized 0.14 Pavement free from dust 0.93
Foil 0.15 Brick
Brass White glazed 0.26
Polished 0.3-0.5 Red 0.70-0.77
Dull 0.4-0.65 Concrete
Chromium, electroplated 0.41 Uncolored 0.65
Copper Brown 0.85
Highly polished 0.18 Black 0.91
Clean 0.25 Earth, plowed field 0.75
Tarnished by exposure 0.64 Granite 0.45
Gold 0.21 Grass 0.75-0.8
Iron Gravel 0.29
Matte, oxidized 0.96 Leaves, green 0.71-0.79
Lead roofing, old 0.77 Magnesium oxide (MgO) 0.15
Nickel Marble
Highly polished 0.15 White 0.44
Polished 0.36 Ground, unpolished 0.47
Oxidized 0.79 Paints
Platinum, bright 0.31 Oil, white lead 0.24-0.26
Silver Oil, light cream 0.30
Highly polished 0.07 Oil, light green 0.50
Polished 0.13 Aluminum 0.55
Stainless steel, type 301 Oil, light gray 0.75
Polished 0.37 Oil, black on galvanized iron 0.90
Clean 0.52 Paper
Zinc White 0.28
Highly polished 0.34 Sand 0.76
Polished 0.55 Sawdust 0.75
Slate
Silver gray 0.79
Blue gray 0.85
Dark gray 0.90
Snow, clean 0.2-0.35
Soot, coal 0.95
Zinc oxide 0.15
**
Data collected from Refs. [23]
 194

Table 2.20 Hyperbolic Functions

x sinh x cosh x tanh x x sinh x cosh x tanh x
0 0 1 0 2 3.6269 3.7622 0.96403
0.1 0.1002 1.005 0.09967 2.1 4.0219 4.1443 0.97045
0.2 0.2013 1.0201 0.19738 2.2 4.4571 4.5679 0.97574
0.3 0.3045 1.0453 0.29131 2.3 4.937 5.0372 0.9801
0.4 0.4108 1.0811 0.37995 2.4 5.4662 5.5569 0.98367
0.5 0.5211 1.1276 0.46212 2.5 6.0502 6.1323 0.98661
0.6 0.6367 1.1855 0.53705 2.6 6.6947 6.769 0.98903
Thermal Engineering Data Handbook

0.7 0.7586 1.2552 0.60437 2.7 7.4063 7.4735 0.99101

0.8 0.8881 1.3374 0.66404 2.8 8.1919 8.2527 0.99263
0.9 1.0265 1.4331 0.7163 2.9 9.0596 9.1146 0.99396
1 1.1752 1.5431 0.76159 3 10.018 10.068 0.99505
1.1 1.3356 1.6685 0.8005 3.5 16.543 16.573 0.99818
1.2 1.5095 1.8107 0.83365 4 27.29 27.308 0.99933
1.3 1.6984 1.9709 0.86172 4.5 45.003 45.014 0.99975
1.4 1.9043 2.1509 0.88535 5 74.203 74.21 0.99991
1.5 2.1293 2.3524 0.90515 6 201.71 201.72 0.99999
1.6 2.3756 2.5775 0.92167 7 548.32 548.32 1
1.7 2.6456 2.8283 0.93541 8 1490.5 1490.5 1
1.8 2.9422 3.1075 0.94681 9 4051.5 4051.5 1
1.9 3.2682 3.4177 0.95624 10 1101.3 1101.3 1
The hyperbolic functions are defined as
Sinh x = ½(ex – e–x) ; Cosh x = ½(ex + e–x) ; Tanh x = Sinh x/Cosh x
Table 2.21 Bessel functions of the first kind and second kind
I0 (y) Zero order Bessel function of first kind
y 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
0 1 1.0025 1.01 1.0226 1.0404 1.0635 1.092 1.1263 1.1665 1.213
1 1.2661 1.3262 1.3937 1.4693 1.5534 1.6467 1.75 1.864 1.9896 2.1277
2 2.2796 2.4463 2.6291 2.8296 3.0493 3.2898 3.5533 3.8417 4.1573 4.5027
3 4.8808 5.2945 5.7472 6.2426 6.7848 7.3782 8.0277 8.7386 9.5169 10.369
10 ´ 4 1.1302 1.2324 1.3442 1.4668 1.601 1.7481 1.9093 2.0858 2.2794 2.4915
10 ´ 5 2.724 2.9789 3.2584 3.5648 3.9009 4.2695 4.6738 5.1173 5.6038 6.1377
10 ´ 6 6.7234 7.3663 8.0718 8.8462 9.6962 10.629 11.654 12.779 14.014 15.37
102 ´ 7 1.6859 1.8495 2.0292 2.2266 2.4434 2.6816 2.9433 3.2309 3.5468 3.8941
103 ´ 8 4.2756 4.695 5.1559 5.6626 6.2194 6.8316 7.5046 8.2445 9.058 9.9524
104 ´ 9 1.0936 1.2019 1.3207 1.4514 1.5953 1.7535 1.9275 2.1189 2.3294 2.5611

0.3989 e y 75
I0 (y) » 1 2 +
RS1 + 1 + 9 UV
T 8 y 128 y 1024 y 3 W
y2

K0 (y) Zero order Bessel function of second kind

y 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
0 µ 2.4271 1.7527 1.3725 1.1145 0.9244 0.7775 0.6605 0.5653 0.4867
1 0.421 0.3656 0.3185 0.2782 0.2437 0.2138 0.188 0.1655 0.1459 0.1288
10–1 ´ 2 1.1389 1.0078 0.8926 0.7914 0.7022 0.6235 0.554 0.4926 0.4382 0.3901
10–1 ´ 3 0.3474 0.3095 0.2759 0.2461 0.2196 0.196 0.175 0.1563 0.1397 0.1248
10–2 ´ 4 1.116 0.998 0.8927 0.7988 0.7149 0.64 0.573 0.5132 0.4597 0.4119
10–2 ´ 5 0.3691 0.3308 0.2966 0.2659 0.2385 0.2139 0.1918 0.1721 0.1544 0.1386
10–3 ´ 6 1.244 1.1167 1.0025 0.9001 0.8083 0.7259 0.652 0.5857 0.5262 0.4728
10–3 ´ 7 0.4248 0.3817 0.3431 0.3084 0.2772 0.2492 0.224 0.2014 0.1811 0.1629
10–4 ´ 8 1.4647 1.3173 1.1849 1.0658 0.9588 0.8626 0.7761 0.6983 0.6283 0.5654
10–4 ´ 9 0.5088 0.4579 0.4121 0.371 0.3339 0.3006 0.2706 0.2436 0.2193 0.1977
Heat and Mass Transfer

1.2533 e - y 75
K0 (y) » 1 2 -
RS1 - 1 + 9 UV
1024 y 3
195

y2 T 8 y 128 y W