EconomicGeology

Vol. 78, 1985,pp. 1605-1618

A Correlationbetweenthe Evolutionof MineralizingFluids and

the GeomechanicalDevelopmentof a ShearZone as
Illustratedby the Henderson2 Mine, Quebec
JAYANTA
GUHA,GuY ARCHAMBAULT,
Sciences
de ia Terre,Universit•du Quebec
d Chicoutimi,
Chicoutimi,
QuebecG7H 2B1,Canada

AND JACQUES
LEROY
EcoleNationaleSupdrieure
de Gdoiogie
Appliqude,
B.P.No. 452,54001NancyCedex,France

Abstract

The HendersonCu-Au depositis containedwithin the metaanorthosite

of the Dore Lake
Complex,locatedat theeastern
endof theChibougamau-Matagami greenstone
belt.Twoore
zones,oneenclosedwithina shearzone(zoneB) andtheotherin a subsidiary
structure(zone
D) offeran idealsituation
to studythecorrelation
between
the mechanical
development
of
a shearzoneand its subsidiary
structureand the evolutionof mineralizingfluids.
A geomechanicalinterpretation
demonstratesthatat theonsetof thedevelopment of the
shearzone,subsidiary
fracturepatterns
aredeveloped in second
orderfaultsin thefollowing
sequence.
At peakstrengthRiedelshears(R and R') areformedwhichpropagate out intothe
wallsof the shearzonesproducingthe zoneD structure.After peak strength,restraint(P)
shears
aredeveloped in thethrustattitudewithintheshearzone.Principaldisplacement
shears
(D) developed
towardresidual
strength
in the direction
of movement.
The continuation
of
the sheardisplacement
givesriseto schistosities
withinthe mainshearzone.While the main
shear zone and the P and D shearswithin the main shear zone were in continual movement,
the subsidiary
zoneD structure,
onceformedretaineda simplefracturepatternand moved
little in comparisonto the main shearzone.
The abovemodel makesnecessary an examinationof the mechanicsof dilation which
createdopenings for fluidmovements andoreconcentrations.The generalprincipleinvolves
the mechanicsof the overridingof irregularplanesandsurfacesand the workperformedby
the normalpressure a duringthe dilationor contraction
of the system.Application of the
shearfracturedilatancymodelexplainsthe dilationmechanisms in zonesB andD. Although
the effectof interstitialfluid pressure
is incompletely
known,increasing dilationshouldbring
abouta reductionof the porefluidpressure whichwill changethe effectivenormalstress
and
aid fluid movement.
Mineralizingfluidsintroduced intothisshearenvironment showa similarpatternof evo-
lution,with a wider rangeof homogenization and halitedisappearance temperaturesin the
more activezone B than within zoneD. Systematicvariationsof Ca/Na and Ca/Mg ratios
in the fluid betweenzonesB and D indicatemigrationand accompanying chemicalchanges
of the fluid from zonesB to D, in keepingwith the evolutionof the main shearzoneand its
subsidiary structure.Thesecorrelationssuggest stronglythat fluid inclusion
studiescan be
usefulfor documentinggeomechanical processes.

Introduction and undulations in faults and shear zones. This last

mechanismhasbeen illustratedby Ladanyi and Ar-
THE developmentof dilationzonesis characteristic chambault(1970, 1972, 1980), Barton(197(5,1976),
of geologicstructuresresultingfrom rockdeforma- andBartonandCoubey(1977),aswellasby Bernaix
tion associated
with brittle failure. The expression of (1974)andGoodman (1976).All thesedilatancy phe-
thisdilatancycantakevariousforms.Microfractures nomenaincreasethe overall porosityof rock masses
characterizetheprefailuredeformation stage.At fail- and developtrapsfor mineralizingsolutions.
This is
ure and during postfailuremovementsdilatancyis particularlythe casefor the dilationphenomena re-
expressed asopeningscreatedby foldingand warp- suitingfromthe overriding of asperitiesof different
ing, tensionalfractures,and cataclasticzonesasso- ordersof magnitudeinsidefaultsand shearzones.
ciatedwith faultingandaspinchandswellstructures Theseopenings areveryimportantlocifor localizing
causedby the overridingof irregularities,waviness, ore deposits and are very well documented in the

0561-0128/85/219/1605-1452.50 1605
1606 GUHA, ARCHAMBAULT,AND LEROY

standardworksof Bateman(1950),McKinstry(1948), volcanicand volcano-sedimentary units,mafic to ul-

Park and McDiarmid(1964),and Newhouse(1942). tramaficsills,and graniticintrusions.The rockswere
The presentinvestigationdealswith the particular deformedduringtheKenoranorogeny(2.5b.y.ago),
problemsof dilatancywithin a shearzoneand within characterizedby greenschistfacies metamorphism,
its subsidiarystructuresand the correlation of the and probablyduringanothermetamorphism 2.2 b.y.
progressiveevolutionof fluidsthroughthe stagesof ago (Thorpeet al., 1981).The majorregionalstruc-
developmentin the main shear and its subsidiary tures are east-westtrending major folds and north-
structures. It will be shown that shear zone formation east,north-south,northwest,and probablyeast-west
is continuousand that the dilatant-contractionphe- strikingfaults.
nomenaare producedby the overridingof irregular
planeswithin the shearzone and in the subsidiary Structureand characteristicsof ore zonesB and D
fault, giving riseto pinch and swellstructures.
This
will control the movement of fluids inside the shear The depositiscontainedwithin a shearzonestriking
zone and into the subsidiarystructures.As the dis- northeastand dipping southeast.The shear zone is
placements are muchlargerwithin a shearzonethan over 2 km long and hasan averagethicknessof 100
m. A simplifiedgeologiclevelplan (Fig. 2) showsthe
in its subsidiarystructures,it is to be expectedthat
main shearzone and the accompanyingsubsidiary
the evolution of fluids inside the shear zone will show
from that in the subsidiary structuredenotedby zonesB and D, respectively.
a different progression The
structures. lithologyof zonesB and D consists
mainlyof sericite-
quartz-carbonate schistswith chloriteschistspredom-
Setting of the Deposit inatingnear the ore zones.Figures2 and 8, which are
General plan andsectionviewsof the two zones,showthe main
structuralelementssuchasthe geometryof the shear
The Henderson2 mine in the Chibougamaumin- zone, the attitude of the foliation, and the attitude of
ing districtin Quebec,Canada,isusedasan example the veins.The schistosity in the main shear,which has
to illustratethe aboveideas.This copper-golddeposit
a generalnortheaststrikeand dips40ø to 55ø to the
is located in a part of the Chibougamau-Matagami
southeast,diesout graduallyin boththe hangingwall
Archeangreenstone belt and is hostedby anorthositic and the footwallof the main shear,makingit difficult
rocksof the DoreLakeComplex(Allard,1975)(Fig. to tracethe preciselimit of the shear.The nonfoliated
1). The lithologyof the greenstone beltscomprises metaanorthosite showsrelict texturesof the original
plagioclase,
althoughthe mineralassemblage hasbeen
transformedinto albite, zoisite,chlorite, and leucoxene.
The oresoccuraslens-shapedzones,generallyparallel
to the schistosity,
which commonlystrikemorenorth-
erly (N $0øE) and dip steeper(65ø) than the main
shearzone,resultingin an en echelonpatternof ore
CHIBOUGAMAU ] I •' ' •, • I__[
I_•
1•• • lensesin both plan and section.
The ore in zone B occurs as a series of both massive
and disseminated lenticular bodies. These have been
dividedinto two main types(Guhaand Koo, 1975),
the sulfideschisttype occupyingcompressionalareas
N ß• + and the vein type, which is found within dilation
ß • ++.-¾+++++•
+• + ++ + %+:_..• __. •/+++ areas.Gradation between the two types is common.
I• +,+
"-'++ • + + + + + + + + + + +;,•r+ +%•- -•= + + +/+•-•. * + + + +- ZoneD, on the otherhand,containsmainly vein-type
+++•+++++++++••[-++++++--+.++++/• **•+++++-
ore.The mineralassemblage in the sulfideschisttype
i ++++++++++4- ++++++++-• I
is dominatedby pyrite, whereasthe typical vein type
CHIBOUGAMAU PLUTON is dominatedby chalcopyrite.Quartz and carbonate
DORE LAKE COMPLEX are more abundantin the vein type with sideriteand
MAFIC +ULTRAMAFIC COMPLEX
ankeritebeingthe commoncarbonatespeciesin zone
B, whereascalcite is the only speciesin zone D. The
ROY GROUP VOLCANO-SEDIMENTARY
FORMATIONS
lensesof vein-type ore often contain blocksof wall
VEIN TYPE C U - AU DEPOSITS
rock at their margin.
FAULTS
A detailedstudyof the fluid phases(Guhaet al.,
..... REGIONALFOLD AXIS (ANTICLINE) 1979)indicatesthat the mineralizingsolutionis com-
FIG. 1. Simplifiedgeologicmap of the regionshowingthe lo- posedof two coexistingfluids,one methanerich and
cationof the Hendersondeposit. the other a CaCI• 4- NaCl-rich type, and that the
I
I

I0
1,•
......
I',,, ' ''
• ':'-:
.•.•T.•?;
..:'.:
• "rT•.
-'.":
: :5 .:.- ...:..
,•" '.'•:'..': i
:'T'T'.'
' :
'.' - :'5. : .: ' ' .' ".: '

ß
0 t
N

ILl

-1- ILl
I-- Z
n- 0
0 N
z

o :'::
o

I
I
I
I
I :. :: : :
:.:':.::5..

I
I

i
i
o
o
o

1607
1608 GUHA,ARCHAMBAULT,AND LEROY

A•B

8700............... .• ::
-'_.• META
ANO.T.OS,•E

D. zone • ::?: ?:•SHEAR ZONE

/ORE ZONES
8200

["•--• FAULT

100 meters

FIc. $. Generalized vertical section zones B and D.

fluidswereintroducedsyntectonically
duringthede- andanalysis of shear-zone
geometry(Ramsay,1980)
velopmentof the shearzone. showthat, assumingsimpleshear,the schistosity
first
appearsat the marginof the shearzone,makingan
GeomechanicalInterpretation of the Deposit angleof about45ø to the wallsof the zone.The schis-
tosityrotateswith furtherdisplacementinsidethe shear
A geomechanical model is proposedfor the main
zone,becoming
strongertowardthe centerof the zone
shear(zoneB) and the subsidiary structure(zoneD)
to explainthe developmentof zone D in relationto
and makingan angleof lessthan 45ø but neverbe-
comingparallelto the displacement
direction.Asstated
zone B and the progressiveevolutionof thesetwo
structures.Alsointegratedinto this modelis a shear by RamsayandGraham(1970)the schistosity surface
is parallelto the XY planeof the finite strainellipsoid
fracture dilatancy model which explainsthe struc-
tures resultingfrom dilation phenomenainside ore
with axesX > Y > Z, and the schistosity planesap-
zones B and D. pearingat the marginof the shearzoneare oriented
at an angle of 45ø to the walls of the zone, which
Developmentof the main shearzone means that for the Henderson shear zone these schis-
and its subsidiarystructures tosity planesshouldhave a north-southstrike and a
near-verticaldip, which is in accordancewith obser-
The regionalsignificanceof the main shearzone, vations(XiYi planesin Fig. 4). The abovestudiesalso
in whichthe Henderson
orebodies
lie (Fig. 1), is un- established a direct correlation between the decrease
known:it couldbe a splayfrom the Dore Lake fault of thisangleandthe increasing intensityof the schis-
(Fig. 1), followingthe modelsof developmentpro- tositytowardthe centerof the zone,notingthat the
posedby Price (1966)and Lajtai (1969)on the me- schistosity
curvesas it is tracedfrom the marginto
chanicsof conjugateand secondorder faults,or the the center and that the axis of curvature is in a direction
resultof multiple displacements of the Dore Lake parallelto the intersectionof the schistosityand the
shearzoneby late-stage faulting,or it couldbe related wall corresponding to the Yi = Yf axisin Figure 4.
to the emplacementof the Chibougamaupluton. The dihedralanglebetweenthe schistosity surface
The oblique attitude of schistosityrelative to the or X•,Y•,surfaceand the wallsof the shearzone is
directionof displacement isoneof the mostsignificant equivalentto the angle 0' (Ramsayand Graham,
featuresobservedin the Hendersonshearzone(Figs. 1970),whichis a functionof shearstrainand canbe
2 and $) and providesa meansfor the determination usedto measureshearstrainparallelto the shearzone
of displacement direction.Experimentalstudies(Mor- and the shapeof the strainellipsoidat that point.The
gensternand Tchalenko,1967a and b; Tchalenko, technique developed by Ramsay andGraham(1970)
1968),fieldobservations (Ramsay andGraham,1970), can be extendedto integratesuccessive finite shear
 E VOL U TION OF MINERALIZING FLUIDS 1609

Incremental
shearstrainplane N P shearsinsidemainshearzone

q,"• Con,u,•ate
Ni, shear zone
'x• // /sch'støs't•'Z•Shear
/Actual zone
/.
Q,,, ex,st,ng / /•65 • (BZONE)

t Incre•tal shear
/ stra• plane Xi Y•
• ' • ,P she•s inside
mainshe• z•e
• I •Actu• schistosity
inside
• I I I•a• she• z•e
•e of theconju•te• I I •ain she• z•e
/ • I I I:• Fo,•t• i. th•
x', II I,,
/ • .=1• Po (oe3) • I • IXD zone structure
/ •'• •3_ . ß ß ee ß ß . e•_l _•1 .•or R sheas

/ '
Zi ' • o Zi

FIG. 4. Diagramof the strikeand dip of the main shearzoneillustratingits structuralfeatures(top)

andplottedon a stereogram (bottom).

observations
strainsacrossa shear-zoneprofile and to calculatethe (Figs.2, $, and 4) which demonstrate an
anglebetweenboththe strikeanddip of the schistosity
total differential displacementacrossthe zone. Ob-
and thoseof the shearzone,it may be concludedthat
servationson the schistosityplanes inside the Hen-
dersonmain shearzonereveala dihedralangle(0') the displacementon the main shearzonehasto be an
which variesbetween 15ø and 5ø with an approxi- obliqueone.The relativeattitudesof the incremental
mate mean value0 -• 8.5ø. Usingthe previoustech- strainaxesXi, Yi, and Zi as well asthe final strainaxes
nique the shearstrain will be around 7'y and the in- X/, Y/, and Zf leaveno doubtaboutit. Accordingto
tegrationacross the zone(whichisapproximately100 Ramsay(1980),duringthe firststages of deformation
m) will give a displacement of 700 m or more. the principalaxesof stressa•, as,and aswill coincide
It can be deducedthat, if the directionof displace- with the incrementalstrainXi, Yi, and Zi, respectively,
mentisalongthe strikeof the shearzone,the schistosity but as deformationproceedsthe deformingmassbe-
will makean anglewith the strikeof the shearzone comesanisotropic and thiscorrespondence no longer
but will havethe sameapparentdip asthe shearzone existsin the followingstagesof deformation.This was
in a sectionperpendicularto it; also,a reverseattitude corroborated by the experimentalstudiesof Tchalenko
of displacement (1968).In the caseof the Henderson
will beobtainedif thereisa component shearzone,the
alongthe dip of the shearzone. Thus, on the basisof principalaxesof externalstressrrel,rre2,and rreO
have
1610 GUHA, ARCHAMBAULT, AND LEROY

theattitudeillustrated in Figure4, i.e., ae•ishorizontal, developmentof the subsidiaryzone D in relationto

ae2is inclined at 40ø to the south,and a•ais at 50ø to the mainshear(zoneB). ZoneD couldbe a conjugate
the north. In this casean obliqueslip shearzone with of the mainshearzone,asillustratedin Figures4 and
minorthrustdip slipand maiordextralstrikeslipcom- 5A or a second-order fault asshownin Figure 5B. It
ponents(Figs.2, G,and 4) may be deducedin accor- is evidentfrom Figures4 and 5A, which illustratethe
dancewith the mechanicsof obliqueslip faultingpro- strikeand dip of a possibleconjugateshearzone,that
posedby Bott (1960)and Price(1966).Followingthe the strike and dip of the zone D structuredoes not
stereogram construction proposed by Price,the attitude correspondat all. So it must be concludedthat the
of the mainshearzoneand its conjugate(if existent) zone D structure is a second-order fault related to the
may be definedand the stateof externalstresses main shear,as indicatedin Figure 5B.
actshorizontallywhile the axesof the intermediate, The zone D structureis quite different from that
a•2,and least,a•a,principalstresses are inclinedat 40ø of the main shearzone.The pinchesof the pinch and
to the southand 50ø to the north,respectively) may swell structureshave developeda foliation which is
be deducedin correspondence with thestateof external lessmarked than the schistosityin the main shear
stressesdefinedpreviously in relationto theincremental zone. The foliation is oblique in many placesbut in
strainaxesXi, Yi, and Zi. The directionof slip along othersseemsparallelto the wallsof the structureand
thesefault planesis representedby the lines OA and is distributed at random where both walls of the fault
OB in Figure4. A few observations of slickensidesand are in contact. This situation is not a true, simple
otherlineationscorroboratethis assumption,but more shear mechanismwhich accountsfor the complexity
datawill be neededto evaluatequantitativelythe finite in foliation attitude. The zone D structure strikes N
strainellipsoidand the corresponding stresseswhich 60ø E and dipsat 45ø to the southeastin the vicinity
are necessaryto establishthe preciseorientationof of the main shear zone but turns later on to strike
shearingdisplacement accordingto Bott'smodel. east-westand to dip at 60ø and seemsto terminate
Two hypotheses can be postulatedto explain the on a tension fracture which strikes north-west.

A)

B) //'//D
D ,"'R

FIe;.5. A. Geomechanicalmodeldepicting theformation

of zoneD asa conjugate
or complementary fault
system anda secondary fault(a• = majorprincipalstress;
as= minorstress).
B. Development of structures
at theinitialstagesof theevolutionof themainshearzone(D = displacement shear;P -- thrustshear;R
= Riedelshear;R' -- conjugate Riedelshear)(afterTchalenko,1968).C. Finalstagesof the principal
displacements in themainshearzones (P = thrustshears;
hatching= schistosity)
(afterTchalenko,1968).
 EVOLUTION OF MINERALIZING FLUIDS 1611

The mode of formation of this second-order fault 5B and C. Shearlensesare formed by the interaction
(zoneD structure)couldbe explainedby the model of thesediscontinuities, and they will be seento fa-
of Lajtai(1969),whereit hasbeenshownthatthetype cilitate the formationof the schistosity, as illustrated
of enechelonfractures(zoneD type)thatwill develop in Figure5C. A directimplicationof thisinterpretation
dependson the normalstressactingnormallyto the with respectto the displacementof zone D is evident
primary fault plane or main shearzone.The experi- from the illustrationsin Figure 5B and C. The dis-
mentalworkdoneby Mandlet al. (1977)provedthat placementon the main shearis muchlarger and later
shearbandsproducedby simple shearingcannot be than the zone D displacement.Both structureswere
interpretedasCoulombslipsbut areboundedby planes active at the time of the formation of the main shear
of maximum shear stress.In their study they have zone but zone D became inactive later, or after the
shownthe behaviorof the principalstressesinsideand secondstageof discontinuity formation.Anotherchar-
outsideshearzonesat peakand after peakshearstress, acteristicwhich may be deducedfrom thesestructural
where they noticedquite a variation in the oh axis. featuresis the great variationof the thicknessof the
They provedthat, at peak shearstress,the axisof the shear zone, a phenomenonobservedby Tchalenko
maximumprincipal stressmust make an angle of 45ø
with the shear zone, as deduced for the Henderson
(1968)andillustrated in Figure5B andC. Thisexplains
the rangeof horizontalwidths(16-100 m) of the main
shearzone (oM in Fig. 4). Also, they observedthe shear zone.
developmentof second-orderfaults associatedwith
On the basisof the previousdiscussion
and obser-
Coulomb'sslip conceptand the instantaneous stateof
stress.Thosestructuresor faults are conjugateRiedel
vationsit is possible
to summarizea geomechanical
modelfor the developmentof the main shearand its
shearsappearingat ___(•r/4
- ½/2) with the ohaxis(½ subsidiarystructures:
beingthe angleof internalfriction)whichshowedthe
samesenseof relative displacementasthe main shear
zone(syntheticRiedelshearsR). ThoseRiedelshears 1. A stressfield with the greatestprincipal stress
correspond to thezoneD structures,whichareat +(•r/ orientedin an east-westdirectionapplied to the Dore
4 - ½/2) with the oMaxis(Fig. 4). Anothertype of Lake Complexby orogenicprocesses would produce
second-order faults(P-typeshears)will developat +(•r/ brittle failure near the surfaceby developingfaults
4 + ½/2) with the ohaxis;they are of the thrusttype andenechelonfracturepatterns(Roering,1968;Lajtai,
and their displacementis in the oppositesenseof the 1969;Ramsay,1980), wouldfail in a brittle-ductile
R type. Suchstructureshavebeen observedinsidethe mannerat intermediate depth(thepart understudy),
shearzone(Fig. 4). ThusLajtai's'modelexplainsthe and wouldfail by ductileflow at greaterdepth.The
rotation in strike and dip of the zone D structureon Hendersonmain shearzone is containedwithin planes
the basis of the variation of the normal stress on the of maximumshearstress
(Mandlet al., 1977)with the
main shearzone, which shouldproducetensionfrac- maximumprincipalexternalstressaxis(oM)oriented
tures at low normal stress and shear fracture at inter- at 45 ø to the main shear zone axis. The deformation
mediate values of normal stress. in the shearzonewill transformthe rockprogressively
On a qualitative basis,the studiesdone by Mor- by sheardisplacement into cataclastic
zonesin brittle
gensternand Tchalenko(1967a and b), Tchalenko failure (Mandl et al., 1977;Lajtai, 1969) or mylonite
(1968),and Mandl et al. (1977) on clay and granular zonesin moreductileshearzones(White et al., 1980).
materialssubmittedto a shearloadingdevice dem- 2. At the initial stageof developmentof the Hen-
onstratethe sequenceof eventsfor the formationof dersonshearzone, subsidiaryfracture patternsare
second-order faults. These studies show that the ori- developedas second-order faultsand enechelonten-
entation and sequenceof the microscopicdisconti- siongashes(Lajtai, 1969;Roering,1968).As shown
nuitiesare independentof the fabric of the initial ma- in Figure 5B the discontinuities will appearin the
terialsand are directly related to the principal stress followingorder accordingto Tchalenko(1968): (1)
directions.The discontinuities appearin the following at peakstrength,Riedelshears(R and R) are formed
order:(1) at peak strength,RiedelshearsR and R' or which correspondto Coulomb-type slip planes at
second-order faultsthat will developen echelonacross +(•r/4 - ½/2) with the a• axisor at +½/2 and 90ø
the shearzonesand will propagatein the vicinityof - 4/2 to the direction of movementwith the acute
the walls(formationof zoneD structures), as shown angle pointing againstthe relative movement(½ is
in Figure5B; (2) afterpeakstrength,restraintshears the angleof internalfriction);thiscorresponds to the
P in the thrust attitude inside the shear zone, which formationof typeD structures;
(2) afterpeakstrength,
may be observed in Figure5B and C; and ($) toward restraintshears(P) in the thrustattitudeinsidethe
residual strength, principal displacementshearsD shear zone are developedat -4•/2 oriented approx-
characterizedthe shearzone,as illustratedin Figure imately oppositeto the R shears,which can be seen
1612 GUHA, ARCHAMBAULT,AND LEROY

in Figures2 and 5B and C; and (g) towardresidual in dip and strike on fault planes and shear zones.
strength,principaldisplacement shears(D) are de- Thesemay be considered asdifferentordersof mag-
velopedin the directionof the movement,features nitudeof irregularities dependingon the dimensions
whichare notedin Figures2 and g. of the planesof failure. The overridingof theseas-
g. With the continuation
of the sheardisplacement, peritiesby shearingdisplacement will resultin the
progressivefragmentationand pulverizationof the creation of voids,i.e., a succession of open spaces
rockswill take place inside the shear zone, with a which may be filled by fluidsand/or crushedrock.
transformationof the mineralogyand texture of the Theseare characteristicfeaturesof the dilataneyin
rockintoa mylonitieshearzonewith the development shears.
of an oblique sehistosity.
This will be aided by the Any type of plane insidethe main shearzone and
formationof shear lensesby the interactionof the zoneD structurein the Henderson deposit(foliation
earlier discontinuities which will facilitate the for- planes,faults,joints,contactplanes,etc.)couldshow
mation of the ultimate compression
texture,i.e., the a dilation componentand the formation of open
sehistosity(Ramsayand Graham,1970; Tehalenko, spaces (dilatancyphenomena) in thepresenceof shear
1968;Mandlet al., 1977).This is illustratedin Figure displacements on the mean shearplane if the normal
5C. The evolution of the states of stress and finite strain pressure(e) on the plane is lessthan the transition
at and after failure inside and outside the shear zone normalpressurewhich delimited the brittle and duc-
isdocumented by Ramsay(1980),Ramsay andGraham tile behavior of the rock.
(1970),Morgenstern and Tehalenko(1967aand b), A physicalapproachhasbeenproposedto solvethe
Tehalenko(1968), Lajtai (1969), and Mandl et al. problemin combiningthe friction,dilatancy,and in-
(1977).The lastworkersnotedthat the thickness of terlockcontributions
to the peakshearstrengthof reg-
the shearzone increaseswith the shearingdisplace- ularindentedplanes.Sucha basiswasusedby Ladanyi
ment, a phenomenonwhich is causedby the accu- andArchambault
(1970,1972,1980)toderivea math-
mulationof grainfragmentsin the interstices,
which ematicalmodeland provedaccuratein experimental
increases
the localresistance
to shearing(shearhard- modelsstudied.The shearequationshownbelowwas
ening). developed by satisfying thefirstlawof thermodynamics
4. Whereas the main shear zone and the P and D and by assuming a totaltransformation of energyinto
shearsof stage(2) insideshearzoneare in continual frictionalheat.The equationexpresses mathematically
movement,the subsidiary structures of zoneD (the the ideathat,whentwo similarirregularsurfaces, ini-
R-type shears)retain a simplefracturepatternand tially kept tightly togetherin completecontactby a
movelittle comparedto the principalshearzoneafter normalpressure tr (Fig. 6A), are forcedto performa
its formation,asillustratedin Figure 5B and C. sheardisplacement in the directionof the appliedshear
The above model leads us to examine the mechan- stress•', the strength mobilizedby the displacement
ics of dilation inside the main shear zone and in zone originates essentially from the followingthreesources:
(1) the resistance to slidingalongthe contactsurface
D structures, whichwill demonstrate a relativelysim-
oftheirregularities,
(2)theresistance
toshearing
across
ilar behaviorfor dilatancy.Mandlet al. (1977)ob- the irregularities,
and (g) the workperformedby the
servedan overridingof asperitieson grainsand other
normalpressuretr duringthe dilationor contraction
irregularitiesin their experimentalstudieson shear of the system.
zonesin granular material, similar to that observed
In a generalcaseof shearalongan indentedplane
by variousauthors.This phenomenonis responsible or througha fracturedrockmass,it may be expected
for the developmentof pinch and swell structures that the three mentionedsourceswill participatein
duringthe formationof shearzonesand fault planes the overall strengthsimultaneously but in differing
suchaszoneD. This process playsan importantrole amounts.The proposed shearequation,the complete
in fluid circulationand will be influencedby the developmentof which can be found in Ladanyi and
fiuid'sinterstitialpressures
duringthe formationand Archambault(1970),hasthe form,
evolution of shear zones.

Shearfracture dilatancy model insidefaults and - aO( + f ) +

shearzonesapplied to the Hendersondeposit = 1--(1- aO''f (1)
Planes of shear failure inside faults and shear zones
are rarely clean and smooth. They show surface In thisequation,asshownin Figure 6, •- and tr are
roughnesses on a microscale,irregularitieson a mac- conventionalshearand normalstresses actingat fail-
roscopicscale on failure planesin test specimens, ure in the general shear surface;•'r is the shear
wavinesses and undulationson a larger scaleon joint strengthof theirregularities
in the planewall;f = tan
and fault planes,and finally, curvesand deviations % is the averagecoefficient
of frictionfor the plane
 EVOLUTION OF MINERALIZING FLUIDS 1615

y the rock material determinedon intact rock samples,

L_•L, AX I and n is the ratio of uniaxial compressiveto uniaxial
,.- =,F•. • a •dy •;dy/dx tensilestrengthof the rock material. For mosthard
rocks,n is approximatelyequal to 10, while Co should
,, as=zz•As/A
probablybe taken only aboutone quarter to onehalf
of the uniaxialcompressive strengthof the intactrock
materialdependingon the expectedmodeof failure
of the asperities.
As far asthe parametersof the dilation rate, •,, and
the shearof solidrock, as,are concerned,the exper-
imental evidenceobtainedin paststudiesshowsthat
the two parametersdependon the geometryof the
irregularitiesand on the ratio betweenthe applied
normal pressure,o-,and the transitionpressure,O' T-
The latter hasbeendefinedby Mogi (1966)as the
normal pressureat which the sheardilation becomes
zero. Numerous direct shear tests carried out on in-
dented rock surfaces with the teeth inclined at dif-

o o-
ferentanglesi0with respectto the generalshearplane
(Fig. 6A) have enabledthe followingtwo empirical
relationsfor the two parametersto be established
(Ladanyiand Archambault,1970):
c) 1j

tan i

o
and
•,=(1•T)K
tan
i0 (s)

as: 1-
( 1 . (4)

o (r•cr
The valueof the transitionstress,aT, for any dense
FIG. 6. Schematicrepresentation of basicassumptions and typ- rock,coincides,
according to Mogi(1966),in theMohr
ical resultsof the shearfracturedilatancymodel (after Ladanyi diagram(Fig. 6B), with the abscissa
of the intersec-
and Archambault,1970). A. Definitionof the dilationrate •, and tion point betweenthe failure envelopeof the rock
the sheararea ratio a,. B. Expectedfailure envelopesfor indented and a straightline passingthroughthe origin and
rocksurfaces.C. Typical variationsof parameters•, and a, with the
normal pressureacting during shear. making an angle of about $9ø with the a axis.It is
found mostoften that the value of aT SOdetermined
is very closeto the uniaxialcompressionstrengthof
wallsurfaces;
and•, isthedilationrate(dilatancy)
at rock, Co.
peak shearstrength,definedas the ratio dy/dx and The confiningpressureis providedfor in the ple-
the sheardisplacementdx at failure as illustratedin viousmodelvia the normalstresson the shearplane,
Figure 6A. At o- = 0, •, -- tan i0, where io is the but the brittle-ductiletransitionzone(aT) limitsthe
geometricascending slopeof relevantintact irregu- applicabilityof the model. These parameterscould
larities,and as-- ZAAs/A is the sheararea ratio ex- be affectedby the presenceof interstitialfluid pres-
pressedas the proportionof the total shearsurface sure, which was certainly the case.The previousde-
passing throughsolidrockduringpartialshearingof velopmentwas for dry, unfilled shear surfaces,but
the asperities
(Fig. 6A). It wassuggestedthat rr, the the role of water or fluids on the behavior of the shear
shearstrengthof the materialadjacentto the discon- fracture dilatancymodel is of prime importancefor
tinuity surfaces,be representedby a parabolicrela- the interpretationof the depositunder study.
tionship: The mechanismof dilationformationon irregular
shearsurfacesis illustratedin Figure 7A and C rep-
• = Co[(V-•+ n- l)/n](l + no'/Co)'/2, (9.) resentingschematicallya part of the zoneD structure
which showsthe dilatancyphenomena(3) after a
whereCois the uniaxialcompressive strengthof the sheardisplacement (,Xx).It is shownthat fragments
rock material adjacentto the discontinuitywhich, of rockcomingfrom partialshearingof asperities will
owingto weatheringor looseningof the surface,may be depositedinsidethe inducedopenings.Recalling
be lower than the uniaxialcompressive
strengthof the structural model for the main shear zone and zone
1614 GUHA,ARCHAMBAULT,
AND LEROY

postulatea small value of a on the shearzone mean

A) • •z plane and on the zone D fault plane. This low value
of a couldnot be explainedon the basisof the stresses
Irregular
p• •Y.L
de•r•
wallrock after failure. The only way to explain this phenom-
enon is by the contributionof the fluid pressureto
counterbalance the action of a.
B) D shears The role of water and interstitialwater pressurein
faulting was establishedby Hubbert and Rubey
.. •/I½2•
-• '•schist•ity (1959)who provedthe validityof the conceptof ef-
fective stress,developedin soil mechanics,applied
to the mechanicsof faulting.Further studiesby Han-
. rs D Zone din and Stearns(1964),Lane (1969), Goodmanand
Onishi(1975),and othersprovedthat the conceptis
•'•
'•7P)shears valid for rock joints and faults and stated that the
effectivestressin the shearfracture dilatancymodel
(Barton,1978,1976;Goodman,1976)shouldbe con-
f/Ds•ars
Fault sidered.The normalstress(a) whichaffectsequation
(1) may be easilymodifiedby the followingeffective
shearing
stress(ae•):
Plan
%• ,• = (5)
where ½ is the interstitial pore fluid pressure.This
modificationwill affectthe valuesof •' in equation(1)
and of •, and asin equations(8) and (4).
• on
asperities
•ri, In the Hendersondeposit,the formation of the
main shear zone and zone D structure is attributed
FIg. 7. Illustrationof the dilation processon shearplanes.A. to an orogenicprocessin which fluidsplayedan im-
Initial(1) andfinalstages
(2) of thedisplacement
onan irregular portant role. Hence the fluid pressure½ has to be
shear surface with wall-rock debris inside dilation zones. B. Within
the main shearon the R, D, and P shear(for explanation
of terms,
subtractedfrom a to give an effectivenormal stress
seeFig. 5). C. Within zoneD (1) and magnifiedin (2). (ae• = a - •) and the ratio ae•/aTwill replacea/aT
and this diminishedvalue will be closerto reality.
The effectivestresswould alsobe affectedby the
variations of ½from pointto pointcausedby varying
D, it may be postulatedthat dilatancyphenomena dilatancyphenomenon. It may be postulatedthat an
will mark the schistosity
planes,the P-typeshears,the increasingdilationwill causea proportionaldecrease
D-type shears,and the R-type shears(zoneD) de- in the interstitial pore fluid pressure,but this will
scribedabove.All theseopen spacescreatedby the depend on the rate of displacementor volumetric
dilatancyphenomenawere filled by quartz and car- changein relationto the rate of percolationof the
bonateand alsoby mineralizationtransportedby so- fluids;it dependson the conditionsof drained or un-
lutionscirculatingthroughthoseopenings. This pro- drained media and the rate at which the drainage
cessis shownin Figure 7B and C. Rock fragments couldtakeplace.Theseconditions andthecomplexity
and debrisare observedin many placeswithin open- of the problemare discussed
by Lane (1969),Good-
ingsof zonesB and D of the Hendersondeposit,in- manandOnishi(1975),Barton(1976),andGoodman
dicating a partial shearingof the asperitieson the (1976), but the presentstateof knowledgedoesnot
planescited aboveand associating with the param- permit a completesolutionof the problem.The pres-
eter a,. enceof filling materialsuchasdebrisfrom the shear-
The mostimportantparameterin the model is the ing action on the asperitiesof the shearplane which
rate of dilatancy, 9, which is a measureof the in- lodgein the openspacesgreatly increases the com-
creasingvolumealongthe mean shearplane at and plexity of the problem.
after failure. As seen,9 dependson the geometryof An overallview of the main shear-zone depositand
irregularitiesand on the ratio betweenthe applied its characteristicstructuresas well as the subsidiary
normal pressure,a, and the transitionpressure,aT. zoneD structureisshownin Figure 8. The complexity
In the Henderson
deposit(Figs.2 and$), a relatively of the internal structures of the shear zones where
large increasein volumeis observedby the number each shearplane may create many openingsfor cir-
of openingscreated and a relatively small ratio of culation is visible. The action of the solutions will be
a/aT may be suspected. As a consequence, we may discussed in the followingsection.All theseopenings
 EVOLUTION OF MINERALIZING FLUIDS 1615

have alsobeen devotedto the analysisand determi-

nation of the anisotropicpermeabilityof fractured
media (Snow, 1968a, 1969; Rocha and Franciss,
1977),wheretheemphasis hasbeenondifferentcon-
ditionsfor the fractures(degreeof opening,filling
y material,roughness of the surfaces,
etc.)and on the
type ,shears
determinationof the permeability coefficient.Ser-
afim (1968)andothershaveestablished
that the flow
type shears of water in poroussolidsresultsfrom hydraulicgra-
dientswhichdependonthe changesof water pressure
from point to point in the solid.The flow of water
from the highestpressureto the lowestand the ve-
locityof the flow,whichis expressed by Darcy'slaw,
zone structure dependson the pressuredifferentialand on the per-
meability. But in the caseof fracturedrock masses,
•-Ten sion gashes departuresfrom Darcy'slaw are observed.The water
pressurefrom point to point dependson the unit
weightof water and the levelof pressure at the point
type ,shears or the stresscomponents.This introducesthe effect
of pore water pressureon the stateof stressin rock
Main shear zone massesand the conceptof effectivestresses.
In his review on the influence of interstitial water
pressure
on rock masses,
Serafim(1968)recalledthe
definitionof the conceptof effectivestresses,
which
iscommonlyusedin soilmechanics, whereporepres-
/•,'ICHALENKO
1968 sure is subtractedfrom all direct stresscomponents.
Barton(1978, 1976)and Goodman(1976)suggested
FIe. 8. Compositeplan of the structuralfeaturesof the main
the use of effective stress in the shear fractures dilat-
shearzoneand zoneD showingdilationfeatures.Note the stress ancy models,if fluid pore pressureis presenton the
patterns
for theR, P, andD shears
basedonTchalenko(1968)and irregularshearplanes.It can be envisagedthat there
Hancock(1972). is a mutual relationshipbetweenthe interstitialfluid
pore pressureand the behavior of irregular rock
planessubmittedto shearstress.First, a changein
could control the formation of ore shoots within the
fluid pressurebetweenshearplaneswill affect the
shearzoneor in the subsidiary
structures
formedby fracturedetermination
andwill changethe perme-
thedevelopment
of R-type(Riedel)shears
at thebe- ability betweenshearsurfaces.This hasbeen proved
ginningof the developmentof the main shear. by the experimentalstudiesof Snow (1968b)and
Behavior of Fluids within the Deposit Walsh(1981).Second,if the modelswhich incorpo-
Fluid circulation within the main shear
rate a dilatancycomponentby the overridingof ir-
regular surfacesare examined,it is possibleto con-
and its subsidiarystructures
cludethat,duringdilatancy,therewill be a lessening
Beforewe attemptan interpretationof the behav- of porepressure and inverselyduringcompression an
ior of ore-bearingfluidswithin the shearzoneand in increaseof pore pressure,a phenomenonwhich has
the subsidiarystructuresbasedon the shear-fracture beenunderlinedby Lane (1969),Goodmanand On-
dilatancymodel, a brief review on the subjectis in ishi(1978),andSibson et al. (1975).
order. The relationbetweenopenings in rocks,eitherorig-
With thedevelopment of a hydraulicgradient,the inal or induced, and the formation of depositshas
fluidspresentin the earth'scrustpercolatethrough long beenrecognized.Previousworkers,considering
pores,fissures, joints,faults,and cavitiesproducing thedifferenttypesof inducedopenings in rocks,noted
hydraulic,mechanical,physical,andchemicalactions the formation of ore shootsby pinch and swell in
in the rocks. A review of such actions can be found fissures,faults, and shearzonesproducedby move-
in Fyfe et al. (1978).Serafim(1968)reviewedthe ment alongirregularshearplanes.Ore-bearingfluids
influence of interstitial water and fluid flow on the migratealongthe moreopenpartsof the fissures (the
behaviorof homogeneous and fracturedrockmasses, swells)and are channeledaroundthe tighter zone
and particularattentionwaspaid to the influenceof (thepinches). Thisprocess is a dynamicone,andthe
pore fluid pressurein rupturing.Numerousstudies anisotropicpressureconditionsin the shearfracture-
1616 GUHA, ARCHAMBAULT,AND LEROY

NaC1throughoutthe cooling.Therefore,the temper-

atureof disappearance
of the halitecubein an inclusion
•80
(Tm)can be considered
asthe temperatureof the so-
lutionduring trapping.The inclusionsin someof the
240 healedfracturesin quartzare prolongations of fissures
filledwith sulfides.Theseinclusions
showhighesttem-
ß .)•. •. ß _•'• y/ peraturesfor bothTmand the temperatureof homog-
200
enization(Th).It hasalsobeenshownthat the TmNaCI
decreases at the sametime asTh, soa plot of TmNaCI
160 againstTh can be usedto trace the evolutionof the
brine with respectto time (Guha et al., 1979).
•. • / Figure 9 is a plot of the temperatureof disap-
120
pearanceof halite (Tm)againstthe temperatureof
homogenization(Th) in eachof the fluid inclusions.
• . B zone The inclusionsare from ten samples,6 from zone B
and4 from zoneD (all from vein type ore),on which

• •gzone
a reasonablenumber of Tm and Th determinationsare
available.The field of zoneB samplesextendstoward
the top andbottomof referenceline (1) representing
/ Th 'C Tm = Th. The field of zone D samplesis restricted
40 80 120 160 200
to the top part of the reference line.
FIo. 9. Evolution of the fluid within zones B and D as seen
The analysisof the dissolvedions in the aqueous
from a temperatureof disappearance of halite (Tin)and temper- phasein the fluid inclusions, includingthe soluble
atureof homogenization(Th)plot.Line I corresponds to a relation daughter mineralssuch as the chlorides(reproduced
Tm= Th; points situatedabove line 2 correspondto inclusions in Table 1), demonstrates the followinggeneralchar-
oversaturated
at the time of trapping. acteristics:Na and Ca are the dominant cation, and
Ca/Na and Ca/Mg atomic ratiosare higher in zone
D than in zone B.
dilatancymodelwill enhancecirculationbetweenthe ThedatafromTable
1areplotied
onaschematic
main zoneand subsidiaryfaults.Anotherevidentcon- diagram
of zones
B andD showing
therelativepo-
clusionis that fluidsmigrate from zonesof high in- sitionof the samples(Fig. 10). In spiteof the limited
terstitialpressureand high strain (contractionzone) quantityof data,someinterestingpointscanbe noted.
to zonesof low interstitialpressure(dilationzone). The K/Na ratiosare nearly similar in boththe zones;
Thishasbeenshownby DunnetandMcMoore(1969),
who studiedthe influenceof inhomogeneous strain
T^]•LE 1. Atomic Ratios of the Cation in the Fluid
on the remobilizationof oresbasedon main param-
After Guhaet al. (1979),analyzedby the method
etersof differentialstress;namely, temperature,con- described by Potyet al. (1974).
fining pressure,differentialeffectivestress,and time.
The conclusionthat the dilation contractionsystem Atomic ratios
will keepthe hydrodynamicsystemoperatingis valid Stope or
Zone drift (DR) Sample K/Na Ca/Na Ca/Mg
for boththe main shear(zoneB) aswell asthe sub-
sidiarystructure(zoneD). In the latter case,where 11-55 249 0.019 0.58 48.7
the displacementshave been relatively limited, it is 11-55 180 0.025 0.47 24.8
possiblefor the movementor evolutionof the fluid 11-58 187A 0.025 0.68 88.2
to be different from that of the main shear zone. 9-55DR 606 0.014 0.56 85.1
9-55DR 607 0.015 0.44 55.0
9-55DR 608 0.017 0.51 61.9
Characteristics
offluidphases
within 18 MDR 218A 0.024 0.65 74.6
B and D zones 18 MDR 222 0.028 0.87 $6.$

10-26DR 816 0.021 0.72 197.8

The fluid inclusionstudy(Guhaet al. 1979)was 10-26DR 885 0.020 0.80 540.8
based
on45 samples covering14 zoneB and5 zone 10-26DR 882 0.022 0.88 198.0
D stopesand drifts. Four hundred representativein- 10-26DR 881 0.027 1.51 189.6
clusions
(fromapproximately
900 inclusions)
werean- 14-66 282 0.019 0.88 88.0
9-76DR 600 0.024 1.27 487.0
alyzed.The studyshowedthatthe solutions
fromwhich 9-26DR 601 0.028 1.85 179.8
the sulfides
wereprecipitatedwereeitherat the limit 9-26DR 608 0.017 0.81 898.0
of saturationor were oversaturatedwith respectto
 E VOL UTION OF MINERALIZING FLUIDS 1617

'/ 022 the shearzone, subsidiarystructuresopened. Fluids

N
,X-,X<4"/
,40'/ ,• 1933
83 migratedinto thesestructuresfrom the main shear
zoneowing to the initial-overallcompressionof the
mainshearzone,andthismigrationis reflectedby the
/019 025 025 1396
w/ 53 68 47 increasein Ca/Na and Ca/Mg ratiosin zone D over
/ 014 4• •3 332 that of zoneB. This canbe explainedasa functionof
013 017 K / Na the solubilityand the greatermigrationcapabilityof
calciteover other mineralsunder conditionsprevalent
in the system.The fluidsthat migratedinto the sub-
FIG. 10. A sketchshowingthe relative positionof samplesin
sidiarystructureat the initial stagewere the onesin-
zonesB and D and the changesin the cationratiosof the ore fluid.
volved in the fluid flow set up by the dilatant and
Only thosesamplesthat couldbe projectedto the tenth level with
relativeeasehavebeenused(Not to scale.) contractionstructures within zoneD. This may explain
the overallincreaseof Ca/Na and Ca/Mg ratiosout-
ward into zoneD, not withstandingthe fact that the
Ca/Mg ratiosshowan increasein zoneD, thoughthe mineralizingsolutionwasthe samefor boththe zones,
increaseis not systematicwith the distance,whereas that is, a CaC12+ NaCl-rich fluid with a coexisting
Ca/Na ratiosshowan increasefrom zonesB to D and methane-rich fluid.
a gradual increaseaway from zone B outwardsin This studyillustratesthat there is a distinctrela-
zone D. tionshipbetweenthe evolutionof fluid characteristics
Conclusions
and progressive deformationin shearzonesand re-
lated fractures.
The principal elementsof the geomechanicalevo-
lution of the shear zone can be summarized as follows. Acknowledgments
Zone D is a subsidiarystructurerelated to the main The authorsgratefullyacknowledgethe continuing
shearzoneand formedin the initial stagesof shear. cooperation
of the managementand the geologicstaff
The overridingof irregularplanescauseddilatantand of the CamchibResources (formerlyCampbellChi-
contraction zones both in the main shear and the sub- bougamauMines Ltd.) in providingaccessto their
sidiarystructure;the only differenceis that the dis- propertiesand helpful discussions.
The authorsalso
placementswere more limited in the latter. Though acknowledgethe commentsoffered by severalcol-
the precisenatureof the effectivestressowingto pore leaguesat both our institutions.Specialthanksgo to
pressureon the openingsof the dilation zone cannot E. H. Chownfor a critical readingof the manuscript.
be ascertained,it is known that pore pressureswill This study was financedby the National Research
be lower in dilation zones than in contraction zones, Councilof Canada(grant A 8374 to J. Guha), the
establishing a hydraulicgradientwhichwill allow the Ministry of Educationin Quebec,and the Research
fluid to migrate. Foundationof the Universityof Quebecin Chicoutimi,
It may be suggested that, becauseof the relatively for which we are grateful.J. Guha alsothanksthe
limited displacementswithin the subsidiaryzone D DeutscherAkademisches Austanschdienst for a visiting
structure, fluid movement was also limited. Thus it fellowship to Heidelbergduringwhichthefirstversion
may be suggestedthat in the subsidiaryzone, crys- of the manuscriptwas prepared.
tallization from the fluid proceededin a relatively
static manner. This is reflected in the fluid inclusion February 24, 1982; January 6, 1983
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