Microbiology (lec)
A BRIEF HISTORY OF
MICROBIOLOGY
THE FIRST OBSERVATIONS
1665- Robert Hooke ( an
Englishman) his discovery marked
the beginning of the “cell theory”
R. Hooke, Hanse Janssen and
Galileo Galilee
- They discovered the simple light
microscope.
Between 1674 to 1723 Anton Van
Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch merchant
and amateur scientist wrote a
series of letters to the Royal
Society of London describing the
“ANIMALCULES”, he saw through
simple, single lens microscope.
-He was first to actually observed
microorganisms through
magnifying lenses.
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION
 Until the second half of the
nineteenth century. Many
scientists and philosophers
believed that some forms of
like could arise
spontaneously from non-
living matter; this process is
called spontaneous
generation or “ THEORY OF
BIOGENESIS”.
THE DEBATE OVER
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION
1668- Francesco Redi, an Italian
physician demonstrated that
maggots do not rise spontaneously
from decaying meat, as was
commonly believed.
First person to perform an
experiment with a control
system
 Redi’s results were a serious
blow to the long belief that
large forms of life could arise
from nonlife. However, many
scientists still believe that
small organisms were simple
enough to be generated from
nonliving materials.
1745- John Needham, an
Englishman, found that even after
heated nutrient fluids cooled
solutions were soon teeming with
microorganisms.
 He claimed that the microbes
developed spontaneously
from the fluids.
THE DEBATE OVER
SPONTANEOUS
1765- Lazzaro Spallanzi, an
Italian scientist, suggest that
microorganisms from the air
probably had entered Needham’s
solution after they were boiled.
 He showed that nutrient
fluids heated after being
sealed in a flask did not
develop microbial growth.
 His observation was criticized
on the grounds that there
Microbiology (lec)
was not enough oxygen in
the sealed flask, Antoin
Laurent Lavoisier showed
the importance of oxygen for
life.
THEORY OF BIOGENESIS
1858- Rudolf Virchow
challenged spontaneous
generation with the concept of
biogenesis.
1861- Finally the issue was
resolved experimentally by
Louise Pasteur, the French
scientist.
He proved that any appearance
of “spontaneous” life in
nonliving solutions can be
attributed to microorganisms
that were already present in air
or in fluids themselves.
GOLDEN AGE OF
MICROBIOLOGY
For about 60 years, beginning
with the work of Pasteur, there
was an explosion of discoveries
in microbiology.
1857-1914- The Golden Age
of Microbiology, spearheaded
mainly by Pasteur and Robert
Koch, led to the establishment
of microbiology as science.
 Chemical activities of
microorganisms
 Improved techniques for
performing microscopy &
culturing microorganisms.
 Developed vaccines &
surgical techniques.
Lois Pasteur
 Made an experiment using
the swan-neck flasks- his
discovery led to the
development of “aseptic
technique”
 A group of French merchants
ask him to find out why milk,
wine and beer soured? They
asked him to develop a
method that will prevent
spoilage during shipment. “
Pasteurization”
FERMENTATION AND
PASTEURIZATION
 Pasteur found that yeast
ferments sugar to alcohol
and that bacteria can
oxidize the alcohol to
acetic acid.
 He also developed a
heating process called
Pasteurization that is
used to kill bacteria in
some alcoholic
beverages and milk
without altering their
flavor.
GERM THEORY – “Microorganisms
cause diseases”
1865- Louis Pasteur was hired to
figure out what to do about
silkworm disease.
Microbiology (lec)
1835- Agostino Bassi had shown
a causal relationship between a
fungus and the disease so he
looked for a connection with a
microorganism.
– He discovered a protozoan was
the causative agent added more
data to support the idea that
microorganisms cause disease.
Louis Pasteur
- He introduced the terms
“aerobes”(utilizes oxygen) &
“anaerobes” (do not require
oxygen for growth) .
- He studied different
microorganism he was also
able to develop immunity for
different diseases such as
anthrax, chicken cholera
and rabies- Father of
Immunology.
GERM THEORY
1860- Joseph Lister introduced
the use of disinfectant (carbolic
acid or phenol) to clean surgical
dressing in order to control
infections in humans.
His reasoning:
 He knew about the link
between microorganisms and
animal diseases that was
suggested by Pasteur’s work.
GERM THEORY
IGNAZ SEMMELWEIS (1848)
- showed that puerperal fever
(childbirth fever & cause by
streptococcus pyogenes) was
transmitted to patients by medical
students, who didn’t was their
hands between dissecting cadavers
in anatomy lad and delivering
babies.
- Father of Handwashing
- Savior of Mothers
1876- Robert Koch (German
physician) proved that
microorganisms caused diseases.
He used a sequence of procedures
called Koch’s Postulates, which are
used today to prove particular
disease.
He discovered rod shaped bacteria
known as "Bacillus Anthracis”
(anthrax- zoonotic infectious
disease of cows transferred to
humans)
Koch’s Postulates
- Also known as “Henle-
Koch’s” Postulates which
were published in 1884.
4 criteria used to established a
causal relationship between a
microorganism and a disease
1. Microorganism must be
observed in every case of the
disease.
2. IT must be isolated and
grown in pure culture.
Microbiology (lec)
3. The pure culture when
inoculated in animals must
reproduce the same disease.
4. Microorganisms must be
recovered from diseased
animals.
Limitations of Koch’s
Postulates
1.) It is only limited or applicable
for infectious diseases
(communicable/ cause by
pathogens) and not on non-
infectious diseases.
Example:
- TB is caused by
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
- HTN is caused by familial/
genetic cause, diet, smoking
or lifestyle but not by
microorganisms.
2.) Not all healthy animals will
manifest the disease once
infected with a certain
pathogen.
Example:
-Leptospira interrogans
can be seen in kidneys of
some animals (rats, dogs,
cattle, horses) but
leptospirosis will be
manifested in man but not in
animals.
3.) Not all organisms can be
isolated and grown in pure
cultures.
Example:
-Treponema pallidum
(syphilis) can only grow in
pure culture using
chimpanzee and rabbit
scrotum.
- Mycobacterium leprae
(leprosy) is only grown in
palms or foot of armadillos.
Robert Koch
- He introduced the principle of
Pure (contain single microbial
species) Culture Technique
- He discovered
mycobacterium tuberculosis
an Vibrio cholera
- Koch’s work on tuberculin
(skin test for TB or also
known as Purified protein
derivative) ultimately led to
the development of a skin
test valuable in diagnosing
tuberculosis.
- He also developed methods
of fixing staining &
photographing bacteria.
Julius Petri
- A worker of Robert Koch who
invented the Petri Dish in
1887.
Fanny Hesse
- The wife of a worker of
Robert Koch who discovered
agar (solidifying agent) from
red algae “ Gelidium”
(culture media)
Why agar is a good culture media
Microbiology (lec)
 Liquefies at 100°C
 Solidifies at room
temperature
 Not metabolize by bacteria
John Tyndall
- He modified the
Pasteurization process and
called the new method as
fractional sterilization or
intermittent sterilization now
called Tyndallization.
Procedures includes
 Treatment 1(80°C-100°C)
 Introduction of a gap
 Treatment 2
VACCINATION
Vaccination- is the administration
of antigenic material to stimulate
an individual’s immune system. To
develop adaptive immunity to a
pathogen.
 The most effective
method of preventing
infectious diseases.
1798- Edward Jenner (Father of
Immunotherapy) demonstrated
that inoculation cowpox material
provides humans with immunity
from smallpox.
Smallpox
 contagious/ deadly human
disease
 first infectious disease to be
prevented
 first infectious disease where
vaccine was developed
 first infectious disease
eradicated
1880- Pasteur discovered that
virulent bacteria could be used as a
vaccine for fowl cholera; he coined
the word vaccine (1881).
Emil Von Behring
 He discovered the
immunization for diphtheria.
(Corynebacterium diptheriae)
DPT – Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus
CHEMOTHERAPY
Chemotherapy- is the chemical
treatment of a disease. The idea of
magic bullet is to use a treatment
that kills the pathogens without
harming the host.
Paul Ehrlich
- He speculated about a magic
bullet that could hunt down
and destroy a pathogen
without harming the infected
host selective toxicity.
- In 1910, he found a
chemotherapeutic agent
called salvarsan
(Arsphenamine/ compound
606) for the treatment of
syphilis (sexually transmitted
infection)
- He was recognized as Father
of chemotherapy.
Microbiology (lec)
Alexander Fleming
- Discovered penicillin by
serendipity while preparing a
pure culture of Staphylcoccus
aureus; he identified the
mold as Penicillium notatum
and it produces an active
ingredient which he called as
penicillin.
- The clinical application of
penicillin was attributed to
Sir Howard Florey and Ernst
Boris Chain.
Gerhard Domagk
 He discovered the red dye
PRONTOSIL (prodrug) that
when metabolized in the
body is converted to the
active form “Sulfanilamide”
(active form) that is useful for
UTI.
Selman Waksman
 He discovered streptomycin
(anti-tubercular antibiotic &
aminoglycoside) from
Streptomyces species.
Rene Dubois
 He discovered two
antibiotics, gramicidin and
tyrocidine from soil
bacterium bacillus brevis (soil
bacterium).
Rebecca Lancefield ( Lancefield
Classification System)
 She proposed a classification
system for streptococci
based on certain components
in cell walls of bacteria.
MODERN DEVELOPMENTS IN
MICROBIOLOGY
Virology
1892- Dmitri Iwanowski reported
that organism that causes mosaic
disease of tobacco was s0 small
that it passed through filters fine
enough to stop all known bacteria.
1935- Wendell Stanley showed
that the organism called tobacco
mosaic virus (TMV) was
fundamentally different from other
microbes.
1940- electron microscope was
developed and virus structure and
chemistry as observed.
1970- Howard Temin & David
Baltimore discovered that enzyme
reverse transcriptase in RNA
viruses, it uses RNA as template to
synthesize complementary DNA
(CDNA).
Microbiology (lec)

1983- Luc Montagnier and

Robert Gallo discovered HIV
caused AIDS.

Ernst Haekel
 He introduced the 3-kingdom
system or classifying living
organisms.
 Kingdom Animalia
 Kingdom Plantae
 Kingdom Protista NAMING AND CLASSIFYING
 Higher Protists- fungi & ORGANISMS
protozoans 1735- Carolus Linnaeus
 Lower Protists- bacteria & established the system of
cyanobacteria nomenclature for organisms or
binomial nomenclature
Robert H. Whittaker (1969)
- He introduced the currently used Scientific names can:
5 kingdoms of classifying living
 Describe the organism
organisms
 Honor the researcher
 Identify the habitat of the
species
Example:

Escherichia coli

- By Theodore Escherion
- coli because E. coli in the
colon of large intestine

NAMING AND CLASSIFYING

MICROORGANISMS
Microbiology (lec)

Staphylococcus aureus - discovered messenger RNA and

later made the first major
Genus Species discoveries about regulation of
gene function in bacteria.

- also scientists were able to break

the genetic code and thus
 Staphylo – describe the
understand the biochemical signals
clustered arrangement of the
that DNA transmits.
cell.
 Coccus- indicated that they
are shaped like spheres.
 Aureus- Latin for gold; color
of colonies

RECOMBINANT DNA
TECHNOLOGY (1960s) Paul Berg

1930- All genetics research was - Showed fragments of human

based on the study of plants and
animal cells.
1940- Genetic research was based
on the study of unicellular
organism (bacteria)
(1944) Oswald Avery, Collin
Macleod & Maclyn McCarty
or animal DNA that code for
important proteins can be
attached to bacterial DNA,
the resulting hybrid was the
first of recombinant DNA.
(genetic engineering – e.g.
insulin & interferon)

- established the DNA as hereditary

material.

(1953) James Watson & Francis

Crick

- proposed module for the structure

and replication of DNA. (double
helix)

1960s

- Explosion of discoveries
relating to the way DNA
control protein synthesis.

(1961) Francois Jacob &

Jacques Manod