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Procedia Engineering 207 (2017) 1069–1074

International Conference on the Technology of Plasticity, ICTP 2017, 17-22 September 2017,
Cambridge, United Kingdom

Scaling of metal forming processes


a a a
A.Al-Tamimia , R. Darvizeha, K. Daveya*
a
a School
School of
of MACE,
MACE, The
The University
University of
of Manchester,
Manchester, Manchester,
Manchester, M13
M13 9PL,
9PL, UK
UK

Abstract
Abstract

A new
A new approach
approach toto scaled
scaled experimentation
experimentation has has appeared
appeared in in the
the recent
recent literature,
literature, which
which isis founded
founded onon the
the idea
idea that
that scaling
scaling can
can be
be
achieved
achieved byby scaling
scaling space
space itself.
itself. The
The idea
idea that
that space
space expands
expands and and distorts
distorts is
is not
not new
new toto physics
physics (cosmology
(cosmology and and general
general relativity
relativity
in
in particular)
particular) but
but the
the idea
idea that
that scaling
scaling space
space can
can provide
provide insight
insight into
into scaled
scaled metal
metal forming
forming experimentation
experimentation is is considered
considered novel.
novel.
The concept
The concept involves
involves aa portion
portion ofof space
space identified
identified byby aa control
control volume
volume (free
(free to
to move
move andand distort)
distort) coupled
coupled toto aa version
version residing
residing in
in
aa scaled
scaled space.
space. The
The processes
processes under
under investigation
investigation are are contained
contained within
within the
the control
control volumes
volumes and
and may
may include
include diedie sets
sets and
and any
any
aspects
aspects deemed
deemed important
important to to the
the success
success ofof the
the scaled
scaled experiment.
experiment. The The physics
physics inin the
the two
two spaces
spaces are
are described
described using
using transport
transport
equations
equations and are deemed to possess finite similitude if found to be proportional in some sense. Finite similitude always exists
and are deemed to possess finite similitude if found to be proportional in some sense. Finite similitude always exists in
in
continuum mechanics
continuum mechanics for for isotropic
isotropic scaling
scaling andand itit is
is shown
shown in in this
this paper
paper how
how the
the concept
concept can
can be
be used
used toto design
design experiments.
experiments.
Numerical and
Numerical and experimental
experimental trials
trials are
are performed
performed to to reveal
reveal the
the benefits
benefits and
and validity
validity of
of the
the new
new scaling
scaling approach.
approach.
©© 2017
2017 The
The Authors.
Authors. Published
Published by by Elsevier
Elsevier Ltd.
Ltd.
© 2017 The Authors. Published by of Elsevier Ltd.
of the scientific committee of theof the International Conference on theofTechnology
Peer-review
Peer-review under responsibility
responsibility
Peer-review under
under responsibility of the scientific committee International Conference on the Technology Plasticity.
of Plasticity..
Keywords:
Keywords: Metal
Metal forming;
forming; upsetting
upsetting cold
cold forging;
forging; scaling;transport
scaling;transport equations;
equations; similitude.
similitude.

1. Introduction
1. Introduction

Metal forming
Metal forming processes
processes continue
continue to
to be
be anan area
area of
of active
active research
research as
as industry
industry strives
strives for
for improvements
improvements in in
processing performance
processing performance andand better
better control
control of
of product
product quality.
quality. Modern
Modern industrial
industrial practice
practice for
for metal
metal forming
forming relies
relies
heavily on
heavily on finite-element
finite-element packages
packages to
to describe
describe and
and better
better understand
understand these
these processes.
processes. Finite
Finite element
element analysis
analysis is
is not
not
without its
without its limitations
limitations however
however asas it
it depends
depends heavily
heavily on
on constitutive
constitutive laws,
laws, which
which in
in turn
turn require
require experimental
experimental data.
data.
This invariably
This invariably means
means extensive
extensive testing
testing over
over large
large ranges
ranges of
of strain,
strain, strain
strain rates
rates and
and temperatures.
temperatures. A A complementary
complementary

* Corresponding
* Corresponding author.
author. Tel.:
Tel.: +44-0161-306-3834
+44-0161-306-3834
E-mail
E-mail address:
address: keith.davey@manchester.ac.uk
keith.davey@manchester.ac.uk

1877-7058 ©
1877-7058 © 2017
2017 The
The Authors.
Authors. Published
Published by
by Elsevier
Elsevier Ltd.
Ltd.
Peer-review
Peer-review under
under responsibility of the scientific committee
responsibility of of the International Conference on the Technology of
Plasticity..

1877-7058 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.


Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on the Technology of Plasticity.
10.1016/j.proeng.2017.10.1132
1070 A. Al-Tamimi et al. / Procedia Engineering 207 (2017) 1069–1074
2 A. Al-Tamimi et al. / Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000

approach is to use the concept of similarity [1]. The concept is related to the behavior of processes at different
length scales. If it could be shown that a process with similar features but dissimilar magnitudes of scale display
similar behavior, then in principle such information could be employed to design metal forming processes [2]. The
problem is that similarity across length scales in metal forming processes is not observed in practice. The traditional
method employed to perform similarity analysis is dimensional analysis but its application to metal forming is
limited and has little impact on modern practices. Pawelski [3] provides one of the few examples of dimensional
analysis applied to a metal forming process. His analysis is founded on the Buckingham-Pi theorem and was used to
describe the influence of lubricants in cold rolling. Similarly, Navarrete et al. [4] illustrated how dimensional
analysis could be used to calculate the compressive load required for a closed-die forging. The types of analysis
performed with dimensional analysis although useful have severe limitations and to date have only provided
information on relatively simple geometries in metal forming processes [5]. The principal issue is that similitude
does not generally exist in metal forming. It is virtually impossible to satisfy all the constraints in metal forming and
at the same time scale the process [3].
This paper focuses on an experimental investigation into the application of the concept of finite similitude. The
experimental trials pertain to relatively simple upsetting processes, which are considered and complimented by finite
element analysis. The paper examines the idea of mapping similarity solutions between the physical and trial spaces
to illustrate how information from a scaled experiment can be used to approximately gauge the behavior of a full-
scale process.

2. Conservation laws in physical and trial spaces

The theory considered in this section is concerned with the laws governing processes contained in a finite region
of space. The idea is to mathematically scale space and to describe the effects that this has on the processes under
consideration. The scaling of space in this way provides great flexibility since extraordinarily complex processes
can be involved yet can be scaled. The focus on space means that a mathematical description is required that readily
captures transport phenomenon in and out of a region of space. Integral transport forms of the conservation
equations applied to a control volume  ps provide an appropriate platform for the underpinning theory. A generic
transport equation for the physical space (i.e. the space of the full-scale model) is

D*
D*t   ps ps dV ps   ps ps v ps 
 v*ps  n ps d  ps  
 J ps  n ps d  ps  

ps bps dV ps
(1)
ps  ps  ps  ps

where  is the density,  is a physical field, v is the material velocity field, v * is the control volume velocity,
J is the flux, b is the body force, n is the unit normal to the boundary  of the control volume  [6].
Six transport equations are involved in describing metal forming processes under a continuum-mechanics
framework and pertinent to similitude. These are described by Equation (1) for different settings of the field  for
1
the transport of: volume (    ), mass (   1) , momentum (   v ), movement (   u ), energy (   u 0.5v  v )
and entropy (   s ), where u is displacement, u is specific internal energy, and is specific entropy (see
s
reference [7] for details on movement transport equation). There are an identical set of transport equations
governing the physics in the trial space

D*
    v  
 J ts  nts d ts 
 v*ts  nts d ts   b (2)

ts ts dVts  ts ts ts ts ts dVts
D* ts ts ts ts

where in this case time is assumed to run at a different rate expressed by the use of the symbol  .
Equation (1) and (2) are presently unrelated but can be related through the assumed differential maps for time
dt  hd (or d  g dt ) and space dx  Fs ds , where h and g are parameters. This latter map provides Nanson’s
1
geometric identities of the form dVps  Fs dVts and nps d ps Fs nts d ts  Fs [8]. It is assumed here that isotropic
scaling is of principal interest with Fs   I , with  a scaling parameter and I the identity matrix. Substituting
these identities into Equation (1) and on multiplication by a scalar  and time parameter h gives
A.Al-Tamimi et al./ Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000 3
A. Al-Tamimi et al. / Procedia Engineering 207 (2017) 1069–1074 1071

*
D
D
* 
*

 ps ps Fs dVts 
*


 *

h  ps ps Fs Fs1  v ps  v ps  nts d ts  
*

h Fs Fs1  J ps  nts d ts  
*

h  ps bps Fs dVts (3)
ts ts ts ts

Equations (3) and (2) are identical if there corresponding integrands are identical; this provides

ts bts   h ps bps Fs (4a)


J ts  h Fs Fs1  J ps (4b)
ts ts    ps ps Fs (4c)
vts  v*ts hFs1   v ps  v*ps  (4d)

where it is appreciated that for finite similitude these identities must be satisfied for the six transport equations
pertinent to continuum mechanics (and thus metal forming).
Six scalar scaling factors are thus involved which are  1 (volume),   (mass),  v (momentum),  u (movement),
 (energy) and  s (entropy) along with two additional scaling parameters for space  and time h . It transpires
e

(see reference [9] for details) that not all scaling parameters are independent and the following relationships hold:
 u   v / h (or  u    / h ),  v  ha  /  and  e  ( v )2 /   . The dependency arises out of the coupled physics with
mass fluxes influencing momentum and energy fluxes for example.

3. Experimental setup and FE model

Cold open die forging trials were conducted on a commercial aluminum alloy 2024-T851 and copper C101. Two
kinds of specimens (full and trial materials) were prepared depending on the geometry scaling factor  . The
purpose of the trials is to test the scaling theory and to reveal information for designing trials to investigate the
physics of a full-scale process.
The dimensions of the full-scale workpiece are diameter Dps  12mm and length lps  12 mm, and the geometry
scaling factor is set to be 2. Therefore, the dimensions of the trial material are diameter Dts  6 mm and length lts  6
mm. The results of the trial materials are shown in cases I and II (Sections 4.1 and 4.2). The cross-head speed was
set to 0.12, 0.051 and 0.12 mm/s for the full-scale aluminum alloy 2024-T851, trial-scale copper C101 and trial-scale
aluminum alloy 2024-T851, respectively. The samples and dies were cleaned before every test to remove dust by
using acetone. It should be mentioned here that no lubricant was used throughout this experiment. The testing
machine was set to stop when the total displacement reached a half of the sample length. A 200 kN load cell was
positioned at the cross head to record the force. In addition, the displacement was also recorded at the cross head
depending on its movement. The VMS-004 Microscope was used to measure the increase in diameter (see Fig.1(a))
of the test pieces.
In order to obtain the material properties, quasi-static compression tests [10] were conducted on an INSTRON
machine 4507 and carried out at room temperature with a strain rate of 0.01s-1. The specimens of the aluminum
alloy 2024-T851 and copper C101 were machined from the rods with a diameter of 6 mm and an equal height of 6
mm (a height to diameter ratio of 1 is used to avoid buckling). According to the tests the material properties for the
aluminum alloy 2024-T851 are: ρ  3306 kg/m3, E  69883 MPa, Y  480 MPa, v  0.33, and for the copper C101 are
ρ  9830 kg/m3, E  110507.55 MPa, Y  260 MPa, v  0.31.
Ring compression tests were performed using the same machine (INSTRON machine 4507) under dry surface
conditions. The inner diameter and height were recorded for each stage until 50% of the height reduction was
achieved. In this test, the shear friction factors (m) were determined by using calibration curves [11]. The
geometries of the rings were based on the aspect ratio 6:3:2 [12]. Due to this geometry ratio, the dimensions of the
rings were 25 mm outer diameter, 12 mm inner diameter and 8.3 mm height. The friction factors (m) for the
aluminum 2024-T851 and copper C101 were found to be 0.41 and 0.53, respectively. ABAQUS/Explicit 14.3 was
used to build the corresponding FE model. The samples were meshed with brick elements (C3D8R), while the dies
1072 A. Al-Tamimi et al. / Procedia Engineering 207 (2017) 1069–1074
4 A. Al-Tamimi et al. / Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000

were modelled as discrete rigid surfaces. The material properties obtained from the experiments were employed to
introduce the material in the FEA. The contact between samples and dies was modelled as a surface-to-surface
contact, which required introducing a master surface (die) and slave surface (sample). A penalty formulation was
used to enforce the frictional coefficients at the contact surfaces.

4. Results

The experimental and finite element (FE) similitude results for the deformed shapes of the full-scale and two trial
models and their boundary conditions are presented in Fig 1(b). The specimens were placed between the dies and
deformed to half of their lengths.

Fig.1. (a) Test setup; (b) Full and scaled numerical/experimental results for Cases I and II.

4.1. Case study I

In this case study, copper C101 was selected as the trial experiment material, and in accordance with the
relationships in section 2, the yield stress and the density were identified to be matched with the yield stress and
density of the trial material, i.e. Yts  Ycopper and  ts   copper [13]. The independent and dependent scaling parameters
that facilitated this matching are: (    0.372, h  0.853,  v  0.159) and (  e  0.677,  u  0.201), respectively.
The results for force-displacement and change in diameter of the physical and trial models are presented in Fig 2.
TS: Aluminum 2024-T851(EXP) PS: Aluminum 2024-T851 (EXP)
TS: Aluminum 2024-T851 (FEM) PS: Aluminum 2024-T851 (FEM)
Scaled PS: Aluminum 2024-T851(EXP) Reversed TS: Aluminum 2024-T851(EXP)
35000 140000
TS: Trial Space
30000 120000 PS: Physical Space

25000 100000
UZ
Force (N)

Force (N)

20000 80000
Fts reversed (a  h 2  1 ) 1  Fts

15000 60000
Reverse Scaling
10000 uts reversed   uts 40000 Lower Die
(fixed)
5000 20000

0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
TS: Aluminum 2024-T851 (EXP) PS: Aluminum 2024-T851 (EXP)
TS: Aluminum 2024-T851 (FEM) PS: Aluminum 2024-T851 (FEM)
1.6
Scaled PS: Aluminum 2024-T851 (EXP) Reversed TS: Copper C101 (EXP)
3.0
PS: Physical Space
1.4 TS: Trial Space
Change in diameter (di-do) (mm)
Change in diameter (di-do) (mm)

2.5
1.2

1.0 2.0
UZ point
uts reversed   uts
0.8 selected to
0
Reverse Scaling 1.5
analyse
0.6 the radius
1.0 change
0.4
0.5
0.2

0.0
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)

Fig. 2. Experimental and numerical results for force-displacement and change in diameter in the physical and trial spaces.
A. Al-Tamimi et al. / Procedia Engineering 207 (2017) 1069–1074 1073
A.Al-Tamimi et al./ Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000 5

It is evident that the results of the reversed trial experiment (copper C101) provide reasonable agreement with the
results of full-scale model. A particular feature of the proposed method is its ability to relate physical behavior in the
trial and physical spaces. If it transpires that finite similitude exists, then to all intents and purposes the processes
are equivalent and indistinguishable up to a proportionality equivalence relationship. This aspect is of critical
importance as it enables trials to be designed and performed and judged in direct relation to the physical processes
that the trial pertains to represent. Therefore it is possible to judge the appropriateness of a trial in the physical space
as illustrated in Fig. 2.
In this particular case the maximum divergence in the ultimate loads between the sets of results is 15% (see Fig.
2). This divergence was markedly less at the point of material yielding as might be expected by the matching
criterion used to select the scalars. As regards the sample diameter, the results of the reversed trial experiment
(copper C101) demonstrated excellent agreement with the corresponding value of the full-scale aluminum model
with a maximum error less than 5%. Although the case considered here is relatively simple it does illustrate how a
substitute material can serve as a trial material yet provide a reasonable outcome.

4.2. Case study II

Aluminum alloy 2024-T851 was used as the scaled experimental trial material in this case. The scaling
procedures permit the use of an identical trial and physical material, which is particularly important when
microstructural changes are of interest.
A procedure similar to that used in the previous case study was adopted to find the scaling factors parameters and
reversed the scaled experimental results. The scaling factors for this case are:    0.125, h  2,  v  0.125,  e 
0.125 and  u  0.201. The results for force-displacement and change in diameter of the physical and trial models
are depicted in Fig 3. Selecting aluminum alloy 2024-T851 as the trial-experimental material provided a good set of
results with errors less than 6% in this case (see Fig. 3). It can be concluded on contrasting these results with those
obtained in Case study I that the new scaling theory provided greater accuracy when the same material was used in
both the physical and trial spaces. Note also that diameter results for this case are very similar to those presented in
Section 4.1.
The selection of the trial material is evidently important in any physical trial but this is not the only factor
affecting the results in this case. Boundary conditions are also a consideration and in particular the impact of
friction, which is considered further in the following subsection.
TS: Copper C101(EXP) PS: Aluminum 2024-T851(EXP)
TS: Copper C101(FEM) PS: Aluminum 2024-T851(FEM)
22500 160000
Scaled PS: Aluminum 2024-T851 (EXP) Reversed TS: Copper C101 (EXP)
20000 TS: Trial Space 140000 PS: Physical Space

17500
120000
15000
100000 UZ
12500
Force (N)

Force (N)

Fts reversed (a  h 2  1 ) 1  Fts



80000
10000 Reverse Scaling
60000
7500 uts reversed   uts
Lower Die
40000 (fixed)
5000

2500 20000

0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
TS: Copper C101 (EXP) PS: Aluminum 2024-T851 (EXP)
TS: Copper C101 (FEM) PS: Aluminum 2024-T851 (FEM)
6
Scaled PS: Aluminum 2024-T851 (EXP) Reversed TS: Copper C101 (EXP)
3.0
TS: Trial Space PS: Physical Space
5
Change in diameter (di-do) (mm)

Change in diameter (di-do) (mm)

2.5

4
uts reversed   uts 2.0
UZ
3 0
Reverse Scaling point selected
to analyse
1.5
the radius
change
2
1.0

1 0.5

0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)

Fig. 3. Experimental and numerical results of the force-displacement and change in diameter in physical and trial spaces.
1074 A. Al-Tamimi et al. / Procedia Engineering 207 (2017) 1069–1074
6 A. Al-Tamimi et al. / Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000

4.3. Analytical considerations

The upsetting problem in the physical space has a known analytical solution providing the mean pressure pps
under the die to be  pps  ps 1 2 3 rps hps mps  , where mps is the friction factor, rps and hps are the current billet radius
and height, respectively [14, 15]. The exact same solution applies to the trial space with subscript ps replaced by ts,
i.e. pts  ts 1 2 3 rts hts mts  . The scalars in the scaling theory (see Section 2) facilitated the matching of the initial
yield stress but had no impact on the friction factor m. This simple analytical expression reveals the reasons for the
extent of the disparity between the results in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3.
It is clear from the results that the scaling theory provides a useful platform for physical-modelling experiments
but care is required in the choice of substitute materials and boundary conditions must also be carefully considered.

5. Conclusions

Presented in this paper is a novel scaling methodology, which has been applied to scale the open die forging
process. The following conclusions can be drawn for the theory and work presented in this short paper:
 Finite Similitude always exists being founded on transfers through a scaled region of space and does not
rely on the invariance of dimensionless governing equations unlike dimensional analysis.
 The new scaling theory is not reliant on dimensionless equations, so is readily integrated into finite
element analysis.
 The experimental and numerical results performed in this work confirm the practical applicability of the
presented scaling scheme and its ability to represent a full-scale cold forging process at a smaller scale.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the Higher Committee for Education Development in Iraq and the Department of
Electromechanical Engineering at Technology University for providing support for Anees Al-Tamimi to facilitate his doctoral
research at the University of Manchester.

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