RQL Combustors

Name: Fahmi Izzuddin Bin Abdul Rahman

Subject: Gas Turbine Technology

I.C Number: 930612055207

Metric Number: MKM161043

Lecturer: Prof Dr Mohammad Nazri Bin Mohd Jaafar

 Table of Content

Content Page

Introduction 1

Literature Review 3

Main Body 14

Result and discussion 17

Conclusion 18

References 19
 Abstract

The study deals with the RQL combustors and will cover history, definition, research
that has been done regarding RQL, usage in aircraft and as stationary power plant and
advantages and disadvantages. Since there is a growing demand for environmentally friendly
aero gas-turbine, this study will also investigate the effect of RQL to mitigate NOx emission.
This the effects of using RQL was investigated based on the literature review
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

I. Introduction

Modern aeronautical engineers face insurmountable task of designing aero engine with
higher compression ratios and higher turbine inlet temperatures while also considering the
rising issues of pollutant emission. Despite only contributing about 12% of total emission in
the United State (“Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions”, 2016) which is considerably less
than electricity sector of 28% and industry sector of 22%, aviation industry still enforces tight
regulation regarding emission. This is of course differing from the old way of sacrificing
emissions to gain more performance such as greater flight speed and altitudes of the aircraft.
Some European countries introduced Nitrogen Oxide (NOX ) tax as effort to reduce emission.
NOX is the product of combustion and are formed by the high temperature on atmospheric
nitrogen. NOx has been shown to have important effects on human health, both through direct
effects and through their role in the creation of low-level ozone. In addition, due to their effects
on acidification, they have been implicated in damage to forests and crops. For these reasons,
attempts at reducing emissions of NOx are especially important (ECOTEC, 2001). Country
like Sweden, France and Spain are the forefront of NOx tax. Sweden is covered by granite
bedrock which make them vulnerable to acidification. This means the effects of NOx, acid rain
and sulphur dioxide are important environmental policy targets in Sweden. The tax started in
1990 as the Swedish parliament decided to introduce a tax of 40 SEK (4,43 EUR) per kilogram
of NOx emitted from all combustion plants producing at least 50 GWh useful energy per year.
The tax came into effect on January 1992 and affected about 200 plants. The setting of the
charge level to 40 SEK/kg NOx was based on the results of a study by the Swedish
Environmental Protection Agency. The Swedish NOx charge has remained constant. The
French impose tax on NOx as a part of bigger piece of legislation covering several air
pollutants. The ‘polluter pay principle’ was applied in 1985 by taxing Sulphur Dioxide
emission at 130 FF/ton. The law was expanded and renewed in 1990 and incorporate

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hydrochloric acid and NOx. An assessment of the tax showed that NOx emissions were reduced
by 27,000 tons per year which, comparing to emissions in the mid-90s, corresponds to a
reduction of roughly 6% of the total. There are no NOx tax charges in Spain however, the
region of Galicia does have NOx tax known as “The tax on atmospheric contamination’
(Impuesto de Contaminación Atmosférica Ley 12/1995, de 29 de Diciembre) that covers both
NOx and Sulpher Oxide. The tax level is basically 5000 Pesetas/ton of NOx or about EUR
30/tonne. However, its detailed design is somewhat more complex with, currently, three
different tiers:
· The first 1 000 tons of NOx are exempted.
· Between 1 001 and 50 000 tons of NOx the cost is 5 000 Ptas/ton
· EachEvery ton over 50 000 tons of NOx costs 5 500 Ptas.

NOx tax has taken large chunk of airline revenue. So, the challenge of modern
engineers is to design an engine that meets the regulation of the industry while providing the
performance that is required for the airline. Many combustor configurations have been
considered during design phase. One promising design is the rich burn-quick quench-lean burn
(RQL) combustor.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERETURE REVIEW

The RQL combustor is use in aero engine intended as an alternative to the conventional
combustor as it produced lower NOx emission. An aero engine is basically a standard gas
turbine engine but is operated in limited range of fuels and power. It has a singular purposed
which is to generate thrust. Figure 1 shows an example of a typical aero engine, the GE J79.

Figure 1: GE J79 aero engine (Peterson,2002)

The GE J79 is a turbojet engine. Turbojet engine is an air breathing engine that draws air
continuously from the atmosphere, compress it, adding energy through combustion and divert
it to the turbine where the energy is used to run the compressor thus thrust will be developed.

In the RQL combustor, air is mixed with the fuel in two stages. In the primary zone of
the combustor, a fraction of the total air is reacted with the fuel to form a fuel rich combustion
mixture. By operating rich of stoichiometry, the flame temperature is reduced, and an active
pool of hydrocarbon is produced which can reduce Nitrogen Oxide formed. Downstream, the
remaining air is added to the fuel rich product mixture via dilution jets to form a fuel lean
mixture in the secondary zone. Operating lean of stoichiometric keeps the combustion

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temperature low and also eliminates carbon monoxide (CO) and unburnt hydrocarbons (UHC)
(Peterson et al, 2002).

The study of multi stages combustor has been going on since the 1970s. An experiment
was conducted by (Yamagishi et al, 1975) with the purpose of suppression of NOx emission.
The combustion was divided into two stage; primary and secondary stage. In the primary stage,
partial combustion is carried out for a much higher fuel-air equivalence ratio than that of usual
staged combustion. After promoting partial combustion, secondary air is supplied to complete
combustion in the secondary combustion chamber. Nitrogen compounds such as HCN, NH3 ,
and NO are formed in the primary stage, and these are converted to NOx in the exhaust gas at
a high conversion rate. When NO is added to a fuel, the greater part is converted to HCN in the
primary fuel-rich combustion, and a relatively small quantity of NH3 is also formed.
Interactions between NO, HCN, NH3 , and other species, including carbon compounds, axe
strongly suggested in fuel-rich flames. HCN and NH3 may be formed through several different
reactions. These nitrogen compounds can be reduced by carrying out the primary combustion
at a high fuel-air equivalence ratio and premixed rate. The rate of conversion of the nitrogen
compounds to NOx is not affected but, thermal NO is significantly suppressed by the
combustion modifications in the secondary stage. By applying this combustion technique to a
practical boiler, successful reduction of NO is obtained.

A study of effects of air preheating on emission from two stage combustor was done by
(Sadakata et al, 1981). The purpose of the study is to investigate the effects of air preheating
on the emission of NH, HCN and NH3 of two stage combustors. Two approaches were used to
carry out this study. One approach was a computer simulation on the basis of an extended
Zeldovich mechanism which was aimed at a priori estimation of air preheating effects on
thermal NO. The second approach was a series of experiments using a small-scale two-stage
combustor, which was intended to check the simulated results and to investigate the behaviour
of fuel NO, HCN and NH3 in a two-stage combustion. The result of their study shows:

1. Air preheating up to 300°C increased emissions of thermal NO from ordinary single

stage city gas combustion by a factor of three in the experiments and by a factor of four
in the computer simulation. In contrast to these findings, emissions of thermal NO and

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 fuel NO from the two-stage combustion, where the primary air ratio was less than 0.8,
were not significantly increased by 300°C air preheating.

2. The concentration of hydrocarbon and HCN which might be an intermediate product

during the conversion process from NH3 to NO was decreased 50% in the primary stage
of the two-stage combustion by preheating the primary air to 300°C. Therefore, air
preheating had a positive effect on the reduction of hydrocarbon and HCN at the
primary stage.

The experiment done by (Yamagishi et al, 1975) and (Sadakata et al, 1981) focused on
conventional power generation used. The study of RQL to use in aeroengine only gain interest
in the last 18 years. One such study was done by (Peterson et el, 2002) as part of project funded
by NASA. The purpose of the study is to study the effects of typical high-speed civil transport
operating condition on emission production by examining the roles inlet temperature, pressure,
reference velocity, rich zone equivalence ratio, and lean zone equivalence ratio play in the
production of emissions, particularly NOx, from a model RQL combustor in the fuel rich zone
(first stage) and the fuel lean zone (third stage). The result of their study shows that:

• NOx production in an RQL can combustor, operating at fixed inlet air temperature and
pressure, can be minimized by: decreasing lean zone equivalence ratio, increasing rich
zone equivalence ratio, and decreasing lean zone residence time.

• NOx production increases with increasing inlet air temperature.

• Combustion efficiency can be maximized by: increasing inlet air temperature,

increasing operating pressure and increasing overall residence time. For the RQL
combustor operating with inlet air preheat temperatures greater than 367 K, combustion
efficiency will exceed 99%.

• The rich zone is not uniform and accounts for on the order of 16% of the total NO x
produced.

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 Another group of researchers studying the use of RQL in aeroengine is (Moriai et al, 2008).
The purpose of the project is to develop Environmentally Compatible Small Aero Engine
(ECO) that produced low NOx emission. The results show that all emission requirements were
satisfied, and an overall excellent emission performance was demonstrated. In particular, CO
and thermal hydrocarbon (THC) or unburned fuel emission results indicated considerable
margins between the actual values and the design requirements. The outstanding results were
due to the higher equivalence ratio in the primary combustion zone, which contributed to better
combustion performance during low loads. The regulation value shown is shown Figure 2, it
was compared to the result of the engine testing and standard ECO engine requirement. The
NOx emissions were less than 50% of the international regulations.

Figure 2: Emission evaluation results.

Since the main concern for airline is to produce engine with high efficiency the quest
to produce low emission with performance is still ongoing. This leads to researcher to study
the relationship of the trade off between low emission and efficiency. One such researcher is
(Kypriandis et al, 2015). The aim of their study is to the trade-off between energy efficiency
and NOx emission using Computational Fluid Dynamic method. The simulation results show

6
that improving engine propulsive efficiency is likely to have a no effect on NOx emissions at
high altitude; at sea-level conditions NOx emissions are particularly likely to reduce.
Improving engine thermal efficiency however has a detrimental effect on NOx emissions for
RQL combustors, both at high altitude and particularly at sea-level conditions. LDI combustor
technology does not demonstrate such behaviour and can therefore help decouple NOx
emissions performance from engine thermal efficiency.

(Jun et al, 2008) have produced gas-turbine combustor developed for environment-
friendly and economical aircraft engines adaptable to 50-seat class jet planes. The combustor
has a simple structure and low NOx emission characteristics. The target level of NOx reduction
was 50% or less, which corresponds to the requirements of ICAO CAEP 4. A special simple
structure swirler, named a cross jet swirler, was developed. Furthermore, CO emissions were
reduced by 19%, and total hydrocarbons by 59% compared with the reference values of the
ICAO requirements. The jet swirler is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: The special jet swirler

The rapid mixing burner that uses the cross jet swirler method is characterized by a
simply structured mixing swirler for fuel and air without causing a swirl vane. This swirler
creates strong swirls (between swirl number seven and ten) in a cylindrical mixing portion
through a tangentially installed air channel; at the same time, it causes a straight jet to collide
with a swirl through ports located in intervals inside the cylinder. As a result, a forced vortex
can be broken, thereby allowing a strong turbulence layer to form. This strong turbulence
makes it possible to further promote the mixture of fuel and air compared with mixing in a

7
shear layer. The test results revealed a significant reduction of NOx emissions, to 56.3% of the
present ICAO CAEP 4 requirements for the LTO cycle.

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 CHAPTER 3

MAIN BODY

3.1 RQL in Aeroengine application

The way RQL combustor works is the combustion is initiated by a fuel-rich mixture in
the primary zone with equivalence ratio normally 1.2–1.8. There are two main advantages of
RQL combustor. The first one is the combustion stability is enhanced due to rich burn
producing a high concentration of energetic hydrogen and hydrocarbon radical species. Second
advantage is the NOx production is minimised due to relatively low flame temperatures and
low concentration of oxygen containing intermediate species (Liu et al, 2017). The illustration
of RQL working principal is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Working principal of RQL combustor

The hot efflux from the primary zone contains high amount of Carbon monoxide,
unburnt hydrocarbon and smoke that needs to be exhausted after processing. The process is
quenching and is employed downstream of the rich zone. Large part of the diluted airflow is
diverted into the quench section to oxidise the carbon monoxide, hydrogen and hydrocarbon
intermediates. The addition of airflow however creates a zonal equivalence ratio close to
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stoichiometric value and will lead to formation of NOx. To achieve low NOx production, the
air has to mix rapidly with the primary zone effluent such that it can be quickly switched from
the rich burn to the lean burn mode to minimise the formation of thermal NOx. This process is
than followed by the lean burn section being employed to further consume CO and UHC such
that an exhaust at the exit of the combustor contains a major combustion production of CO2,
N2, O2 and H2O. The lean burn section is also responsible for controlling the combustor outlet
temperature distribution quality. Typical equivalence ratio in lean burn is in the range of 0.5–
0.7. There are 4 major area when discussing RQL combustors. These areas will be discussed
in detail at the TALON section.

In aeroengine application the main player that utilise RQL technology is Pratt & Whitney.
Using the name TALON (Technology for Advanced low NOx), they partner with NASA to
develop a family of reduced NOx combustor for aircraft gas turbine engine. There are several
programs as a result of the collaboration and they are; HSCT which went from late 80s to early
90s and then it was followed by AST from the mid to late 90s and finally the UEET which
started in the 2000 and end in 2007. The HSCT program established best-to-date RQL
performance levels in idealized rig testing that approached Lean, Premixed, Prevaporized NOx
emissions, however this potential needed to be translated into viable product designs. The AST
program provided the opportunity to investigate and directly compare the RQL approach in
viable product designs versus Lean Staged. The outcome of this work led to the selection of
RQL for further investigation. The RQL concept was further refined in the UEET program,
resulting in technologies that enabled introduction of increasingly lower NOx combustors into
the P&W fleet of engines while meeting mandated stringency levels for other pollutants
(Mckinney et al, 2007). There are 3 models of RQL combustor engine under the collaboration;
TALON I, TALON II and TALON X. The first generation, TALON I, that powers PW4098
entered into service in 1999 with flight hours of 145345 h (37761 cycles), no unscheduled
engine removals and no inflight shutdowns reported. Second generation, TALON II which fits
in PW6000 engine entered into service in 2005 and demonstrated the improved service and
achieved further emissions reduction. Recent TALON X was used in PW1500, PW1130G-JM,
PW1133G1-JM, etc. It has demonstrated NOx reduction by 25% compared to TALON II in rig
and engine tests. TALON X implement many advancements in 4 major areas.

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 The areas are:

• A uniform rich primary zone

• Optimized quench mixing
• Advanced cooling technologies
• Reduced combustor residence time

The uniform rich primary zone is important to create fine spray so that liquid fuel can be
easily mixed and vaporized. The fine spray fuel will create a uniformly mixed rich zone which
has great stability characteristics and sufficiently rich to minimize NOx production without
producing undesirable smoke levels. This uniformly-rich front-end is achieved by developing
fuel injection systems that produce fine, well-distributed sprays that are well-matched to the
swirler flow field. The TALON X injector is of the “high shear” style shown in Figure 5. The
swirler creates really fine spray by distributing fuel over a large diameter filming surface
resulting in thin film that leads to very small fuel droplets. The droplets evaporated quickly and
track the swirler air flow easily resulting great air/fuel mixing. The cone spray angle can be
changed by adjusting the swirls angles and the air flow splits.

The improvement of quench mixing zone is critical to achieve complete combustion of the
rich mixture exiting the primary zone with minimum NOx production. TALON X uses an
optimized single row of mixing holes developed using a combination of experimental and
analytical tools. Jet-in-cross flow mixing experiments using Carbon Dioxide introduced at the
fuel injectors and gas sampling instrumentation were used to optimize the hole locations,
combustor height and hole sizes. The resulting hole distribution is a single row pattern similar
to the TALON II, but with circumferential location and size variation optimized for the
TALON X application to improve both exit-plane mixing and quench-zone mixing.

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 Figure 5: High Shear Swirler

Third area of improvement is the advanced cooling technology. an improved version of

the P&W FLOATWALL configuration which provides high levels of cooling efficiency
combined with improved materials and thermal barrier coatings. The resulting cooling air
budget for TALON X is 20% of combustor exit flow compared to 33% for the base PW4084
combustor.

The final area is reduced combustor residence time. This was done by optimization of
the combustor total volume and the distribution of combustor area. The NOx production
increases with flow residence time. As the gas travels from the rich burn to the lean burn, the
region where rapid NOx forming mixture strengths are inevitably existent. It is important the
time spent by the mixture in these regions is minimised. The resulting residence time for
TALON X has been reduced by a factor of 2 compared to older TALON used in the PW4098
engine, and the corresponding emission index of NOx at take-off consequently is reduced by a
factor of 3. The Phase 5 combustor technology by Rolls-Royce has also successfully optimised
this approach. The result of Talon X testing shows improvement in reduction of NOx and for
combustor operability, including starting and lean blow out also met development
requirements.

RQL combustors are used for many other aeroengines such as Rolls-Royce Trent 1000
with rated thrusts 268kN-350.9kN with overall pressure ratio (OPR) of 36.3–46.1 and GE
CFM56 series with rated thrusts ranging over 97.9 kN-142.3kN and with corresponding OPRs

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23.1–32.6. Early RQL combustors such as V2500 have longer axial length because of extra
space required for quick quench and lean burn. The ratio of liner length to height is 2.24
compared to 2.0 for conventional combustors. Modern TALON II and X achieved design goals
while maintaining similar length as conventional combustors. Overall RQL combustors are
applied from small to large engine categories for a wide range of engine thrust and OPRs.

RQL is a relatively new technology and its application is still limited to only handful
of engines. The study of RQL is still ongoing and from there researchers have identified its
many advantages and disadvantages.

The advantages of RQL application in aeroengine are as follows:

1. The dome rich burn provides a high level of resistance to flame out, particularly at low
power where the combustor is running very lean and the dome fuel air ratio is close to
the stoichiometric value (i.e. relative high temperature can be maintained to enhance
the combustion efficiency and stability). As a consequence, this technology
demonstrates high reliability with excellent service history.

2. Relative low development cost and short development time since it is based on
conventional combustion technology, empirical approaches and conventional design
rules can be readily adopted.

3. The lack of oxygen due to rich burn discourages the oxidation of fuels, which prevents
the conversion of fuel bound nitrogen to HCN and NH3 that react with combustion
radicals to form NO. Instead, it converts fuel bonded nitrogen FBN into nonreactive
N2.

4. It is advantageous in meeting the full range of combustion system requirements in

addition to those of emissions since the requirements of safety, relight capability,
operability etc. are considered as high priorities.

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 The disadvantages of RQL combustors are:

1. The airflow distribution needs to be optimised to control smoke/soot emission.

2. The higher OPR engine makes it much more difficult to contain NOx level without
changing the fuel injection concept. Advanced fuel spray nozzle is needed to improve
the fuel-air mixing.

3. The advanced cooling scheme is required for optimum use of dilution jet for quenching
and improved liner durability (i.e. higher luminous flame radiation due to rich burn).

4. Cooling of the dome should be carefully designed to avoid NOx formation toward the
high NOx route.

3.2 RQL in stationary application

Lean premixed combustor technology is the popular configuration in stationary

application. This is because, it is safer, the duty cycle is more constrained, and it produced less
NOx emission compared to RQL technology. However, the interest in RQL combustor
technology has gain traction for stationary applications due to the attributes of more effectively
processing fuels of complex composition, and its ability to use fuels in variety of composition.
The latter is becoming of importance with the increasing international competition for fuels in
general, the burgeoning interest in biomass fuels, the expanding use of “opportunity fuels”
(land-fill gases, digester gases, well-head gases), and the growing use of liquefied natural gas
to either complement domestic sources or serve as the sole source of natural gas to a large
region of a country or the country as a whole. A research by California Energy Commission in
regard to RQL technology, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Energy was done with
purpose to explore the utility of RQL strategies as an alternative to combustors for unique
applications in the stationary production of electrical power (Samuelsen,2007).

The working principal of stationary RQL is similar to the one use in aeroengine. “Rich-
burn” condition in the primary zone enhances the stability of the combustion reaction by
producing and sustaining a high concentration of hydrogen and hydrocarbon. This result in

14
minimization of the production of nitrogen oxides due to the relative low temperatures and low
population of oxygen. The effluent emanating from the rich primary zone will be high in the
concentration of hydrogen, and carbon monoxide which means they cannot be exhausted
without further processing which require injection of substantial amount of air through wall
jets to mix with the primary zone effluent and create a “lean-burn” condition before leaving
the combustor.

The most important part of RQL combustor is the mixing process between the effluent
exiting the combustor with air. The mixing of air effluent takes place near stoichiometric
condition. This is where temperature and oxygen atom concentration are increased which is the
condition of most vulnerable to the production of high amount of NOx. To mitigate this
problem, the mixing process needs to be rapid to lean burn conditions. Because of this, the
label “Quick-Mix” is adopted to emphasize the requirement to rapidly mix the air and primary
zone effluent. As a result, RQL research has historically focused on Quick-Mix section designs
to establish the most rapid mixing.

The theory of optimization of quick mix section will minimize the production of NOx
has attract attention of researcher, to validate the hypothesis. (Holderman and Chang, 2007)
study the effects of preheat air and number of orifices in RQL mixing section. The result of the
study shows the number of orifices have very little effects on NOx emission. Figure 6 shows
the number of holes and NOx emission. Form figure 6, 12 holes case produces 15% more NOx
than an 8-hole case. These results suggest that an aerodynamically “optimum” mixer may not
minimize NOx.

Figure 6: Module type and NOx emission.

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 As for preheat, it is found that it has very little effect on mixing, but it increases the
production NOx significantly as can be seen in Figure 7.

Figure 7: graph of preheat condition and NOx emission.

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 CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

RQL combustor works by initiating the combustion by fuel-rich mixture in the primary
zone with equivalence ratio normally 1.2–1.8. The effluent emanating from the rich primary
zone require injection of substantial amount of air through wall jets to mix with the primary
zone effluent and create a “lean-burn” condition before leaving the combustor because they
will be high in the concentration of hydrogen, and carbon monoxide. The most important part
of RQL combustor is the mixing process. The mixing process needs to be rapid to lean burn
conditions. Because of this, it was called “Quick-Mix”. The technology to improve quick mix
depends on original equipment manufacturer. For this study the OEM that was focused is Pratt
& Whitney. Their way of improving effective quench is by closer spacing between primary
quench, optimisation of jet hole pattern, reduced combustor residence time and adding local
cooling air.

The main attention of RQL study is mainly on optimization of air and effluent mixing.
(Holderman and Chang, 2007) study the effects of preheat air and number of orifices in RQL
mixing section. They found that aerodynamically “optimum” mixer may not minimize NOx
and for preheat, it is found that it has very little effect on mixing, but it increases the production
NOx significantly. This agrees with (Sadakata et al, 1981) which their experiment regarding
preheating up to 300°C increased emissions of thermal NO.

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 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

The study of RQL combustor has gain a lot of interest due to government regulation to
reduce emission and airline insistence of development of efficient engine. The RQL has many
advantages such as high resistance of flame out, low development cost and short development
time, discouragement of oxidation of fuels due to its lack of oxygen as a result of rich burn and
finally, RQL combustors meets the requirements of aviation authority such as; reliability safety
and operability. But it is not all fine and dandy. RQL is a relatively new concept and possess
many technological challenges such as: requiring airflow optimisation to reduce soot/ emission,
needing advanced fuel nozzle to improve mixing and requiring advanced cooling scheme for
optimum jet dilution. This these challenges, many researchers had published papers on the way
to optimise the engine and working towards the low emission and high efficiency target.
Therefore, the work on this area must be continue as it shows high potential as an alternative
to conventional combustor.

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