Ohms Law

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Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008
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By James D. Halderman Pearson
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OBJECTIVES:
After studying Chapter 32, the reader should
be able to:
• Prepare for ASE Electrical/Electronic Systems
(A6) certification test content area “A” (General
Electrical/Electronic Systems Diagnosis).
• State Ohm’s law.
• Identify the parts of a complete circuit.
• State Watt’s law.
• Describe the characteristics of an open circuit,
a short-to-ground, and a short-to-voltage.
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KEY TERMS:
circuit • continuity
ground (return) path • grounded
insulated path
kilowatt • load • Ohm’s law • open circuit
power source • protection
shorted • short-to-ground • short-to-voltage
Watt’s law
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CIRCUITS
A circuit is a path that electrons travel from a power source (such
as a battery) through a load (such as a light bulb) and back to the
power source. It is called a circuit because the current must start
and finish at the same place (power source).
For any circuit to work, it must
be continuous from the battery
through all wires and
components and back to the
battery (ground).
A circuit that is continuous
throughout is said to have
continuity.
Figure 32–1 All complete circuits must have a power source, a power path, protection (fuse), an
electrical load (light bulb in this case), and a return path back to the power source.
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Parts of a Complete Circuit Every complete circuit contains:
1. A power source, such as a vehicle’s battery.
2. Fuses, circuit breakers, and fusible links, which are Protection
from harmful overloads (excessive current flow).
3. An insulated path for current flow from the power source to
the resistance. This path from a power source to the load (a
light bulb in this example) is usually an insulated copper wire.
4. The electrical load or resistance converts electrical energy
into heat, light, or motion.
5. A ground (return) path for the electrical current from the
load back to the power source so that there is a complete
circuit. This ground path is usually the metal body, frame, and
engine block of the vehicle. See Figure 32-2.
6. Switches and controls turn the circuit on and off. Figure 32-3.
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Figure 32–2 The return path back to the battery can be any electrical conductor, such as
the metal frame or body of the vehicle.
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Figure 32–3 An electrical switch opens the circuit and no current flows. The switch could also
be on the return (ground) path wire.
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Open Circuits An open circuit is any circuit that is not complete,
or that lacks continuity. See Figure 32–4.
No current at all will flow through an incomplete circuit.
An open circuit may be created by a break in the circuit or by a

switch that opens (turns off) the circuit and prevents the flow of
current.
In any circuit containing a power load and ground, an opening

anywhere in the circuit will cause the circuit to stop working.
A light switch in a home and the headlight switch in a vehicle are

examples of devices that open a circuit to control its operation.
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Figure 32–4 This figure shows examples of common causes of open circuits. Some of these
causes are often difficult to find.
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Use a Schematic as a Road Map
The wiring schematic is the “road map” of a circuit and shows all electrical
paths. If an open occurs in a circuit, the current stops flowing and the
electrical load device does not work.
Trace the circuit by following the path from the battery through the power
side component, load, and on the ground. Check for voltage at various
points in the circuit to locate where the open is in the circuit.
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Short-to-Voltage If a wire (conductor) or component is shorted to
voltage, it is commonly called shorted.
Figure 32–5 A short circuit permits electrical

current to bypass some or all of the resistance
in the circuit.
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A short circuit:
1. Is a complete circuit in which the current bypasses some or all of
the resistance in the circuit.
2. Involves the power side of the circuit.
3. Involves a copper-to-copper connection.
4. Also called a short-to-voltage.
5. Usually affects more than one circuit.
6. May or may not blow a fuse.
Figure 32–6 A fuse or circuit breaker

opens the circuit to prevent possible
overheating damage in the event of a
short circuit.
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The Short-To-Voltage Story - Part1
A technician was working on a Chevrolet pickup truck with unusual
electrical problems including the following:
1. Whenever the brake pedal was depressed, the dash light and the
side marker lights would light.
2. The turn signals caused all lights to blink and the fuel gauge needle
to bounce up and down.
3. When the brake lights were on, the front parking lights also came on.
The technician tested all fuses using a conventional test light (not a low
current test light) and found them to be okay. All body-to-engine block
ground wires were clean and tight. All bulbs were of the correct trade
number as specified in the owner’s manual.
NOTE: Using a single-filament bulb (ex: #1156) in place of a dual-

filament bulb (ex: #1157) could also cause many of the same problems.
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The Short-To-Voltage Story - Part 2
Because the trouble occurred when the brake pedal was depressed, the
tech decided to trace all the wires in the brake light circuit. The problem
was found near the exhaust system.
A small hole in the tailpipe (after the muffler) directed hot exhaust gases to
the wiring harness containing all of the wires for circuits at the rear of the
truck. The heat melted the insulation causing most of the wires to touch.
Whenever one circuit was activated (such as when the brake pedal was
applied), the current had a complete path to several other circuits.
A fuse did not blow because there was enough resistance in the circuits
being energized that the current (in amps) was too low to blow any fuses.
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Short-to-Ground A short-to-ground is a type of circuit failure
wherein the current bypasses part of the normal circuit and flows
directly to ground.
Because the ground return circuit is metal (vehicle frame, engine, or

body), this type of circuit is identified as having current flowing
from copper to steel. See Figure 32–7.
A defective component or circuit shorted to ground is commonly

called grounded.
For example, if a penny was inserted into a cigarette lighter socket,

current would flow through the penny to ground. Because the penny
has little resistance, an excessive amount of current flow causes the
fuse to blow.
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Figure 32–7 A short-to-ground affects the power side of the circuit. Current flows directly to the
ground return, bypassing some or all of the electrical loads in the circuit. There is no current in
the circuit past the short.
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High Resistance Another common fault is excessive resistance in
the circuit. This can be caused by several circuit faults including:
Corrosion of wires on the terminals
Poor electrical connections at connectors
Loose ground connection
Any of the above will cause current in amperes to decrease in the

circuit. As a result, the electrical load device may operate, but with
reduced speed or brightness.
High-resistance faults can also be intermittent and cause problems

just when conditions or temperatures cause a problem in the circuit.
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Think of a Waterwheel - Part 1
A beginner technician cleaned the positive terminal of the battery to correct
the problem of slow cranking. When questioned by the shop foreman as to
why only the positive post had been cleaned, the technician responded
that the negative terminal was “only a ground.” The foreman reminded the
technician that the current, in amperes, is constant throughout a series
circuit (such as the cranking motor circuit). If 200 amperes leaves the
positive post of the battery, then 200 amperes must return to the battery
through the negative post.
The technician just could not understand how electricity can do work (crank
an engine), yet return the same amount of current, in amperes, as left the
battery.
The shop foreman explained that even though the current is constant
throughout the circuit, the voltage (electrical pressure or potential) is
dropped to zero in the circuit. To explain further, the shop foreman drew a
waterwheel.
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Think of a Waterwheel - Part 2
As water drops from a higher level to a lower level, high potential energy
(or voltage) is used to turn the waterwheel and results in low potential
energy (or lower voltage). The same amount of water (or amperes)
reaches the pond under the waterwheel as started the fall above the
waterwheel. As current (amperes) flows through a conductor, it performs
work in the circuit (turns the waterwheel) while its voltage (potential) is
dropped.
Figure 32–8
Electrical flow through a circuit is similar to water
flowing over a waterwheel. The more the water
(amperes in electricity), the greater the amount of
work (waterwheel). The amount of water remains
constant, yet the pressure (voltage in electricity)
drops as the current flows through the circuit.
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OHM’S LAW
German physicist, Georg Ohm, established that electric pressure
(EMF) in volts, electrical resistance in ohms, and the amount of
current in amperes flowing through any circuit are all related.
Ohm’s law states:

It requires 1 volt to push 1 ampere through 1 ohm of resistance.
This means that if the voltage is doubled, then the number of

amperes of current flowing through a circuit will also double if the
resistance of the circuit remains the same.
Ohm’s law can also be stated as a simple formula used to calculate

one value of an electrical circuit if the other two are known. See
Figure 32–9.
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Figure 32–9 To calculate one unit of electricity when the other two are known, simply use your
finger and cover the unit you do not know. For example, if both voltage (E) and resistance (R) are
known, cover the letter I (amperes). Notice that the letter E is above the letter R so divide the
resistor’s value into the voltage to determine the current in the circuit.
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OHM’S LAW STATED
I = E/R where:
I = Current in amperes (A)

E = Electromotive force (EMF) in volts (V)
R = Resistance in ohms (Ω)
1. Ohm’s law can determine the resistance if the volts and

amperes are known: R = E/I.
2. Ohm’s law can determine the voltage if the resistance
(ohms) and amperes are known: E = I  R.
3. Ohm’s law can determine the amperes if the resistance
and voltage are known: I = E/R.
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OHM’S LAW RELATIONSHIPS
See the chart on Page 328 of your textbook.

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Ohm’s Law Applied to Simple Circuits If a battery with 12 volts
is connected to a resistor of 4 ohms, as shown here, how many
amperes will flow through the circuit?
Using Ohm’s law, we can calculate the number of amperes that will
flow through the wires and the resistor.
Figure 32–10 This closed circuit includes

a power source, power-side wire, circuit
protection (fuse), resistance (bulb), and
return path wire.
If two factors are known (volts

and ohms in this example), the
remaining factor (amperes) can
be calculated using Ohm’s law.
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I = E/R = 12 V/4Ω
The values for voltage (12) and resistance (4) were substituted for
the variables E and R, making I = 3 amperes (12/4 = 3).
If we want to connect a resistor to a 12-volt battery, we now know
that this simple circuit requires 3 amperes to operate.
This may help us for two reasons.

1. We can now determine the wire diameter that we will need
based on the number of amperes flowing through the circuit.
2. The correct fuse rating can be selected to protect the circuit.
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WATT’S LAW
James Watt (1736–1819), a Scottish inventor, first determined the
power of a typical horse while measuring the amount of coal
being lifted out of a mine. The power of one horse was determined
to be 33,000 foot-pounds per minute.
Electricity can also be expressed in a unit of power called a watt and

the relationship is known as Watt’s law, which states:
A watt is a unit of electrical power represented by a current of

1 ampere through a circuit with a potential difference of 1 volt.
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The symbol for a watt is the capital letter W.
The formula for watts is:

W=IE
Another way to express this formula uses the letter P to represent

the unit of power. The formula then becomes:
P=IE
HINT: An easy way to remember this equation is that it spells “pie.”
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To calculate watts, both the current in amperes and the voltage in
the circuit must be known. If two of these factors are known, the
other remaining factor can be determined by the following equation:
P = I  E (watts equal amperes times voltage)

I = P/E (amperes equal watts divided by voltage)
E = P/I (voltage equals watts divided by amperes)
A Watt’s circle can be drawn and used like the Ohm’s law circle
diagram. See Figure 32–11.
Magic Circle The formulas for calculating any combination of

electrical units are shown in Figure 32–12.
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Figure 32–11 To calculate one unit when the other two are known, simply cover the
unknown unit to see what unit needs to be divided or multiplied to arrive at the solution.
Figure 32–12
“Magic circle” of most of the formulas for
problems involving Ohm’s law. Each quarter
of the “pie” has formulas used to solve for a
particular unknown value: current (amperes),
in the upper right segment; resistance
(ohms), in the lower right; voltage (E), in the
lower left; and power (watts), in the upper left.
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Wattage Increases by the Square of
the Voltage
The brightness of a light bulb, such as an automotive headlight or courtesy
light, depends on the number of watts available. The watt is the unit by
which electrical power is measured. If the battery voltage drops, even
slightly, the light becomes noticeably dimmer. The formula for calculating
power (P) in watts is P × I = E, also be expressed Watts = Amps × Volts.
According to Ohm’s law, I = E/R. Therefore, E/R can be substituted for I in

the previous formula resulting in P = E/R × E or P = E2 / R.
E2 means E multiplied by itself. A small change in the voltage (E) has a big
effect on the total brightness of the bulb. (Remember, household light bulbs
are sold according to wattage.) Thus, if voltage to an automotive bulb is
reduced, such as by a poor electrical connection, brightness of the bulb is
greatly affected. A poor electrical ground causes a voltage drop. The
voltage at the bulb is reduced and the bulb’s brightness is reduced.
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Why are Vehicle Engines for Europe Rated in Kilowatts?
Engine power is commonly rated in watts or kilowatts (1,000 watts equal 1
kilowatt) because 1 horsepower is equal to 746 watts. For example, a 200-
horsepower engine can be rated as having the power equal to 149,200
watts or 149.2 kilowatts (kW).
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SUMMARY
1. All complete electrical circuits have a power source (such as a
battery), a circuit protection device (such as a fuse), a power-
side wire or path, an electrical load, a ground return path, and
a switch or a control device.
2. A short-to-voltage involves a copper-to-copper connection and

often affects more than one circuit.
3. A short-to-ground involves a copper-to-steel connection and

usually causes the fuse to blow.
4. An open is a break in the circuit resulting in absolutely no

current flow through the circuit.
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end
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start

ground (return) path • grounded

kilowatt • load • Ohm’s law • open circuit

power source • protection

shorted • short-to-ground • short-to-voltage

No current at all will flow through an incomplete circuit.

An open circuit may be created by a break in the circuit or by a

In any circuit containing a power load and ground, an opening

A light switch in a home and the headlight switch in a vehicle are

Figure 32–5 A short circuit permits electrical

Figure 32–6 A fuse or circuit breaker

NOTE: Using a single-filament bulb (ex: #1156) in place of a dual-

Because the ground return circuit is metal (vehicle frame, engine, or

A defective component or circuit shorted to ground is commonly

For example, if a penny was inserted into a cigarette lighter socket,

Any of the above will cause current in amperes to decrease in the

High-resistance faults can also be intermittent and cause problems

Ohm’s law states:

This means that if the voltage is doubled, then the number of

Ohm’s law can also be stated as a simple formula used to calculate

I = Current in amperes (A)

1. Ohm’s law can determine the resistance if the volts and

See the chart on Page 328 of your textbook.

Figure 32–10 This closed circuit includes

If two factors are known (volts

This may help us for two reasons.

Electricity can also be expressed in a unit of power called a watt and

A watt is a unit of electrical power represented by a current of

The formula for watts is:

Another way to express this formula uses the letter P to represent

HINT: An easy way to remember this equation is that it spells “pie.”

P = I  E (watts equal amperes times voltage)

Magic Circle The formulas for calculating any combination of

According to Ohm’s law, I = E/R. Therefore, E/R can be substituted for I in

2. A short-to-voltage involves a copper-to-copper connection and

3. A short-to-ground involves a copper-to-steel connection and

4. An open is a break in the circuit resulting in absolutely no

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