MICHAEL ASCHBACHER

Department of Mathematics
California Institute of Technology

Sporadic groups

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UNIVERSITY PRESS
Published by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge
The Pitt BuiIding, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 IRP
40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA Contents
10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Victoria 3166, Australia
@ Cambridge University Press 1994

First published 1994 Preface page i x

Printed in the United States of America

PART I
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData
Aschbacher, Michael. 1. Preliminary Results
Sporadic groups / Michael Aschbacher. 1. Abstract representations
p. cm. - (Cambridge tracts in mathematics ; 104) 2. Permutation representations
Includes bibliographical references and indexes. 3. Graphs
ISBN 0-521-420440 4. Geometries and complexes
1. Sporadic groups (Mathematics) I. Title. 11. Series. 5. The general linear group and its projective geometry
QA177.A83 1994 6. Fiber products of groups
512l.2 - dc20 92-13653
CIP 2. 2-Structure i n F i n i t e G r o u p s
A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library. 7. Involutions
8. Extraspecial groups
ISBN 0-521-42049-0 hardback
3. Algebras, Codes, and Forms
9. Forms and algebras
10. Codes
11. Derived forms

4. Syrnplectic 2-Loops 46
12. Symplectic 2-loops 47
13. Moufang symplectic Zloops 54
14. Constructing a 2-local from a loop 57

5. T h e Discovery, Existence, a n d Uniqueness

of the Sporadics 65
15. History and discovery 65
16. Existence of the sporadics 70
17. Uniqueness of the sporadics 74

6. The M a t h i e u Groups, T h e i r Steiner Systems,

a n d t h e Golay C o d e
18. Steiner systems for the Mathieu groups
19. The Golay and Todd modules
vi Contents Contents

7. The Geometry and Structure of MZ4 15. The Group U4(3)

20. The geometry of M24 45. U4(3)
21. The local structure of M24 16. Groups of Conway, Suzuki, and Hall-Janko Type
46. Groups of type Col, Suz, J2, and J3
8. The Conway Groups and the Leech Lattice
47. Groups of type J2
22. The Leech lattice and - 0
48. Groups of type Suz
23. The Leech Iattice mod 2
49. Groups of type Col
9. Subgroups of - 0 Subgroups of Prime Order in Five
17.
24. The groups Co3, Mc, and H S
Sporadic Groups
25. The groups Col, Coz, SUZ,and J2
50. Subgroups of Suz of prime order
26. Some local subgroups of Col
51. Subgroups of Col of prime order
10. The Griess Algebra and the Monster 52. Subgroups of prime order in He
27. The subgroups C and N of the Monster Symbols
28. The Griess algebra Bibliography
29. The action of N on B Index
30. N preserves the Griess algebra
31. The automorphism group of the Griess algebra
11. Subgroups of Groups of Monster Type
32. Subgroups of groups of Monster type

PART I11
12. Coverings of Graphs and Simplicia1 Complexes
33. The fundamental groupoid
34. Triangulation
35. Coverings of graphs and simplicial complexes
13. The Geometry of Amalgams
36. Amalgams
37. Uniqueness systems
38. The uniqueness system of a string geometry
14. The Uniqueness of Groups of Type M24,
He, and L5(2)
39. Some 2-local subgroups in L5(2),Mz4, and He
40. Groups of type L5(2),M24, and He
41. Groups of type L5(2) and M24
42. Groups of type He
43. The root 4-group graph for He
44. The uniqueness of groups of type He
 Preface

The classification of the finite simple groups says that each finite simple
group is isomorphic to exactly one of the following:
A group of prime order
An alternating group A, of degree n
A group of Lie type
One of twenty-six sporadic groups
As a first step in the classification, each of the simple groups must be
shown to exist and to be unique subject to suitable hypotheses, and the
most basic properties of the group must be established. The existence
of the alternating group An comes for free, while the representation of
An on its n-set makes possible a first uniqueness proof and easy proofs
of most properties of the group. The situation with the groups of Lie
type is more difficult, but while groups of Lie rank 1 and 2 cause some
problems, Lie theory provides proofs of the existence, uniqueness, and
basic structure of the groups of Lie type in terms of their Lie algebras
I and buildings.
I
, However, the situation with the sporadic groups is less satisfactory.
Much of the existing treatment of the sporadic groups remains unpub-
lished and the mathematics which does appear in print lacks uniformity,
I is spread over many papers, and often depends upon machine calcula-
tion.
Sporadic Groups represents the first step in a program to provide a
uniform, self-contained treatment of the foundational material on the
I sporadic groups. More precisely our eventual aim is to provide complete
proofs of the existence and uniqueness of the twenty-six sporadic groups
subject to appropriate hypotheses, and to derive the most basic struc-
ture of the sporadics, such as the group order and the normalizers of
subgroups of prime order.
While much of this program is necessarily technical and specialized,
other parts are accessible to mathematicians with only a basic knowl-
edge of finite group theory. Moreover some of the sporadic groups are
I the automorphism groups of combinatorial objects of independent in-
terest, so it is desirable to make this part of the program available to
as large an audience as possible. For example, the Mathieu groups are
the automorphism groups of Steiner systems and Golay codes while the
I
largest Conway group is the automorphism group of the Leech lattice.

x Preface
Sporadic Groups begins the treatment of the foundations of the spo-
radic groups by concentrating on the most accessible chapters of the
subject. It is our hope that large parts of the book can be read by the
nonspecialist and provide a good picture of the structure of the sporadics
and the methods for studying these groups. At the same time the book
provides the basis for a complete treatment of the sporadics.
The book is divided into three parts: Part I, introductory material
(Chapters 1-5); Part 11, existence theorems (Chapters 6-11); and Part 111,
uniqueness theorems (Chapters 12-17).
The goal of the existence treatment is to construct the largest spo-
radic group (the Monster) as the group of automorphisms of the Griess
algebra. Twenty of the twenty-six sporadic groups are sections of the
Monster. We establish the existence of these groups via these embed-
dings. To construct the Griess algebra one must first construct the Leech
lattice and the Conway groups, and to construct the Leech lattice one
must first construct the Mathieu groups, their Steiner systems, and the
binary Golay code.
There are many constructions of the Mathieu groups. Our treatment
proceeds by constructing the Steiner systems for the Mathieu groups as
a tower of extensions of the projective plane of order 4. This method has
the advantage of supplying the extremely detailed information about the
Mathieu groups, their Steiner systems, and the Golay code module and
Todd module necessary both for the construction of the Leech lattice
and the Griess algebra, and for the proof of the uniqueness of various
sporadics.
The construction given here of the Leech lattice and the subgroups
stabilizing various sublattices is the standard one due to Conway in [Col]
and [CO~]. The construction of the Griess algebra combines aspects of
the treatments due to Griess [Gr2], Conway [CO~], and Tits [T2], plus
a few extra wrinkles. The basis of the construction is Parker's loop and
Conway's construction via the Parker loop of the normalizer N of a
certain Csubgroup of the Monster. Chapter 4 contains a discussion of
a general class of loops which includes the Parker loop. This discus-
sion contains much material not needed to construct the Parker loop or
the Griess algebra, but the extra discussion provides a context which
hopefully makes the Parker loop and Conway's construction of N more
natural.
The majority of the sporadic groups contain a large extraspecial 2-
subgroup. Such subgroups provide one of the unifying features of our
treatment. The basic theory of large extraspecial subgroups is developed
Preface xi
in Chapter 2. The theory is used to recognize and establish the simplicity
of the sporadics contained in the Monster that are not symmetry groups
of any nice structure.
The eventual object of the uniqueness treatment is to prove each spo-
radic is unique subject to suitable hypotheses. Here is a typical hy-
pothesis; let w be a positive integer and L a group. (See Chapter 2 for
terminology and notation.)
Hypothesis Z(w, L): G is a finite gmup containing an involution z
such that F*(CG(z))= Q is an extraspecial &subgroup of order 22W+1,
CG(z)/Q L, and z is not weakly closed in Q with respect to G .
For example, Hypothesis 7f(12,Col) characterizes the Monster. Hy-
potheses of this sort are the appropriate ones for characterizing the spo-
radic~for purposes of the classification.
Sporadic Groups lays the foundation for a proof of the uniqueness of
each of the sporadics and supplies actual uniqueness proofs for five of
the sporadic groups: M24, He, J2, Suz, and Col.
Our approach to the uniqueness problem follows Aschbacher and Segev
in [ASl]. Namely given a group theoretic hypothesis 31 we associate t o
each group G satisfying 7f a coset graph A defined by some family F
of subgroups of G. We prove the amalgam A of 3 is determined up t o
-
isomorphism by 31 independently of G, and form the free amalgamated
I
product G of A and its coset graph A. Now there exists a covering
1
\
d :A A of graphs. To complete the proof we show A is simply con-
netted so d is an isomorphism and hence G = is determined up t o
isomorphism by H.
After developing the most basic part of the conceptual base for our
, treatment of the sporadic groups in Part I, Chapter 5 closes the first
part of the book with an overview of the sporadic groups including the
hypotheses by which we expect each group to be characterized, the ap-
proach for constructing each of the twenty sporadics involved in the
Monster, and a number of historical remarks.
While Sporadic Groups concentrates on some of the most accessible
and least technical aspects of the study of the sporadic groups, a com-
plete treatment of even this material sometimes requires some difficult
specialized arguments. The reader wishing to minimize contact with such
arguments can do so as follows. As a general rule the book becomes pro-
gressively more difficult in the later chapters. Thus most of the material
in Part I should cause little difficulty. A possible exception is Chapter 4,
containing the discussion of loops. However, much of this material is not
I
xii Preface PART I
needed in the rest of the book, and none is needed outside of Chapter 10,
where the Griess algebra is constructed. As Chapter 10 is the most tech-
nical part of Part 11, some readers may wish to skip both Chapter 4 and
Chapter 10.
Part I1 contains constructions df the Mathieu groups, the Conway
group Col and its sporadic sections, and the Monster and its sporadic
sections. Two chapters are devoted to the Mathieu groups and two to the Chapter 1
Conway groups. In each case the second of the two chapters is the most
technical. Thus the reader may wish to read Chapters 6 and 8, while
skipping or skimming Chapters 7 and 9. As suggested in the previous
paragraph, dilettantes should skip the construction in Chapter 10 of the
Preliminary Results
Griess algebra and the Monster. The existence proofs for the sporadic
sections of the Monster not contained in Col appear in the very short
Chapter 11.
The Steiner systems and Golay codes associated to the Mathieu groups
and the Leech lattice associated to the Conway groups are beautiful We take a s our starting point the text Finite Group Theory [FGT],
and natural objects. Most of the discussion of these objects appears in
although we need only a fraction of the material in that text. Requently
Chapters 6 and 8. There is some evidence that the Griess algebra is also
quoted results from [FGT]will be recorded in this chapter and in other
natural, in that it is the 0-graded submodule of a conformal field theory
of the introductory chapters.
preserved by the Monster (cf. [FLM]). However, the construction of the
Chapters 1 and 2 record some of the most basic terminology and no-
Griess algebra in Chapter 10 is not particularly natural or edifying.
tation we will be using plus some elementary results. The reader should
The first two chapters of Part I11 provide the conceptual base for
consult [FGT] for other basic group theoretic terminology and notation,
proving the uniqueness of the sporadic groups. These chapters are fairly
although we will try to recall such notation when it is first used, or at
elementary. Sections 39 through 41 establishing the uniqueness of M24
least give a specific reference to [FGT] at that point. There is a "List
and L5(2)probably provide the easiest example of how to apply this of Symbols" at the end of [FGT] which can be used to help hunt down
machinery to establish uniqueness. On the other hand the proofs of the
notation.
uniqueness of He,J2, Suz, and Col, while more difficult, are also more We begin in Section 1 with a brief discussion of abstract representa-
representative of the complexity involved in proving the uniqueness of
tions of groups. Then in Section 2 we specialize to permutation represen-
the sporadic groups.
tations. In Section 3 we consider graphs and in Section 4 geometries (in
The book closes with tables describing the basic structure of the five
the sense of J. Tits) and geometric complexes. In the last few sections of
sporadic groups considered in detail in Sporadic Groups: M 2 4 7 He, J2,
the chapter we record a few basic facts about the general linear group
Suz, and Gol. These tabIes enumerate the subgroups of prime order
and fiber products of groups.
of each group G and the normalizers of these subgroups. Much of this
information comes out during the proof of the uniqueness of G, but some
of the loose ends are tied up in Chapter 17. 1. Abstract representations
Let C be a category. For X an object in C, we write Aut(X) for the
group of automorphisms of X under the operation of composition in C
(cf. Section 2 in [FGT]).A ~presentatzonof a group G in the category C
is a group homomorphism ?r; G -+ Aut(X). For example, a permutation
representation is a representation in the category of sets and a linear
2 Chapter 1 Preliminary Results
representation is a representation in the category of vector spaces and
linear maps.
If a :A -+ B is an isomorphism of objects in C then a induces a map
and a* restricts to an isomorphism a* : Aut(A) -+ Aut(B). Thus in
particular if A r B then Aut(A) E Aut(B).
A representation n : G -t Aut(A) is faithful if n is injective.
Two representations n : G -, Aut(A) and u : G + Aut(B) in C are
equivalent if there exists an isomorphism a : A --, B such that a = na* is
the composition of n with a*. Equivalently for all g E G, (gn)a= a(ga).
Similarly if Ti : Gi -+ Aut(Ai), i = 1,2, are representations of groups
Gi on objects Ai in C, then nl is said to be quasiequivalent to n2 if
there exists a group isomorphism f l : GI -, G2 and an isomorphism
cr : Al -+ A2 such that 1r2 = p-lnlat. Observe that we have a permu-
tation representation of Aut(G) on the equivalence classes of represen-
tations of G via cr : n H a n with the orbits the quasiequivalence classes.
Write Aut(G), for the stabilizer of the equivalence class of n under this
representation. The following result is Exercise 1.7 in [FGT]:
Lemma 1.1: Let n,u : G -+ Aut(A) be faithful representations. Then
(1) is quasiequivalent to a if and only if Gn is conjugate to Ga in
R only if Gx is maximal in G (cf. 5.19 in [FGT]).
Aut (A).
(2) Aut,,t(,) (Gn)2 Aut(G),.
If H < G then write AutG(H) = Na(H)/CG(H)for the group of
automorphiims of H induced by G. Also
CG(H)= ( c E G :ch=hcfor all h~ H )
is the centralizer in G of H and NG(H) is the normalizer in G of H,
that is, the largest subgroup of G in which H is normal.
2. Permutation representations
In this section X is a set. We refer the reader to Section 5 of [FGT] for
our notational conventions involving permutation groups, although we
record a few of the most frequently used conventions here. In particular
we write S y m ( X ) for the symmetric group on X and if X is finite we
write Alt(X) for the alternating group on X . Further S,, A, denote the
symmetric and alternating groups of degree n; that is, Sn = S y m ( X )
and A, = Alt(X) for X of order n.
2. Permutation representations 3
Let n : G -+ S y m ( X ) be a permutation representation of a group
G on X. Usually we suppress n and write xg for the image x(gn) of a
point x E X under the permutation gn, g E G. For S C G, we write
Fix(S) = Fixx(S) for the set of fixed points of S on X . For Y X, c
G y = { g E G : yg = y for all y E Y)
is the pointwise stabilizer of Y in G,
is the global stabilizer of Y in G, and G~ = G ( Y ) / G y is the image of
G ( Y ) in Sym(Y) under the restriction map. In particular Gp denotes
the stabilizer of a point y E X.
Recall the orbit of x E X under G is XG = {xg : g E G ) and G is
transitive on X if G has just one orbit on X. If G is transitive on X
then our representation n is equivalent to the representation of G by
right multiplication on the coset space G/G, via the map Gzg t+ xg
(cf. 5.9 in [FGT]).
A subgroup K of G is a regular normal subgroup of G if K G and
K is regular on X; that is, K is transitive on X and Kx = 1 for x E X.
Recall a transitive permutation group G is primitive on X if G pre-
serves no nontrivial partition on X . Further G is primitive on X if and
Lemma 2.1: Let G be transitive on X , x E X, and K < G. Then
(1) K is transitive on X if and only if G = GZK.
(2) If 1 # K q G and G is primitive on X then K is transitive on X .
(3) If K is a regular normal subgroup of G then the representations
of Gx on X and on K by conjugation are equivalent.
Proof: These are all well known; see, for example, 5.20, 15.15, and 15.11
in [FGT].
Recall that G is t-transitive on X if G is transitive on ordered t-tuples
of distinct points of X . In Chapter 6 we will find that the Mathieu group
Mm+t is t-transitive on m+t points for m = 19 and t = 3,4,5 and m = 7
and t = 4,5.
Lemma 2.2: Let G be t-transitive on a finite set X with t 2 2, x E X,
and 1 # K G. Then
(1) G is primitive on X .
(2) K is transitive on X and G = G,K.

Chapter 1 Pmliminary Results
(3) If K is regular on X then 1KI = 1x1 = pe is a power of some
prime p, and if t > 2 then p = 2.
(4) If t = 3 < 1x1 and IG : KI = 2 then K is 2-transitive on X .
Proof: Again these are well-known facts. See, for example, 15.14 and
15.13 in [FGT]for (1) and (3), respectively. Part ( 2 ) follows from ( 1 )
and 1.1. Part (4) is left as Exercise 1.1.
3. Graphs
A graph A = (A,*) consists of a set A of vertices (or objects or points)
together with a symmetric relation * called adjacency (or incidence or
something else). The ordered pairs in the relation are called the edges of
the graph. We write u * v to indicate two vertices are related via * and
say u is adjacent to v. Denote by A ( u ) the set of vertices adjacent to u
and distinct from u and define uL = A ( u ) LJ{u).
.
A path of length n from u to v is a sequence of vertices u = uo, u l , . .,
u,= v such that ui+l E uf for each i. Denote by d(u,v ) the minimal
length of a path from u to v. If no such path exists set d(u,v) = oo.
-
d(u,v ) is the distance from u to v.
The relation on A defined by u v if and only if d(u, v ) < OCI is an
N
equivalence relation on A. The equivalence classes of this relation are
called the connected components of the graph. The graph is connected
if it has just one connected component. Equivalently there is a path
between any pair of vertices.
A morphism of graphs is a function a : A -+ At from the vertex
set of A to the vertex set of At which preserves adjacency; that is,
uLa C (ua)' for each u E A.
A group G of automorphisms of A is edge transitive on A if G is
transitive on A and on the edges of A.
Representations of groups on graphs play a big role in this book.
For example, we prove the uniqueness of some of the sporadics G by
considering a representation of G on a suitable graph. The following
construction supplies us with such graphs.
Let G be a transitive permutation group on a finite set A. Recall the
orbitals of G on A are the orbits of G on the set product A2 = A x A.
The permutation rank of G is the number of orbitals of G; recall this is
also the number of orbits of Gz on A for x E A.
Given an orbital R of G , the paired orbital Rp of R is
Stp = { ( Y ,x ) : (2,y) E R).
3. Graphs 5
Evidently RP is an orbital of G with (Rp)P = R. The orbital R is said to
be self-paired if RP = 0. For example, the diagonal orbital { ( x , x ) : x E
A ) is a self-paired orbital.
Lemma 3.1: (1) A nondiagonal orbital ( x ,y)G of G is self-paired i f and
only i f ( x ,y) is a cycle i n some g E G.
(2) If G is finite then G possesses a nondiagonal self-paired orbital i f
and only i f G Gs of even order.
(3) If G is of even order and pennutation mnk 3 then all orbitals of
G are self-paired.
Proof:See 16.1 in [FGT].
Lemma 3.2: (1) Let R be a self-paired orbital o f G . Then R is a symmet-
ric relation on A, so A = (A,51) is a graph and G is an edge transitive
group of automorphisms of A.
(2) Conversely i f H is an edge transitive group of automorphisms of
a graph A = ( A , *) then the set * of edges of A is a self-paired orbital
of G on A, and A is the graph determined by this orbital.
Many of the sporadics have representations as rank 3 permutation
groups. Indeed some were discovered via such representations; see Chap
ter 5 for a discussion of the sporadics discovered this way. See also Exer-
cise 16.5, which considers the rank 3 representation of J2, and Lemmas
24.6, 24.7, and 24.11, which establish the existence of rank 3 represen-
tations of Mc, U4(3),and H S .
In the remainder of this section assume G is of even order and permu-
tation rank 3 on a set X . Hence G has two nondiagonal orbitals A and
I' and by 3.1, each is self-paired. Further for x E X , G z has two orbits
A ( x ) and r ( x ) on X - { x ) , where A ( x ) = { y E X : (2,y) E A } and
r ( x ) = { z E X : ( x , z ) E I?}. By 3.2, X = ( X , A ) is a graph and G is
an edge transitive group of automorphisms of X. Notice A ( x ) = X ( x )
in our old notation.
The following notation is standard for rank 3 groups and their graphs:
k = lA(x)l, 1 = Ir(x)l, X = l A ( x ) n A(y)l for y E A ( x ) , and p =
I A ( x ) n A ( z )( for z E r ( x ) . The integers k , 1, A, p are the parameters of
the rank 3 group G. Also let n = 1x1 be the degree of the representation.
Lemma 3.3: Let G be a mnk 3 permutation group of even order on a
finite set of order n with parameters k , 1, A, p. Then
6 Chapter 1 Preliminary Results
(3) If p # 0 or k then G is primitive and the graph B of G is con-
nected.
(4) Assume G is primitive. Then either
(a) k = 1 and p = X + 1 = k/2, or
+
(b) d = (A - p)2 4(k - p) is a square and setting D = 2k +
+
(A - p)(k l), d1f2 divides D and 2d1I2 divides D i f and
only i f n is odd.
Proof: See Section 16 of [FGT].
4. Geometries and complexes
In this book we adopt a notion of geometry due to J. Tits in [TI].
Let I be a finite set. For J I, let J' = I - J be the complement of
J in I. A geometry over I is a triple ( l ? , ~*), where I' is a set of objects,
7 : I' + I is a surjective type function, and * is a symmetric incidence
relation on I' such that objects u and v of the same type are incident if
and only if u = v. We call ~ ( uthe) type of the object u. Notice (I?,*) is
a graph. We usually write I'for the geometry (I?, 7, *) and ri for the set
of objects of I? of type i.
The rank of the geometry l? is the cardinality of I.
A flag of I? is a subset T of I' such that each pair of objects in T is
incident. Notice our one axiom insures that if T is a flag then the type
function T : T -t I is injective. Define the type of T to be T(T) and the
rank of T to be the cardinality of T. The chambers of I? are the flags of
type I.
A morphism a : I' -+ I" of geometries is a function a : I' -+ I" of
the associated object sets which preserves type and incidence; that is,
if u, v E I? with u * v then ~ ( u = ) ~ ' ( u a )and ua *' var. A group G of
automorphisms of I' is edge transitive if G is transitive on flags of type
J for each subset J of I of order at most 2. Similarly G is flag transitive
on I? if G is transitive on flags of type J for all J E I.
Representations of groups on geometries also play an important role
in Sporadic Groups. For example, the Steiner systems in Chapter 6 are
rank 2 geometries whose automorphism groups are the Mathieu groups.
Here are some other examples:
Examples (1) Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over a field F.
We associate a geometry PG(V) to V called the projective geometry of
V. The objects of PG(V1 are the proper nonzero subspaces of V, with
incidence defined by inclusion. The type of U is T(U) = dim(U). Thus
4. Geometries and complexes 7
PG(V) is of rank n - 1. The projective general linear group on V is a
flag transitive group of automorphism of PG(V).
(2) A projective plane is a rank 2 geometry I' whose two types of
objects are called points and lines and such that:
(PP1) Each pair of distinct points is incident with a unique line.
(PP2) Each pair of distinct lines is incident with a unique point.
(PP3) There exist four points no three of which are on a common line.
Remarks. (1) Rank 2 projective geometries are projective planes.
(2) If I'is a finite projective plane then there exists an integer q such
that each point is incident with exactly q + 1 l i i , each lime is incident
with exactly q + 1 points, and I' has q2 + q + 1 points and lines.
Examples (3) If f is a sesquilinear or quadratic form on V then the
totally singular subspaces of V are the subspaces U such that f is trivial
on U.The set of such subspaces forms a subgeometry of the projective
geometry. See, for example, page 99 in [FGT].
(4) Let G be a group and 3 = (Gi : i E I ) a family of subgroups
of G. Define I'(G,3) to be the geometry whose set of objects of type
i is the coset space GIGi and with objects Gix and Gjy incident if
Gix n Gjy # 0.Observe:
Lemma 4.1: (1) G is represented as an edge transitive group of auto-
morphisms of r(G, 3)via right multiplication and r(G, 3 ) possesses a
chamber.
(2) Conversely if H is an edge transitive group of automorphisms of
a geometry I' and I' possesses a chamber C, then I' r I'(H,3), where
3 = ( H , : c E C).
The construction of 4.1 allows us to represent each group G on var-
ious geometries. The construction is used in Chapter 13 as part of our
machine for establishing the uniqueness of groups. Further the construc-
tion associates to each sporadic group G various geometries which can
be used to study the subgroup structure of G. The latter point of view is
not explored to any extent in Sporadic Groups;see instead [A21 or [RS]
where such geometries are discussed. We do use the 2-local geometry of
M24 to study that group in Chapter 7.
Define the direct sum of geometries Pi on Ii,i = 1,2, to be the geome-
try rl @r2over the disjoint union I of Il and I2whose object set is the
disjoint union of rl and I'2, whose type function is TI U 72, and whose
incidence is inherited from rl and I'2 with each object in incident
with each object in I'2.
8 Chapter 1 Preliminary Results
Example (5) A generalized digon is a rank 2 geometry which is the
direct sum of rank 1 geometries. That is, each element of type 1 is
incident with each element of type 2.
Lemma 4.2: Let G be a group and 3 = (GI, G2) a pair of subgroups
of G . Then I'(G,F) is a generalized digon if and only if G = G1G2.
Proof: As G is edge transitive on I', I? is a generalized digon if and only
if G2 is transitive on I'l if and only if G = GIG2 by 2.1.1.
Given a flag T, let r ( T ) consist of all v E I' - T such that v * t for all
t E T. We regard I'(T) as a geometry over I - T(T). The geometry r ( T )
is called the residue of T.
Example (6) Let I' = PG(V) be the projective geometry of an n-
dimensional vector space. Then for U E I', the residue r ( U ) of the
object U is isomorphic t o PG(U) $ PG(V/U).
The category of geometries is not large enough; we must also consider
either the category of chamber systems or the category of geometric
complexes.
A chamber system over I is a set X together with a collection of
equivalence relations y, i E I. For J E I and x E X , let N J be the
-
equivalence relation generated by the relations -j, j E J, and [ x ] the
equivalence class of J containing x. Define X t o be nondegenerate if for
~
~ [x]j = n i E j t [ x ] iA. morphism
each x E X , and j E I , {XI = n i [ x ] iand
of chamber systems over I is a map preserving each equivalence relation.
The notion of "chamber system" was introduced by J. Tits in [TI].
Recall that a simplicial complex K consists of a set X of vertices
together with a distinguished set of nonempty subsets of X called the
simplices of K such that each nonempty subset of simplex is a simplex.
The morphiims of simplicial complexes are the simplicial maps; that is,
a simplicial map f : K --, K' is a map f : X --,X' of vertices such that
f (s) is a simplex of K' for each simplex s of K.
Example (7) If A is a graph then the clique complex K(A) is the sim-
plicial complex whose vertices are the vertices of A and whose simplices
are the finite cliques of A. Recall a clique of A is a set Y of vertices such
that y E xL for each x, y E Y . Conversely if K is a simplicial complex
then the gmph of K is the graph A = A(K) whose vertices are the
vertices of K and with x * y if { x , y) is a simplex of K. Observe K is a
subcomplex of K(A(K)).
Given a simplicial complex K and a simplex s of K , define the star of s
to be the subcomplex s t K ( s ) consisting of the simplices t of K such that
4. Geometries and complexes 9
s U t is a simplex of K. Define the link LinkK(s) t o be the subcomplex
of s t K ( s ) consisting of the simplices t of s t K ( s ) such that t n s = 0.
A geometric complex over I is a geometry I? over I together with a
collection C of distinguished chambers of I' such that each flag of rank 1
or 2 is contained in a member of C. The simplices of the complex are the
,
subflags of members of C. A morphism cu :C -,C' of complexes over I is
a morphism of geometries with Ca G C'. Notice a geometric complex is
just a simplicial complex together with a type function on vertices that
is injective on simplices.
Example (8) The flag complex of a geometry I? is the simplicial com-
plex on I? in which all chambers are distinguished. Notice the flag com-
plex is a geometric complex if and only if each flag of rank a t most
2 is contained in a chamber. Further as a simplicial complex, the flag
complex is just the clique complex of I'regarded as a graph.
Many theorems about geometries are best established in the larger
categories of geometric complexes or chamber systems. Theorem 4.11 is
an example of such a result. We find in a moment in Lemma 4.3 below
that the category of nondegenerate chamber systems is isomorphic t o
the category of geometric complexes. I find the latter category more
intuitive and so work with complexes rather than chamber systems. But
others prefer chamber systems and there is a growing literature on the
subject.
Given a chamber system X define rx to be the geometry whose ob-
jects of type i are the equivalence classes of the relation - i t with A* B if
and only if A n B # 0.For x E X let C, be the set of equivalence classes
containing x; thus C, is a chamber in I?x. Define CX to be the set of
chambers C,, x E X , of I'x. If a : X --, X' is a morphism of chamber
systems define ac : CX 4 CXt t o be the morphism of complexes such
that ac : A H A' for A a -it equivalence class of X and A' the
equivalence class containing Aa.
Conversely given a geometric complex C over I let -i be the equivrt-
lence relation on C defined by A -i B if A and B have the same subflag
of type it. Then we have a chamber system XCwith chamber set C and
equivalence relations k r t h e r if a : C -+ C' is a morphism of com-
plexes let ax : XC--, Xct be the morphism of chamber systems defined
by the induced map on chambers.
Lemma 4.3: The categoy of nondegenemte chamber systems over I is
isomorphic to the category of geometric complexes over I via the maps
X w C x andC-XC.
10 Chapter 1 Preliminary Results
Example (9) Let G be a group and 3 = (Gi : i E I ) a family of
subgroups of I. For J 5 I and x E G define
SJ,Z = {Gjx :j E J ) .
Thus Sj,, is a flag of the geometry I'(G, 3)of type J . Observe that the
stabilizer of the flag SJ = SJllis the subgroup G j = njEGj. Define
C(G,3) to be the geometric complex over I with geometry I'(G,3)
and distinguished chambers Sz,,, x E G. Then C(G,3) is a geometric
complex with simplices Sj,,, J E I, x f G, and G acts as an edge
transitive group of automorphisms of C(G, 3 ) via right multiplication,
and transitively on C(G, 3 ) . Indeed:
Lemma 4.4: Assume C is a geometric complex over I and G is an edge
transitive group of automorphisms with C = CG for some C E C. Let
Gi = G,,, where xi E C is of type i, and let 3= (Gi : i E I). Then the
map x,g Gig is an isomorphism of C with C(G, 3 ) .
Further we have a chamber system X(G,3) whose chamber set is
GIGz and with Gzx ~i Gzy if and only if xy-' E Gil. Observe that
the map GIs I+ S1,, defines an isomorphim of the chamber systems
X(Gl 3 ) and XC(G,F).
The construction of 4.4 allows us to represent a group G on many
complexes. We make use of this construction in Chapter 13 as part of
our uniqueness machine.
Let C = (I?, C) be a geometric complex over I. Given a simplex S of
type J, regard the link Linkc(S) of S to be a geometric complex over
J'; thus the objects of Linkc(S) of type i E J' are those u E ri such
that S U {v) is a simplex and with v * u if S U {u, v) is a simplex, and
the chamber set C(S) of Linkc(S) consists of the simplices C - S with
S E C E C. For example, C = Linkc(@) is the link of the empty simplex.
Notice that if all flags are simplices then the geometry of Linkc($) is
the residue r(S) of S in the geometry r.
We say C is residually connected if the link of each simplex of corank at
least two (including 0 if 111 1 2) is connected. A geometry 'I is residually
connected if each flag is contained in a chamber and the flag complex of
I? is residually connected.
Lemma 4.5: Let 3= (Gi : i E I ) be a family of subgroups of G. Then
(1) I?(G,3 ) is connected if and only if G = (3).
(2) Linkc ( Sj ) C(Gj,3 j ) for each J E I, where
4. Geometries and complexes 11
(3) C(G,3) is residually connected if and only if GJ = ( 3 j ) for all
J E I.
Proof: Notice (1) and (2) imply (3) so it remains to prove (1) and (2).
As 3is a chamber, the connected component A of G, in I' is the same
for each i, and H = ( 3 ) acts on A. Conversely as Gi is transitive on
rj(Gi) for each j, A A' = Uj GjH, so A = A' and H is transitive on
ri n A for each i . Thus as G is transitive on I?,, I' is connected if and
only if H is transitive on I'i for each i, and as Gi < H this holds if and
only if G = H. Thus (1) is established.
In (2) the desired isomorphim is Gkx w SK,, for x E G j , K =
J U {k).
Lemma 4.6: Assume C is a residually connected geometric complex
over I, J C_ I with IJI 2 2, and x, y E I?. Then there exists a path
x = vo, ...vm = y in I? with 7(vi) E J for all 0 < i < m.
Proof: Choose x, y to be a counterexample with d = d(x, y) minimal.
As the residue l? of the simplex 0 is connected, d is finite, and clearly
d > 1. Let x = vo vd = y be a path. By minimality of d there is a
path vl = ug . .um = y with 7(ui) E J for 0 < i < m. Thus if r(vl) E J
. ..
then xu0 % is the desired path, so assume 7(vl) 4 3.
We also induct on the rank of C; if the rank is 2 the lemma is trivial,
so our induction is anchored. Now Linkc(vl) is a residually connected
complex and x,u1 E Linkc(ul), SO by induction on the rank of C, there
is a path x = wo-..wk = u1 with 7(wi) E J for 0 < i < k. NOW
x = w ~ " ' w ~ u ~="y 'does ~ the job.
Given geometric complexes C over J and over 3 define C €D to
be the geometric complex over the disjoint union I of 3 and whose
c
geometry is I? @ and with chamber set {C U : C E C, C E c}.
The basic diagram for a geometric complex C over I is the graph on I
obtained by joining distinct i, j in I if for some simplex T of type {i,j}'
(including 0 if III = 2), Linkc(T) is not a generalized digon. The basic
diagram of a geometry is the basic diagram of its flag complex.
Diagrams containing more information can also be associated to each
geometry or geometric complex. The study of such diagrams was hiti-
ated b y ' ~ i t s[TI] and Buekenout [Bu].
..
A graph on I is a string if we can order I = (1,. , n ) so that the
+ <
edges of I are {i,i 11, 1 i < n. Such an ordering will be termed a
string ordering. A string geometry is a geometry whose basic diagram
is a string. Most of the geometries considered in Sporadic Groups are
string geometries; for example:

12 Chapter 1 Preliminary Results
Example (10) The basic diagram of projective geometry is a string.
Lemma 4.7: Assume C is a ~esidudlyconnected geometric complex such
+
that I = I1 I2 is a partition of I such that Il and I2 are unions of
connected components of the basic diagmnt of I . Then C = c1 $ C2,
where Ci consists of the simplices of type Ii.
Proof: We may assume Ii # 0 for i = 1,2. By definition of the bwic
diagram, the lemma holds if I' is of rank 2. Thus we may assume Il has
rank at least 2. Let xi E ri;by 4.6 there cxists a path xl = vg . .vm = zz
with T ( v ~E) I1 for i < m . Choose this path with m minimal; if m = 1
for each choice of Xi we are done, so choose xi such that m is minimal
subject to m > 1. Then of course m = 2, so xi E Linkc(vl). But by
induction on the rank of I?, xl is incident with x2 in Linkc(vl), and
hence also in r.
The proof of the following result is trivial:
Lemma 4.8: If C is a geometric complez then the following are equiva-
lent:
( I ) All flags of I? are simplices.
(2) Linkc(S) = r ( S ) for each simplex S of C.
Lemma 4.9: Assume C is a residually connected geometric complex such
that the connected components of the basic diagram of C are strings. Then
all flags of C are simplices.
Proof: Assume not and let T be a flag of minimal rank m which is not
a simplex. As C is a geometric complex, m > 2. Pick a string ordering
.
for I and let T = { X I , .. ,xm) with r ( x i ) < r(xi+i). Let x = x2. By
.
minimality of m , { x i ,X )and (22,. . ,~ mare ) simplices. Further by 4.7,
Linkc(x) = $c2,where Ci is the subgeometry on Ii7 Il = {I), and
12 = (3, . .. .
,n}. Thus { x i ,x3,. . ,xm} is a simplex in LinkC(x),so T
is a simplex of C.
Lemma 4.10: Let G be a group and 3 = (Gi : i E I ) cs family of
subgroups of G, and assume C = C(G,F)is residually connected. Then
the following are equivalent:
(1) G is flag transitive on r(G,F).
(2) Each flag of r(G,3)is a simplex.
(3) r ( S J )= Linkc(SJ) 2 I?(GJ,FJ) for each J E I .
Proof: By 4.5.2 and 4.8, (2) and (3) are equivalent. As G is transitive
on simplices of C of type J for each J E I, (1) and (2) are equivalent.
5. The general linear group and its projective geometry 13
.
Theorem 4.11: Let G be a group, I = ( 1 , . . ,n), and 3 = (Gi : i E I )
a family of subgroups of G. Assume
(a) C(G, 3)is residually connected; that is, G j = ( 3 j )for all J C_ I.
(b) The diagram of C(G,3)is a union of strings; that is, (GillGjl) =
GrGy for all i, j E I with li - jl > 1.
Then
-
(1) G is flag transitive on r ( G ,3).
(2) r ( S j ) S r ( G j , F ~ ) f o r a l l J C I .
Proof: This follows from 4.9 and 4.10. Use 4.5 to see that the condi-
tions of (a) are equivalent and 4.2 to see that the conditions of (b) are
equivalent.
5. The general linear group and
its projective geometry
In this section F is a field, n is a positive integer, and V is an n-
dimensional vector space over F. Recall that the group of vector space
automorphisms of V is the general linear group GL(V).We assume the
reader is familiar with basic facts about GL(V),such as can be found
in Section 13 of [FGT]. For example, as the isomorphism type of V de-
pends only on n and F , the same is true for GL(V),so we can also write
GLn(F) for GL(V).
Recall that from Section 13 in [FGT] that each ordered basis X =
.
( x l , . . ,x,) of V determines an isomorphism Mx of GL(V) with the
group of all nonsingular n-by-n matrices over F defined by Mx(g) =
(gij), where for g E GL(V),gij E F is defined by Xi9 = C jgijXj:j. Thus
we will sometimes view GL(V) as this matrix group.
We write S L ( V ) or SLn(F) for the subgroup of matrices in G L ( V )of
determinant 1. Thus SLn(F) is the special linear group. As the kernel
of the determinant map, SLn(F) is a normal subgroup of GL,(F).
A semilinear transfornation of V is a bijection g : V --+ V that pr*
serves addition and such that there exists u(g) E Aut(F) such that for
each a E F and v E V , (av)g = ao(g)v. Define I' = r ( V ) to be the set
of all semilinear transformations of V . Notice the map (T : I' -+ Aut(F)
is a surjective group homomorphism with kernel GL(V) and r(V)is the
split extension of GL(V) by the group { f a : a E Aut(F)) 3 Aut(F) of
field automorphisms determined by the basis X of V , where
14 Chapter 1 Prelimina y Results
Notice also that r ( V ) permutes the points of the projective geometry
PG(V) and this action induces a representation of r ( V ) as a group
of automorphisms of PG(V) with kernel the scalar matrices. Thus the
image PI'(V) is a group of automorphiims of PG(V) which is the split
extension of PGL(V) by the group of field automorphisms.
If F = GF(q)is the finite field of order q we write GLn(q)for GLn(F),
SLn(q) for SLn(F), PGLn(q) for PGLn(F), and Ln(q) = PSLn(q) for
PSL,(F).
See Section 13 in [FGT] for the definition of the transvections in
GL(V) and properties of transvections.
Lemma 5.1: Let G = PGL(V), S = PSL(V), and H the stabilizer in
G of a point p of PG(V). Assume n 2 2. Then
(1) H is the split extension of the group Q of all transvections of V
with center p by the stabilizer L of p and a hyperplane U of V
complementing p.
(2) Q 2 U,L r GL(U), and the action of L by conjugation on Q is
equivalent to the action of L on U.
(3) Q is the unique minimal normal subgroup of H n L.
Proof:Let G = GL(V)and regard G as a group of matrices relative to
a basis X for V such that p = ( x l ) .Then the preimage H of H in G
consists of all matrices
with a(g) E F#, a(g) a row matrix, and A(g) E GL(U). Moreover
Q consists of the matrices g with a(g) = 1 and A(g) = I, while 2/
consists of all matrices h with a(h) = 0. Further gh E Q with a(gh) =
) . particular H is the split extension of Q by L, and
a ( h ) ~ ( h ) - l a ( g In
Q 2 U is abelian. Further 2= Lo x K , where K is the group of scalar
matrices and Lo consists of those h E 2with a(h) = 1. Thus the image
L of 2/ in G is isomorphic to Lo 2 GL(U), and the action of L by
conjugation on H is equivalent to the action of L 2 Lo on U 2 Q.
So (1) and (2) are established. Finally as the action of L on Q is
equivalent to its action on U,L (and even LnS) is faithful and irreducible
on Q, so Q is minimal normal in H. Now if M is a second minimal normal
subgroup of H , then ( M , Q ) = M x Q, so M 5 CH(Q)and M n Q =
1. But as H = LQ with L faithful on Q, Q = CH(Q),contradicting
MnQ=l.
The projective plane over the field of order 4 will be the starting point
6. Fiber products of groups 15
for our construction in Chapter 6 of the Mathieu groups and their Steiner
systems. In particular we will need the following result:
Lemma 5.2: Let F be the field of order 4. Then
(1) The group of automorphisms of the projective plane over F is
PI'3(F).
(2) A field automorphism f fies exactly 'sevenpoints of PG(V) .
Proof: Let X = { x l , x ~ , x 3be) a basis of V . First a proof of (2):A
typical point of V is of the form p = (Ciaixi), with aj = 1 for some j.
Then p f = (Cia f x i ) ,since the automorphism of F of order 2 defining f
is a w a2. Thus pf = p if and only if there exists b E F# with bai = a:
for each i. It follows that ai = 0 or b for all i. But as aj = 1, also b = 1.
Hence f fixes p if and only if all coefficients ai are in GF(2). So there
are precisely seven choices for p.
Next let M = Aut(PG(V)) and p = (xl).Then 'I = PI'(V) I M .
.
As I' is transitive on the points of PG(V), M = I' Mp,SO it remains
to show Mp 5 rp= H . Let A be the set of five lines through p. Then
HA = QB, where Q E1fj is the subgroup of 5.1 and B = (P) 2 Z3,
where p = diag(a,1 , l ) and (a) = F#. Further H* = Sym(A), so
Mp = HMA and it remains to show MA = QB.
Now Q is regular on the sixteen lines not through p, SO M A = QD,
where D is the subgroup of MA fixing the line k = (x2,x3).We must
S ~ O WD 5 r.
First D fixes k n m for each m E A , so D fixes each point of k. Suppose
d E D fixes a point T on m distinct from p and k n m. Then for each
+ + +
point t not on m , d fixes r ( ( T t ) n k ) = r t and then also fixes
+ +
t = ( r t ) n ( p t). But then d fixes each point not on m, so d = 1.
We have shown D is regular on the three points of m not on k and
distinct from p, for each m E A. Hence D = B 5 G, completing the
proof.
6. Fiber products of groups
We will need the notion of the fiber product of groups at several points.
For example, the notion is used in the proof of Lemma 8.17 and in
the construction in Section 27 of the centralizer of an involution in the
Monster.
Let cYi : Ai -, &, i = 1,2, be group homomorphisms and consider
the fiber product
 Chapter 1 Preliminary Results Exercises 17

Let pi : A -, Ai, i = 1,2, be the ith projection, and observe that we the hypotheses of (2), for b E B, vi E 6,
we have (vi @ v2)@ ( P i @ P 2 ) ) =
have a commutative diagram: vl(bP1)@ vz(P2) = vl(bhp1) 63 vz(bhp2) = (vi 8 vz)(bh(pl@p2), so (2)
' holds.
Remarks. The material on rank 3 permutation groups in Section 3
comes from D. Higman [Hi]. Most of the discussion on geometries, com-
plexes, and chamber systems in Section 4 is due to Tits in [TI], with the
last few lemmas from Section 4 appearing in [All.
Moreover the fiber product satisfies the following universal property: Our discussion of diagrams associated to geometries and geometric
Whenever we have a commutative diagram complexes has been restricted to the basic diagram. However, there is a
much more extensive theory of diagrams in the literature begun by Tits
, [Tl] and Buekenout [Bu]. See also [A21 and [RS].

Exercises
1. Prove Lemma 2.2.4.
then there exists a unique map h : B -, A such that the following 2. Let G be a 4-transitive subgroup of S6. Prove G = S6 or A6, and if
diagram commutes: the stabilizer in G of three points is of order 3 then G = A6.
3. Let I' be the projective plane over the field of order 4, L = L3(4) 5
B Aut(r), and g E Aut(r) an involution fixing exactly three points on
some line of I'. Let G = ( g , L) and prove G is L extended by a field
automorphism and if x is a point of I' fixed by g and A the set of
lines of I' through x then G$ = S5.
4. Let G be a primitive rank 3 group of even order on a set X of finite
. A1 A2 order n and let x E X. Prove
a Jaz (1) If K is a regular normal subgroup of G then n = pe is the power
A0 of a prime and K r Epe.
We record this as: (2) If n is not a prime power and G, is simple then G is simple.
5. Let I' be a string geometry on a string ordered set I = (1,. .. ,n).
Lemma 6.1: Let Pi : B -+ Ai, i = 1,2, be group homomorphisms
Prove that if ai * aj * ak with i < j < k then ai * ak.
with Plal = Pza2. Then there exists a unique group homomorphism
h :B -+ A = A1 XA, A2 such that
(1) hpi = P i fori =1,2.
(2) ker(pi) = ((1,az) : a2 G ker(a2)).
Lemma 6.2: Assume Ai IGL(Q),for F-spaces Q, i = 1,2. Then
(I) pi @ p z : A -r GL(Q @ b)is an FA-representation.
(2) Under the hypotheses of 6.1, h(p1 @ p2) = & @ P2 is an FB-
representation on V1@ V2.
Proof:First pi @ ps : A1 x A2 -t GL(Vl 8 V2) is a representation of
A1 x A2 which restricts to a representation of A, so (1) holds. Next under

Chapter 2
2-Structure in Finite Groups
In this chapter we record some facts about the 2-subgroups of finite
groups. In particular in Section 7 we recall some standard facts about
involutions; that is, elements of order 2. Then in Section 8 we consider
so-called large extraspecial 2-subg~0upsof a finite group G. Most of the
sporadic groups contain such subgroups. They will serve as an important
tool both in analyzing the structure of the sporadic groups and as part
of the hypotheses under which we characterize many of the sporadics.
See Chapter 5 for an idea of how this goes.
7 . Involutions
In this section G is a finite group. Recall that an involution in G is an
element of order 2. The following elementary result appears as 45.2 in
[FGT]:
Lemma 7.1: Let x and y be distinct involutions in G , n = Ixyl, and
.
D = (x, y) Then
(1) D is a dihedral group D2, of onler 2n.
-
(2) Each element in D (xy) is an involution.
(9) If n is odd then D is transitive on its involutions, so in particular
x is conjugate to y in D.
(4) If n is even then each involution in G is conjugate to exactly one
of x, y, or z, where z is the unique involution in (xy). Further
z E Z(D).
(5) If n is even and z is the involution in (xy) then xz is conjugate
to x in D i f and only if n r 0 mod 4.
7. Involutions 19
Given t E S E G and h E G, we write (S) for the subgroup of G
generated by S, th = h-lth and sh= {sh : s E S) for the conjugates
of t and S under h, and sG= {Sg :g E G) for the conjugacy class of S
under G .
Lemma 7.2 (Thompson Order Formula): Assume G has k 1 2
conjugacy classes of involutions with representatives xi, 1 5 i 5 k , and
define ni to be the number of ordered pairs (u,v ) with u E xf, v E x?,
and xi E (uv).Then
Proof: This is 45.6 in [FGT]. The proof is an easy counting argument.
Lemma 7.3: Let I be a G-invariant collection of involutions of G and
H 5 G . Then the following are equivalent:
<
(1) xG fl H = xH and CG(x) H for each x E I fl H .
(2) H n H g n I is empty f o r g ~ G - H .
(3) The members of H n I fix a unique point in the permutation
representation of G on G/H.
Proof: See 46.1 in [FGT]. Again the proof is easy.
An involution z is 2-central in G if z is in the center of a Sylow 2-
subgroup of G .
Lemma 7.4: Assume z is a &central involution in G and H 5 G such
that H is the unique point of GJH @ed b y z. Then
(1) IG : HI is odd.
(2) V x is a %element of H then xG fl H = xH.
Proof: By 7.3, CG(z) 5 H. As z is Zcentral, CG(z) contains a Sylow
2-subgroup T of G. So T 5 H and hence (1) holds.
Let x be a 2-element and g E G with x,xg H. We must show
xg = xh for some h E H. Conjugating in H we may take x,x9 E T.
Then z E C(xg), so zg-I E K = CG(x). Let R,S be Sylow 2-subgroups
of K containing z and zge1, respectively. As H is the unique point of
G / H fixed by t and R is nilpotent, H is the unique point of G / H fixed
by R (cf. Exercise 2.5). Similarly H ~ is-the~ unique point fixed by S.
By Sylow's Theorem there is k E K with R~ = S. Then {Hg-') =
Fix(S) = Fix(R)k = {Hk), so kg E H. Then xg = xkg with kg E H,
completing the proof.
20 Chapter 2 2-Structure in Finite Gmups
Lemma 7.5: Let I and J be distinct conjugacy classes of involutions of
G and H a subgroup of G such that:
(a) Each member of I U J &es a unique point of G / H .
( b ) For all a E I n H and b E ( I U J ) n H with ab = ba, we have
CG(ab)5 H . Then G = H .
Proof: Assume the lemma is false and let x E H n I and y E H n J. If
J H then for all g E G , { H g ) = Fix(y)g = Fix(yg) = { H ) . But then
H = G , as desired. So let u E J - H and D = (x,u). Then u $ xD so
by 7.1, x u has even order m d x z E I U J , where z is the involution in
(xu).But then x z E CG(x) 5 H , so by hypothesis (b), u E CG(z) 5 H,
a contradiction.
A subgroup H of a group G of even order is strongly embedded in G
if H is a proper subgroup of G and H n H9 is of odd order for each
g f G - H. Notice that by 7.3, this is equivalent to the assertion that H
is proper in G and each nontrivial 2-element in G fixes a unique point
of G / H .
Strongly embedded subgroups arise in this book as follows. Let X
be some subgroup of G , M = C G ( X ) ,and H 5 M. We wish to show
H = M, given that C G ( ( X , t ) )5 H for enough involutions t E H . We
use this information to show that if H # M then H is strongly embedded
in M; then we obtain a contradiction from Lemma 7.6. For example, we
may show that some 2-central involution of H fixes a unique point of
M / H and then use Exercise 2.10 to show H is strongly embedded in M.
Lemma 7.6: Let H be a stmngly embedded subgroup of G. Then there
exists a subgroup of H of odd order transitive on the involutions of H .
Proof: This is essentially contained in Exercise 16.5 in [FGT]; here are
the details. Let I be the set of involutions in G , t E I n H , u E I - H ,
and K = H n Hu. Then K is the subgroup of G fixing the points H and
H u of G / H and L = K ( u ) is the global stabilizer of (H, Hu). Also as
each nontrivial 2-element of G fixes a unique point of G / H , we have:
(a) K is of odd order.
Let J = ( k E K : kU = k-'1. By (a), uv is of odd order for each
v E I n L, so by 7.1, u J = I n L and K is transitive on u J . We claim:
(b) C H ( j ) is of odd order for each 1 # j E J .
For if t E C H ( j ) then t is not conjugate to u in X = C G ( j ) ( u )as
CG(j)a X. On the other hand X n H is strongly embedded in X , so 7.5
supplies a contradiction. Thus (b) is established. Notice (b) implies:
8. Extraspecial groups
(c) Distinct involutions in L are in distinct cosets of C H ( t ) , and
( I nL( 5 IH : CH(t)l.
Namely the maps v I-+ uvCH(t) and v t - i vCH(t) are injections of
I n L into H / C H ( t ) and G / C H ( t ) ,respectively. For if v , w are distinct
in I n L then 1 # wv E J so wv $ CG(t).Next we claim:
(d) I J I = l I n H I .
For let m = / I n HI and consider the set S of triples ( i , x ,y) such
that i E I and ( x ,y) is a cycle of i on G J H . Observe that III = mn,
where n = IG : HI, and i has (n- l ) J 2 cycles of length 2. Hence IS1 =
m n ( n - 1)/2. But also
where Mz,y is the number of involutions with cycle ( x ,y) and M is
the maximum of M,,,. Observe that by 7.5, G is transitive on I , so
by 7.3, H is transitive on I n H. Thus m = JW : C H ( t ) JBut
. by (c),
IH : CH(t)l 2 M , so M < m. It follows that MXly= m for all x , y; that
is, (d) holds. Finally observe:
(e) Distinct elements of J are in distinct cosets of CH(t).
For if j, k E J with k-l j E C H ( t )then ju, ku E I n L with
( u k ) - l ( u j ) = k-luuj = k-I j E C H ( t ) ,contrary to (c).
It follows from (d) and (e) that IK : CK(t)l 1 IJI = 11 n HI. But
IK : CK(t)l = ItK/ and tK C_ I n H , so tK = I n H . That is, K is
transitive on I n H, completing the proof.
Let H and S be subgroups of G. We say H controls fusion in S if
sG n S = sH for each s E S. We say S is weakly closed in H with respect
to G if sGn H = { S ) . Part (1) of the following lemma appears as 37.6
in [FGT]; part (2) is easy.
Lemma 7.7: Let p be a prime and T E SylP(G). Then
(1) If W is a weakly closed subgmup of G then N G ( W ) wntmls
fision i n C G ( W ) .
(2) If A, B g T and A E B~ then A and B are conjugate i n NG(T).
8. Extraspecial groups
The h t t i n i subgmup of a group G is the intersection of all maximal
subgroups of G. Write +(G) for the Frattini subgroup of G. Evidently
 22 Chapter 2 2-Structure in Finite Groups
9(G) is a characteristic subgroup of G. hrther
Lemma 8.1: If G is a group, X C G, and G = (X, 9(G)) then G = (X).
Lemma 8.2: Let G be a jinite p-group and A a group of automorphisms
of G of order prime to p. Then
(1) @(G) is the smallest normal subgroup H of G such that G/H is
elementary abelian.
(2) A is faithful on G/@(G).
Proof: See 23.2 and 24.1 in [FGT].
An elementary abelian p-group of order pm is a direct product of m
copies of the group Zp of order p and is denoted here by Epm.We
can regard such a group as an m-dimensional vector space over GF(p).
Thus if G is a pgroup then by 8.2.1 we can regard G/+(G) as a vector
space over GF(p), so by 8.2.2, A 5 GL(G/@(G)) for each group A of
automorphisms of G of order prime to p.
For x, y E G, [x, y] = x-ly-lzy is the commutator of x and y, and
for X,Y 5 G, [X,Y] = ([x,y] : x E X, y E Y). Recall that [X,Y] 5 X if
and only if Y 5 NG(X) (cf. 8.5.5 in [FGT]).
A pgroup E is extraspecial if E is finite with @(E)= Z(E) = [ElEl
and Z(E) is cyclic. As a consequence, Z(E) is of order p (cf. 23.7 in
[FGTI).
Lemma 8.3: Let E be an extrarpecial p-group, Z = Z(E), and E =
EIZ. Regard Z as GF(p) and E as a vector space over Z. Define f :
E X E - ~ Zby f(f,g)=[x,y]. Then
(1) (B,f )_ is a symplectic space over Z.
(2) dim(E) = 2n is even.
(3) If p = 2 define Q : E -+ Z by Q(Z) = x2. Then Q is a quadratic
form on E associated to f , so (E,Q) is an orthogonal space
over Z.
(4) Let Z 5 U 5 E. Then U is extraspecial or abelian if and only
if U is nondegenemte or totally isotropic, respectively. If p = 2
then U is elementary abelian if and only if 0 is totally singular.
-- --
,
- . . -Proof: See 23.10 in [FGT]. Also see Section 12.
Remark. (1) See Chapter 7 in [FGT] for a discussion of syrnplectic
and quadratic forms. The integer n in (2) is the width of E.
We write plf 2n to denote an extraspecial pgroup of order if p
is odd we also require that the extraspecial group be of exponent p.
8. Extraspecial groups 23
For odd p this determines up to isomorphism; see, for example,
23.13 in [FGT].
In the rest of this section we concentrate on extraspecial 2-groups.
Recall Ds and Qg are the dihedral and quaternion groups of order 8, re-
spectively. Notice each is extraspecial of width 1. Given two extraspecial
groups El and E2 define the central product El * E2 of El and E2 to
be the group (El x E2)/((zlr z2)), where (y)= Z(Ei). Notice El * E2
is also extraspecial. We can extend this construction to form the central
product
E1*.*.*Em=(E1*...*Em-l)*Em
---
of an arbitrary number m of extraspecial groups Ei. Thus El * * Em
is extraspecial. Write DtQZ(Z for the central product of n copies of D8
with m copies of Qg.
Lemma 8.4: Up to isomorphism D t and D ; - ~ Q ~are the unique ex-
+
traspecial groups of width n. The .%-'rank of D; is n 1 while D;-~Q*
has %rank n; hence the groups are not isomorphic.
Proof: See 23.14 in [FGT].
Remark. (2) Given a prime p, the p-rank v ( G ) of a group G is the
maximum m such that G has a subgroup isomorphic to Epm. Notice
that if E is an extraspecial 2-group then by 8.3.4, m2(E)- 1 is the Witt
index of E, so if E = Dj; then E has Witt index n while if E = D:-IQ~
then E has Witt index n - 1 (cf. page 78 in [FGT] for the definition of
the Witt index).
Lemma 8.5: Let E G D t or D ~ - ' Q ~ Z, = Z(E), E = EIZ, and Q
the quadratic form on & induced by E. Let A = Aut(E). Then
(1) c A ( E ) = Inn(E) % Ep.
(2) A/c~(E) = O(E,Q) r 0Sn(2), where e = +I if E r Dg and
e = -1 if E 3 D;-'Q~.
Proof:See Exercise 8.5 in [FGT]. Also see Section 12.
Remark. (3) Given a group H, Inn(H) is the group of inner auto-
morphisms of H: That is, those automorphiims of the form i, : h H hx
for some x E H. Notice Inn(H) is a normal subgroup of Aut(H).
Define a subgroup Q of a finite group G to be a large extraspecial
tsubgroup of G if:
(Ll) Q is an extraspecial e subgroup of G.
(L2) CG(Q) = z(Q) = 2.
24 Chapter 2 bStructure i n Finite Groups
(L3) Q 5 CG(Z).
(L4) IG(Q, 2') = 1.
Here klG(Q,2') is the set of subgroups K of G of odd order such that
Q 5 NG(K). Given a group A, let A# = A - (1).
Lemma 8.6: Let E4 Z A 5 G and X E MG(A,2'). Then
Proof: See, for example, Exercise 8.1 in [FGT].
Recall that if n is a set of primes then O,(G) is the largest normal
subgroup of G whose order is divisible only by primes in n. Thus if
p is a prime then Op(G) denotes the largest normal psubgroup of G.
Also p' is the set of primes distinct from p and Op!(G) is the largest
normal subgroup of order prime to p. O(G) = 021(G) is the largest
normal subgroup of odd order. Similarly On(G) is the smallest normal
subgroup N of G such that G/H has order divisible only by primes in
T. So O*(G) is the subgroup generated by all p'-elements of G.
Lemma 8.7: Assume Q satisfies (L1)-(L3) in G. Then
(1) If Z 5 02(G) then Q is large in G.
(2) If there exists an involution b in Q- Z with Z I O2(CC(b)) then
Q is large in G.
(8) Assume the width of Q is at least 2 and g E G - NG(Z) with
Zg 5 Q. Then Z 5 Qg, NG(ZZg)/CG(ZZg) Z S3, and Q is
large in G.
Proof: Let X E MG(Q,2'). If Z 5 Oz(G) then [Z,X] 5 02(G)n X = 1.
Thus X 5 CG(Z), so as Q a CG(Z), [Q,X] 5 Q n X = 1. Hence
X 5 CG(Q) = 2, so X = 1. That is, (1) holds.
Assume the hypothesis of (2) and let Z = (2). Then A = (z, b) E4.
Notice bz = bx for some x E Q, so z E 02(CG(bz)).Thus s E 0 2 ( C ~ ( a ) )
for all a E A#. By 8.6, X = (Cx(a) : a E A#). As Z 5 Oz(CG(a)),
[Z, Cx (a)] < Oz(CG(a))n X = 1. Thus X 5 CG(Z), so X = 1 by (1)
applied t o CG(Z) in place of G.
Finally assume the hypothesis of (3). Here let b = zg and A = (z, b).
Again bx = bz for some x E Q. Observe x E M = NG(A) and x induces
the transposition (b, bz) on A#. So if y E M - CG(Z) then (y, x ) 5 M
induces S3 on A#. In particular we may choose g E M to act as (b, z)
on A#. Then Zg 5 Q so Z = 2 g 2 L: Qg, and (3) holds.
So assume M 5 CG(Z). Then Z & Qg. Let P = Qg, R = CQ(b), and
P* = P/Zg. As Q has width at least 2, R = Zg x S with S extraspecial.
8. Extraspecial groups 25
In particulm A = Z(R). Also [R Cl P, R] 5 [Q,Q] n P = Z n P = 1.
SO R n P 5 Z(R) n P = Zg. Thus [Cp(Z),R] P n R = Zg. Thus
[Cp(Z)*,R] = 1. Also Cp.(Z) = Np(A)/Zg = Cp(Z)/Zg as M 5
CG(Z).SOCp. ( 2 ) = Cp(Z)* = Cp*(R).
Let Y = Cp(Z)R. Then Y* = Cp(Z)* x S* with S* 2 S extraspecial.
<
Thus Q(Y*) = cP(S*) = Z*. Therefore Np. (Y*) 5 Cp. (2) Y*. Thus
P* 5 Y* (cf. 9.10 in [FGT]) so P 5 CG(Z), contradicting (L2), and
completing the proof.
We now consider some examples. See Section 10 in [FGT] for a dis-
cussion of the notions of extension, split extension, and complement.
Lemma 8.8: Let G be the split extension of U % E2n+l, n 2 1, by
M = GL(U), and let Z be of o d e r 2 in U. Let Q = 02(CG(Z)).Then
Q Z Dg is large in G and CG(Z) is the split extension of Q by Ln(2).
Proof: Observe CM(Z) is the split extension of the group W E2n
of transvections with center Z by L S Ln(2). Let Q = U W and H =
CG(Z).Then Q = 02(H) so (L3) holds. As M is faithful on U, CG(U)
<
U, SO CG(Q) Z(Q) 5 U. Also Z = CV(W), SO Z = Z(Q). Thus (L2)
holds. Next [W, U ]= Z, so Z = [Q,Q] = G(Q). Hence (Ll) holds. As
Z 5 02(G), Q is large in G by 8.7.1.
Now Q is of order 22n+11so Q has width n . Then by 8.4, m(Q) 5 n+l.
+ +
But m(U) = n 1, so m(Q) = n 1 and by 8.4, Q E Dg.
Lemma 8.9: Let G = L,+2(2), n 2 2, z be a tmnsvection in G, and
Q = O2(CG(z)). Then Q E D? is large in G and CG(z) is the split
extension of Q by Ln(2).
Proof: First G = GL(V) for some n+ 2-dimensional vector space V over
GF(2). Let (v) be the center of z and K = CG(v).Then by 5.1, K is the
split extension of U r E2n+l by M = GL(U). Further CG(s) 5 K, so
CG(z) = CK(2). Therefore Q % Dg satisfies (L1)-(L3) in K , and hence
also in G by 8.9. Finally Zg < U < Q for g E K - NG(Q),so Q is large
in G by 8.7.3.
Lemma 8.10: Let G = M24 and (X, C) the Steiner system for G (cf.
Section 18). Let z be an involution in G with Cx(z) E C. Then Q =
02(CG(z))r D: is large in G and cG(z) is the split extension of Q by
L3(2).
Proof: Let B E C. By 19.1, NG(B) is the split extension of U E16 by
M E L4(2). Further for z E u#,B = FixX(z); for example, if T is a
3-set in B then B - T is a line in the projective plane on X - T and z
is a transvection in L3(4) with axis B - T.
 Chapter 2 &Structure in Finite Groups
So CG(z) 5 NG(B). Now complete the proof as in 8.9.
Remark. (4) Notice by 8.9 and 8.10, G1 = M24 and G2 = L5(2) are
simple groups such that there exist involutions zi E Gi with CG,(zl) E
CG, (z2). There is one further simple group G3 possessing an involution
z3 with CG, (z3) E CGI(zl): Namely the sporadic group H e of Held. This
is the only example of three nonisomorphic simple groups Gi, 1 i 3, < <
possessing involutions zi with CGi(zi) E CGj(zj) for all i,j. However,
the classification of the finite simple groups is required to verify this fact.
On the other hand the following result has an elementary prooE
Brauer-Fowler Theorem: Let H be a finite group. Then there exist
at most a finite number of finite simple groups G with an involution t
such that CG(t) 2 H .
See, for example, 45.5 in [FGT] for a proof of the Brauer-Fowler Theo-
rem, or the original proof in [BF]. The Brauer-Fowler Theorem supplies
the philosophical base for the classification. We find in Chapter 14 that
M24, L5(2), and H e are the only simple groups G possessing an invo-
lution z with CG(z) isomorphic to the centralizer of a transvection in
L5(2).
The next two lemmas show that a group with a large extraspecial
2-subgroup is close to being simple.
Lemma 8.11: Let Q be a large extraspecial Zsubgroup of G, Z(Q) =
Z = (z), and M = (ZG). Then one of the following holds:
(1) Q 3 G.
(2) M is abelian and F*(G) = Oz(G).
(3) M = F*(G) is a nonabelian simple group.
(4) M = L x Lu = F*(G) for some nonabelian simple group L and
u E Q. Further z = zlz; for some zl E L with CL(zl) = R
Sy12(L) and @(R) I(zl). Moreover Q # Oz(CG(z)).
Remarks. (5) See Section 31 in [FGT] for the definition of the gener-
alized Fitting subgroup F*(G) of G and a discussion of the properties of
this subgroup. In particular F*(G) is the product of the Fitting subgroup
F(G) of G with the product E(G)of the components of G. F'urther the
- components of G are the subnormal quasisimple subgroups of G, while
- .
a group L is quasisimple if L = [L, L] and L/Z(L) is simple.
(6) With some extra work it can be shown that in case (4), G E
ZzwrAs, G 2 ZzwrL3(2), or G is of index 2 in Z2wrS5. For example,
Exercise 2.3 is a beginning in that direction. See Section 11 in FGT] for
the definition of the wreath product AwrB of groups A and B.
8. Extraspecial groups 27
1 Now the proof of 8.11. First O(G) E MG(Q,2') = 1 by (L4).
Suppose P = 02(G) # 1. Then 1 # Cp(PQ), so' Z = Cp(QP)
by (L2). Then Z 5 Z(P) G, so M = (ZG) 5 Z(P). In particular
M is abelian. Also by (L2), 02(F*(cG(Z))) = 1. But as Z 02(G), <
0 2 ( ~ * ( G )= ) 31.14.2 in [FGT]). Thus F*(G) =
) o ~ ( F * ( C ~ ( Z ) )(cf.
02(G) and (2) holds in this case.
So we may assume G has no nontrivial solvable normal subgroup.
Hence F*(G) = E(G). Let L be a component of G and Y = (LQ).As
O(G) = I, L has even order, so by (L2), Z 5 Y. Now if K is a component
< <
of G not in LQ then K 5 CG(Y) CG(Z), so K E(CG(Z)) = 1.
Thus Y = F *(G).
It remains to show (3) or (4) holds, so we may assume G = YQ but
Y # L. Hence as Q is generated by involutions, there is an involution
u E Q - NG(L), Let R = CL(z) and zl the projection of z on L. Define
a map n : R -, Y by x.rr = [x,u] = x-'xu. As (L, Lu) = L x Lu, n is
an injection and the restriction of n to any abelian subgroup of R is a
group homomorphism. h r t h e r [x, u]E Q by (L3), so RT G Q. Then for
x E R, T : (3) + Q is an injective group homomorphism, so 1x1 divides
4 with ( x T ) ~= z in case 1x1 = 4. Therefore x2 = zl if 1x1 = 4. We
conclude R is a 2-group with @(R) 5 (zl). By (L2), Z is in the center of
a Sylow 2-group of G and hence zl is in the center of a Sylow 2-group
of L. So R = CL(z) = CL(zl) E Sy12(L). As L is simple, IRI > 2 (cf.
39.2 in [FGT]), so there is r E R - (zl) and as [r,u]$ Z, r $ Q. Thus
as R 5 02(CG(Z))), Q # 02(CG(Z)).
It remains to show Y = LLu. As IRI > 2, Rn contains a subgroup of Q
of order at least 4, so for each v E Q, 1# CRn(v). However, r E CR,(v)
projects only on L and LU, so v acts on {L, LU). Thus as Y = (LQ),
Y = LLU.
E
Lemma 8.12: Let z be an involution in a finite group G such that
(1) F*(CG(z)) = Q is an extraspecial Bgmup of Width at least 2.
(2) K 5 G with U = (zK) abelian and CG(z) = ( U ~ G ( Z ) ) .
(3) Either zK n Q # {z) or there exists u E U n Q - (z) with
z E 02(CG(u)).
Then G is simple and Q is large i n G.
Proof: Let H = CG(z). As Q = F*(H), CG(Q) = CH(Q) I Q (cf.
31.13 in FCT]). So Q satisfies (L1)-(L3) in G.
Next if zK n Q # {z) then Q is large in G by 8.7.3. Similarly if
u E U n Q - (z) with z E 02(CG(u)) then Q is large in G by 8.7.2.
So in any event Q is large in G. Let M = (zG). Then U 5 M, so
28 Chapter 2 2-Stmcture i n Finite Groups
H = (uH) 5 M. In particular as Q = 02(H), M -$ 02(G). Also
as U = (zK) f (I) and (z) = Z(Q), Q is not normal in G. Hence
M = F*(G) is simple by 8.11.
Finally as H 5 M , Exercise 2.1 says G = M. That is, G is simpIe.
The remaining lemmas in this section, while crucial to the analysis in
Part 111, are more difficult and technical. The reader may wish to skip
or postpone these lemmas.
Lemma 8.13: Let z be an involution in G with Q = F*(CG(z)) ex-
traspecial and A a subgroup of odd order in CG(z). Let R = CQ(A) and
assume lRI 2 32, O(CG(AR)) 5 A, and g E G with zg E R - Z. Let
M = CG(A)A, and M* = MIA. Then AZ = CM(RA)A, R* is a large
extraspecial subgroup of M*, and zg is conjugate to z in (R, CQg (A)).
Proof: By Exercise 2.2, R is extraspecial and Q = R * [Q,A]. Thus if we
let D = CM(RA) and P E Sy12(D), we have P n Q = Z. Therefore P / Z
is faithful on Q/Z and hence by the Thompson A x B Lemma (cf. 24.2
in [FGT]), P / Z is faithful on R/Z. That is, P = Z. So DA = A x Z.
Next by 8.7, z E Qg. So Zg # R1 = CQs(A). Then by Exercise 2.2, R1
is extraspecial, so z is fused to tzg under R1. Hence (R, R1) is transitive
on (z, zg)#, so we may choose g E (R, R1).
As AZ = CM(RA)A, Z* = CM.(R*), so R* satisfies (L1)-(L3) in
-
M*. As g E M with zg E R Z, R* is large in M* by 8.7.
Lemma 8.14: Let z be an involution in G, H = CG(a), Q = F*(H)
extraspecial of width at least 3, and t an involution in Q n Qg - zG
for some g E G with zg E Q - Z. Assume CH (CQ(t)/(t, z)) = Q and
let M = CG(~),and M* = M/(t). Then CQ(t)* is a large extmspecial
subgroup of M* and zg is conjugate to z in (CQ(t),CQg(t)).
Proof: Let P = C Q ( ~and) observe that P * is extraspecial. As t 4 zG
but tz E tQ, z is weakly closed in (z, t) with respect to G, so CM*(zt) =
CH((a,t))*. In particular P* 5 CM=(t*)and as CH(P/(t,z)) = Q,
CM=(P*)= Z*. That is, P * satisfies (L1)-(L3) in M*.
Next t E Q n Qg and as t 4 zG, t # (z, zg) = A, so there exist
-
T E P - C(z9) and s E CQg(t) H. Then (r, s) induces S3 on A so we
may take g E (P,CQ9(t)). Therefore P * is large in M* by 8.7.3.
Lemma 8.15: Let Q be a large edmpecial bsubgmup of a finite gmup
G, IQI = 21+2w With w 2 2, Z = (I) = Z(Q), H = CG(z), g E G - H
with zg € Q, V = (2, zg), X = (Q, Qg), R = (Qg n H)(Q n Hg), and
8. Extmspecial groups
E = Q n Qg. Then
(1) R = Cx(V) = Oz(X) and X/R 2 S3.
(2) V = Z(R), E 5 Zz(R), and R has nilpotence class at most 3.
(3) R and R / E are elementary abelian with R / E = (Q n Hg)/E x
(Qg n H)/E.
(4) [X, El 5 V.
(5) NG(V) = XCH (V) with X 5 NG(V) and NG(V)/R = X/R x
CH(V)/R.
(6) R / E is the tensor product of the Zdimensional irreducible for
X/R 2 S3 with the module (Q n Hg)/ E for CH(V)/R.
+
(7) m2(E) < w 1 and in case of equality Q 2 Dg, E / V is dual
to (Q n Hg)/E as a CH(V)/ R-module, and (Qg n H ) / E induces
the full group of transvections on E / Z with center V/Z.
(8) Let m+ 1 = m2(E). Then E22w-m-1 Z RQ/Q CHIQ(V/Z). In
particular if E2"-x 2 O2(CHIQ(V/Z)) then m(E) = w 1. +
Proof: As Q is a large extraspecial 2-subgroup of G, Q 9 H, so Qg nH
and Q n Hg are normal in R. F'urther R = CQR(V) 5 QR. Also by 8.7,
X/Cx(V) 2 S3 is transitive on v#, so we have symmetry between z
and zg , and hence Qg < NG(R), so that R 5 X.
As 1Q : Q n RI = 2, X/R is dihedral. Indeed as Q is conjugate to Qg in
X, X/R 2 D2, with n odd by 7.1. Then QR/R inverts O(X/R) while
[Q, Cx(V)] 5 CO(V) 5 R, so Cx(V) = R. Then as X/CX(V) Z S3,
(1) is established:
Next [Q,El = Z 5 V, so (4) holds and E 5 Zz(R).As [Qg n H, Q n
<
Hg] Q n Q9 = El we conclude R / E = (Q n Hg)/E x (Qg n H ) / E and
as @(Q)= Z, R / E is elementary abelian. Similarly @(E)5 Z n Z g = 1,
so E is elementary abelian and (2) and (3) are established, except for the
statement V = Z(R). But suppose y E Z(R) - V. As V = Z(Q n Hg),
@ ~ . ~ i m i l ya&r lQ~g , s o y = a b , a ~ Q n R - Q g a n d b ~ Q g n R - Q .
Now [Q n Hg, b] = [Q n Hg, a] = Z, so y* = b* induces a transvection
on 0 with axis vL = (Q n Hg)/Z. This is impossible as the axis of a
transvection in O(Q)is the subspace orthogonal to a nonsingular point,
v
whereas is singular. So the proof of (2) is complete.
As X induces S3 = Aut(V) on V, NG(V) = XCH(V). AS X =
(Qx : x E NG(V)), X a NG(V). Then as R = Cx(V), NG(V)/R =
X/R x CH(V)/R.
Now Q/R interchanges (Qg n H ) / E and (&st nH ) / E for t E Q - R,
30 Chapter 2 2-Structure in Finite Groups
and as [Q n Hg, t] I Z, (Q nHg)/E = CRIE(t). Hence R/E is the sum
of m((Q n Hg)/E) 2-dimensional irreducibles for X/R E S3, and thus
(6) holds.
+
Finally as @(E) = 1, m(E) L w 1 by 8.3. By (5), RQIQ a
CH/~(V/Z).Also RQ/Q R/(R n Q) = (Qg n H)(R n Q)/(R n Q) r
(Q n Hg)/E E E2zw-m-1. Thus (8) holds,
+
Assume m(E) = w 1. Then by 8.4, Q G D?. Further E is a maximal
totally singular subspace of Q, so Q/Eis dual to E as an NH(E)-module,
and hence as vL = (Q n Hg)/Z, also (Q f l Hg)/E is dual to E/V as an
NH (E)-module.
Lemma 8.16: Let Q be a large extraspecial 2-subgroup of a finite group
G of width w 2 2, Z = (z), H = CG(z), g, k E G with E8 g V =
(z, zg,zk) ) Q n Qg n Q~ = U. Let X = ( Q , Q ~Q, ~ ) ,R =
CQ(V)CQ#(V)CQ~(V),S = (Q n Qg)(Q n Q ~ ) ( Q
nQ~ ~ I+ ,1 ~=
m(Q n Qg), and u = m(U). Then
(1) R = Cx (V) = Oz(X) and X/R = GL(V) cx L3(2).
(2) V 5 Z(R) and [X, U] 5 V with @(U)= 1.
(3) NG(V) = XCH(V) with X NG(V) and NG(V)/R = X/R x
CH(~)/R-
(4) S/U is the sum of m - u + 1 copies of the dual of V* and R/S
+
is the sum of 2(w - m) u - 3 copies of V as an X/R-module.
ProoE The proof is much like that of 8.15. As in 8.15, R = CQR(V) 5
QR, and then R q X. Moreover Q, Qg, Q~ induce the group of transvec-
tions on V with center 2, Zg, Zk, respectively, so V 4 X and X/CX(V) =
GL(V) s L3(2).
Next [Q,Cx(V)] 5 CQ(V) 5 R, so Cx(V)/R 5 Z(X/R). Let Y =
(Q,Qg). By 8.15, YR/R C Sq, so by Gaushutz's Theorem (cf. 10.4 in
[FGT]) X/R splits over Cx(V)/R. Further Q n Hg < O ~ ( Y ) R 5 XmR
and similarly Q n Hk 5 XwR, so Q = (Q n Hg)(Q nH ~ 5) XwR and
hence X = XwR and R = Cx(V). Thus (1) is established.
The proof of (2) and (3) are as in 8.15. Next [Y,QnQg] 5 ZZg 5 V by
8.15, and S/(Q n Qg) = ( S n Q)(S nQg)/(Q n Qg) is the sum of natural
modules for Y/02(Y) by 8.15, with [S,Oq(Y)] < Q n Qg. Similarly
(Q, Q ~ acts ) on S, so S a X. Then S/U is the sum of m((Q n Qg)/U)
copies of V* by Exercise 2.9. Similarly Qg n H and Q~ n H centralize
c Q ( v ) s / s , so H n x = ( ~ ngH , Q ~n H ) centralizes c ~ ( v )= Q n R
modulo S. Further by 8.15, R/(Q n R)S G (Qg n R ) ( Q ~ n R)/(Qg n Q ~ )
is the sum of natural modules for (H f l X)/02(H n X), and then (4)
holds by Exercise 2.9.
8. Extraspecial groups 31
Lemma 8.17: Let G be a perfect group with F*(G) = Q an extraspecial
2-group and G/Q quasisimple. Let p : G -t G be the universal covering
of G, 2 = ker(p), and Q = p - l ( ~ ) .Assume
(a) Q = Q/Z(G) is an absolutely irreducible GF(2)G-module, and
(b) H ~ ( G , Q )=o.
Then
(1) Q = [ Q , G ] x z ~ ~ ~ ~ [ Q , G ] E Q .
(2) The natural map a : G/Q -t G/Q is the universal covering of
G/Q with 2 %! ker(u).
(3) H is a finite group with F*(H) 3 Q and H/Z(H) g G/Z(G) if
and only if H G/V for some complement V to IQ, G] in Q.
(4) If G/Q = R(Q) and cr is a transvection in O(Q) then a lifts to
an automorphism of G.
Remark. (7) See Section 33 in [FGT] for a discussion of coverings.
Recall O(Q) and R(Q) are the isometry group of the orthogonal space
Q and the commutator group of that isometry group, respectively.
Now the proof of lemma 8.17. Let R = o~(Q).As G/Z r G is perfect
with 2 5 Z(G) and Z(Q) = Z(G), Z(G) = p - l ( ~ ( ~ ) )Let . Z = z(&).
Observe Q = RZ. As Q is extraspecial, R is of class 2. Let P = [R,GI.
As H ~ ( G , Q )= 0, R/?(R) splits over (Z n R)/@(R)) by 17.12 in
[FGT]. Thus P/@(P) E Q and Q = PZ with @(P)= P f l Z. As is of
exponent 2 and P is of class 2, @(P)is of exponent 2 (cf. 23.7 in [FGT]).
Let U be a hyperplane of @(P).Then P/U is extraspecial so the com-
mutator map induces a nondegenerate bilinear form ( , ) on P/@(P) Q
preserved by G/Q G G/Q as described in 8.3. As G is absolutely irre-
ducible on Q, ( , ) is the unique G-invariant nondegenerate bilinear form
on Q (cf. Exercise 9.1 in [FGT]). Pick x, y E P with (Z,&) # 0 and let
u = [x, y]. If @(P)# (u) we can pick U with u E U,SO 0 = [x, y] mod U,
contradicting (Z, 6) # 0.
Thus @(P)= (u), so P r Q and Q = P x 2. That is, (1) holds.
As G is perfect, so is G and hence also G/P.Thus as G/Q is quasisim-
ple, so is G/P.Let a1 : L -+G/Pbe the universal covering of G/Pand
a2 : G -+ G/Pthe natural map. Form the fiber product A = L x,=,/~ G
with respect to the maps a1 and crq as in Section 6, and let pl : A -+ L
be the projection. By 6.1, ker(pl) = ( ( 1 , ~ ): a E ker(aa)) P.
As P = [P, GI, P i s generated by commutators a = [x, b], b E P, x E G.
As a 1 is surjective there is y E L with yal = xcrq. Then (y,x) E A and
32 Chapter 2 &Structure in Finite Groups
[(y, x ) , (1, b)] = ([y, 11,[ x ,b]) = (1,a). Therefore ker(pl) _< [A, A]. But as
L is perfect, A = [A,A]ker(pl), so A is perfect.
Now A is perfect and p2 : A -, G is a surjection with ker(pz) =
{(c,l) : c E ker(a1)). But ker(a1) L Z(L), so k e r h ) 6 Z(A), and
hence p2 is a covering. Therefore as p : G + G is universal, p2 is an
isomorphism (cf. 33.7 in [FGT]). Thus 1= ker(al) and G/Pr L. Thus
(2) is established.
Assume the hypotheses of (3). Then H is a perfect central extension
of G/Z(G). But as G is the universal covering group of G, it is also the
universal covering group of G/Z(G) (cf. 33.7 in [FGT]), so we have a
<
surjection r#~: G + H with ker(4) 2. Then as 4 : P -t 02(H) is an
isomorphism, ker(4) is a complement to P in Q, establishing (3).
Finally assume the hypotheses of (4). Then a lifts to an automorphism
/3 of G/Z(G) as G/Z(G) = Aut(Q) (cf. Exercise 8.5.3 in [FGT] or 12.16).
Then as G is the covering group of G/Z(G) and P is a covering of G, /3
lifts to an automorphism of G.
Remarks. The Brauer-Fowler Theorem appears in [BF]. See Chap-
ter 5 for more discussion of its importance in the study of simple groups.
I believe 7.6 is due to Feit.
Phillip Hall introduced the notion of an extraspecial group, and
Thompson and Janko did the early work on groups with a large extraspe-
cia1 2-subgroup. Eventually such groups were classified via the efforts of
a number of mathematicians, most notably Timmesfeld in [Tm]. Many
of the Iater results in Section 8 come from Section 17 of [A2j.
Exercises
1. Let Q be a large extraspecial subgroup of G and Q 5 L q G. Prove
G = LNG(Q).
2. Let Q be a large extraspecial 2-subgroup of G and A a subgroup
NG(Q) of odd order. Prove Q = CQ(A) * [Q,A], [Q,A] is extraspecial,
and either CQ(A) = Z ( Q ) or CQ(A) is extraspecial.
3. Let L be a nonabelian simple group and z an involution in L such
that R = CL(z) E Sylz(L) and @(R)= (z). Prove R D8.
(Hint: Use transfer and fusion arguments such as in Section 37 and
Exercise 13.1 in [FGT]. In particular prove z is not weakly closed in
R with respect to G and exploit this fact.)
4. Assume z is an involution in a finite group G, H = CG(z), Q = F*(H)
is extraspecial of width at least 2, z is not weakly closed in Q with
Exercises 33
respect to G,H/& is simple, H is irreducible on Q/(z), and Q is not
the weak closure of z in H. Prove G is simple.
5 . Assume G is transitive on X and z E G fixes a unique point of X.
Prove each nilpotent subgroup of G containing z fures a unique point
of X.
6. Let G be a finite group with F*(G) = Q r ~ ; and f G/Q L?L' Sli(2).
<
Prove there exists Z3 2 A G with CQ(A) = R Q;, and that
CG(A)= A x L with R = F*(L)and LIREQg(2).
7. Let A be a nontrivial elementary abelian 2-subgroup of G, M =
NG(A), and assume each element of A# fixes a unique point of
G/M. Prove either G = M or NM((t,A)) is transitive on cA(t)#
for each involution t E M.
8. Let G be a 2-group, H be of index 2 in G, t E G - H , and assume
is a series of normal subgroups of G such that Hi+i/Hi is elementary
abelian and 1 ~ ~ , + , / ~ , = ( tIHiS1/Hil
)1~ for all 0 5 i < n. Prove
(1) G is transitive on the involutions in tH.
(2) = !HI-
<
9. Let G = L3(2), S4 r H G, F the field of order 2, X the permuta-
tion module for G on G / H over F, and Y the natural &dimensional
module FG-module in which H fixes a point. Prove
(1) dim(Cx(H)) = 2.
(2) X = [X, G] @ Cx(G) with dim(Cx(G)) = 1, Soc([X, q)% Y*,
and X/Soc(X) 2 Y .
(3) If V is an FG-module in which [V,02(H)I 5 CV(H)and
V/CV(H) is the sum of natural modules for H/02(H) L2(2),
then V is the sum of dim(CV(H)) copies of Y as an FG-module.
10. Let G be a finite group, H a proper subgroup of G, and z a %central
involution of H such that z fixes a unique point of GIH. Let U be
the set of Zsubgroups U of H such that CG(U) is not contained in
H. Then
(1) G has a normal subgroup M such that M n H = 02(.H). In
particular if z E o ~ ( H )then M, o ~ ( H )satisfy our hypotheses.
(2) U # 0 and if U is maximal in U,K = CG(U), and K* = K/U
then
(a) ( H n K)* is strongly embedded in K*.
(b) ZG n u = 0.
34 Chapter 2 2-Structure in Finite Groups
(c) (H n K)* has a subgroup of odd order transitive on the in-
volutions of ( H n K)*.
(Hint: Use 37.5 in [FGT]) for (I).)
11. Let H be a finite group with F*(H) = Q an extraspecial 2-group,
(z) = Z(Q), H = H/(z), and H* = HI&. Recall by 8.3 that Q is an
orthogonal space over GF(2) and H* 5 o(Q). Prove
(1) Each involution t* in H* is of type am, bm, or h,where m =
, is even for type a and c but odd for type b, [Q,t] is
m ( [ ~ , t ] )m
totally isotropic but [Q, t] is totally singular if and only if t* is of
type a, and finally t* $ R(Q) if and only if t* is of type b.
(2) tz E tQ if and only if t is of type b or c.
(3) iQ= ~ Q Fwhere , Q ~ / ( z=
) [~,t].
(4) Each involution in tQ is in tQ:, where Q$/(z) = Ca(t).
(5) O(Q) is transitive on involutions of type a,, b, and c, for
each m, and a ( ~ is) also transitive except that if m = dina(~)/2
then R(Q) has two orbits a& and a%, where for tr E a i , [Q,ti],
i = 1,2, are the two classes of maximal totally singular subspaces
of Q under R(Q).
(Hint: See [ASe].)
i
.
Chapter 3
Algebras, Codes, and Forms
The Griess Algebra is a certain nonassociative, commutative algebra on
196,884 dimensional Euclidean space constructed by R. Griess. Its a u t e
morphism group is the largest sporadic group, the Monster. In Section
9 we record a few elementary facts about algebras; in particular we find
that a nondegenerate bilinear form 7 on a space V determines an iso-
morphism between the space of algebras on V and the space of trilinear
forms on V. Thus the Griess algebra corresponds to a trilinear form and
in Chapter 10 we use both the algebra and the form to construct the
Monster.
In Section 11 we find that each map P : V -+ F of a vector space V
over the field F of order 2 into F with P(0) = 0 determines a sequence
of derived forms P, : Vm -t F. This sequence is used in Chapter 4
to study a certain class of loops we call symplectic %loops which are
generalizations of 2-groups of symplectic type. Following Conway, we
use a certain symplectic 2-loop discovered by Parker to construct a 2-
local in the Monster and then in Chapter 10 use this 2-local to assist in
the construction of the Griess algebra.
In Section 10 we briefly recall a few elementary facts about error cor-
recting codes. In Chapter 6 the Steiner system for the Mathieu group
M24 is used to construct the Golay code, a doubly even binary code pre-
served by M24. In Section 11 we find that each binary code V naturally
determines a map P and its derived sequence. If the code is doubly even
then P3 is a trilinear form. In Chapter 7 we use the trilinear form defined
by the Golay code to study the Mathieu groups.
36 Chapter 3 Algebras, Codes, and Forms
9. Forms and algebras
In this section F is a field and V an F-space. Given vector spaces I/i,
1 i< < n, denote by M(V1,... ,Vn;V ) the F-space of all functions
f : Vl x - x Vn -, V where addition and scalar multiplication are
defined by
.
for a , € M(V1,. . ,Vn;V ) ,xi E I/i, and a E F. Write L(V1,. . . ,Vn;V )
for the subspace of all n-linear maps a ; that is, for all i and each choice of
X j E ~ , j # i , t h e m a p z i ~ a ( x l ., ,xn)isalinearmapfrom&toV.
..
We write Ln(V) for L(V1,. . . ,Vn;F ) and Mn(V) for M(Vl, ... ,Vn;F ) ,
when V, = V for each i. Thus Ln(V) is the space of n-linearforms on V .
Given a group G represented on each &, we obtain a representation
of G on M ( h , . . . ,Vn;V )via (ag)(xl,.. . ,x,) = . ..
,xng-l).
In particular we have that GL(V) acts on Ln(V) in this manner.
We also have a representation of the symmetric group
Sn = Sym((1,.. . ,n ) )
on Ln(V) via (as)(xl,... ,x,) = a(xls-1,. .. ,xn,-I). The form a is
symmetric if a is fixed by each element of Sn and a is alternating if
a s = sgn(s)a for each s E Sn, where sgn(s) = 1if s E An and sgn(s) =
-1 if s E Sn -An.
Let a E Mn(V). An isomety of (V,a) is some g E GL(V) such that
cug = a , or equivalently
for all xi E V . Write O(V,a ) for the isomety group of the form.
Let X = { x i , . .. ,xm) be a basis for V and write X n for the set of
all ordered n-tuples from X. Given a E Ln(V),we write
..
to indicate that a(yl,... ,yn) = ayl,...,y,. The term ayl,... ,y, y l q yn is
called a monomial of a. Observe that as a is n-linear, a is determined
by its monomials. Further if a is symmetric then ay -
,, - ayla,... ,
for all s E Sn, so our convention is to write down just one monomial
from each orbit of S,.
Lemma 9.1: Let v = Bier& and a E L ~ ( vThen ). a =
JEZ3 aJ ,
where for J = (i,j, k ) E I ~ a5 , € L ( K ,V j ,Vk;F ) is defined by
~ k YT) , E K.
( Y J ( Y ~ , Y ~ >=Ya~() ~ i , ~ j , for
9. Forms and algebras 37
Remark 9.2. If a is symmetric then o = JE13JS3 a J , where r3/s3
is some set of representatives for the orbits of S3 on I3 acting via
subject to our convention of displaying only one monomial of a in an
orbit of S3.
Lemma 9.3: Assume a is a symmetric trilinear form on V , G 5
O(V,a) is a 2-group of exponent 2 acting on Fx for each x in some
basis X for V , and azyzxyz is a monomial of a with azyz # 0. Then
(1) CG((X,Y ) ) = CG(.Z).
(2) Ifg E G inverts x and y then zg = z.
, for each w E X and some
Proof: Let g E G, by hypothesis wg = bw
b, E F. As G is of exponent 2, bw = f l . Now axyz = a ( x ,y,z) =
a(xg,yg,zg) = bxbybzaxyz,so as axyz# 0,bxbybz= 1.
An algebra on V is some T E L 2 ( v ;V ) = L(V, V ;V ) . We write u * v
for the image r ( u ,v ) of the pair (u,v ) E V x V under T and call u * v
the product of u and v. Thus an algebra is a vector space together with
a bilinear product.
Lemma 9.4: Assume 7 is a nondegenemte bilinear form on V . Then
(1) There exists an isomorphism by : r I+ by(r)of the space L'(v;V )
of all algebras on V with the space L 3 ( v ) of all trilinear forms
on V , where b7(r)(x,y , Z ) = d x * y, z ) .
(2) The inverse of this isomorphism is t7 : a -+ t y ( a ) , where
t7(a)(x,y ) is the unique element of V such that r(t,(x, y), z ) =
a($,y, z ) for all z E V .
(3) The stabilizers in O(V,y) of r and by(r) are the same.
We have the following analogue of 9.1:
Lemma 9.5: Let V = eiEl& and T an algebra on V . Then T =
J E Z 3 T J , where for J = (i,j, k ) E 13, T J E L(K, %; Vk) i s defined
by T J ( Y ~yj), = ~ k ( r ( y~j )i) , for YT E VT and pk : V Vk the kth
projection.
Remark 9.6. Assume 7 is a nondegenerate bilinear form on V . Define
an algebra r to be symmetric with respect to 7 if the trilinear form
b = by(r) of lemma 9.4 is symmetric. Notice that this forces T t o be
commutative; that is, r ( x ,y ) = ~ ( yx ), for all x , y E V .
Assume in addition that V is the orthogonal direct sum of subspaces
&, i E I ; that is, (&, 5)= 0 for i # j. (We write V = V I L IVk to
38 Chapter 9 Algebras, Codes, and F o m
indicate that V is the orthogonal direct sum of Vl,. . . ,Vk.) By Remark
9.2, b = CJEIsIS3 bj , where 13/s3is some set of representatives for the
orbits of S3 on I ~We . claim:
Lemma 9.7: bJ = b7(rJ).
For let J = (i,j, k ) . Then for xr E 6,
Now r(xiCi,x j ) = CTP T ( T ( X ~ ,x j ) ) = CrTijr(xi1x ~and
) then as our sum
is orthogonal1 xi,xj),~ k =) ( ~ i j k ( xxj), i , xk) = bnl(7~)(xi,x j 1x k ) ,
establishing the claim.
It follows from 9.2, 9.4, and 9.7 that T is determined by the maps rJ,
J E 13/s3, so we abuse notation and write
Notice that for i,j E I , ri = riii is symmetric with respect to the
restriction of 7 to and riij is commutative.
Conversely if for each J = {i,j, k) E 13/s3 we are given maps
t~ E L(V,, Vj; V k ) such that t~ is symmetric with respect to the re-
striction of y to V, when i = j = k and t~ is commutative when i = j,
then t = CJ E I S I S 3 t~ is a symmetric algebra (subject to our notational
conventions) with bt = CJ E I B I S 3 btJ .
Lemma 9.8: Assume X is a basis for V and G 5 GL(V) permutes
Y = f X . Let 0 be a symmetric trilinear form on V and
the set of nonzem monomials of p on V . Then
(1) G 5 O(V,p) if and only if G permutes M . That is, for all g E G
and (Y , z) E Y 3 , axyz = axg,yg,zg.
~ 1
(2) Assume H a G, K F G with G = H K , and M o G M such
that K permutes Mo, H < O(V,p), and each member of M is
H-conjugate to some member of Mo. Then G < O(V,P).
ProoE Part (1) follows as /3 is determined by its monomials. Assume
the hypothesis of (2).As H < O(V,P)and G = H K , it suffices to show
K < O(V,p). Hence by (1) it suffices to show K permutes M. But if
axy,xyz E M then by hypothesis there are h E H and a~,p,~3$.i. E Mo
with ( t , g , i ) h = ( x ,y, 2). As K acts on Mo, agk,pk,ik = a5,pc for all
k E K , and as H < O(V,P), auvw = aug,vg,wgfor all g E H and
9. Forms and algebras 39
Lemma 9.9: Let char(F) # 2, -y a nondegenerate symmetric bilinear
form on V , r a symmetric algebm map on V , b = b7(r), G < O(V,y, b),
and z an involution in the center of G. Let V+ = Cv(z), V- = [V,z],
Q 5 G a 2-group with 9(Q)5 (z),Vs = CV(Q), and & = [V+,Q]. For
a E V define
Then
(1) v = v - I V , I & .
(2) X E Hom(V,End(V)),where X : a H A,.
(9) V+ is a subalgebm of V .
(4) If U is a G-invariant subspace ofV then G acts on End(U) via
9 : P ++ ~ 9 where
, 4 ( u ) = p(ug-l)g. Further A: = Xag for each
aEV andg~G.
(5) X induces E H m ( U ,End(W)) for ElW ) = (V+,V-),
(Vs,V-), (V,, V-), and (Vs,V,), where A$ ( w ) = Xu(w) fm
u€Uandw€W.
Proof: As char(F) # 2 and @(Q)5 ( z ) ,we can diagonalize Q on V+.
Pick a basis X for V that is the union of bases for V,, V,, and V-, and
such that Q is diagonal with respect to X on V+. Let Xi = X il4.
Now for x E X+, y E X->y(xly) = y(xz1yz) = T(x,-Y) = - ~ ( x , Y ) ,
so y(x, y ) = 0 and V = V-IV+. Similarly as Q is diagonal on V+,
v+= V S I & .
As T : (u,v ) H u * v is bilinear, (2) holds. As z preserves r , (3) holds.
The first statement in (4) is easy. For the second, A:(v) = =
(a * ~ 9 - l =)~ag * v = Aag(v),SO XQ = Aag.
Suppose V = U I W and b(u,ul,w) = 0 for all u,u' E U, w E W .
Then 0 = b(u,ul,W ) = (U * w,ul) = (AU(w),d),SO XU(W)C U I = W ,
and hence E H m ( U ,End(W)) by restricting (2). In particular
~~l~
b(V+,V+,V-) = 0 by 9.3 applied to G = ( z ) ,so (5) holds for U = V+
and W = V . . Then ( 5 ) also holds for U = Vs and V, by restriction.
Similarly b(G,V,, V,) = 0 by 9.3 applied to G = Q / ( z )acting on V+, so
(5) holds for (U,W ) = (V,, V,).
40 Chapter 3 Algebras, Codes, and Forms 11. Derived Forms 41

10. Codes
A linear binary e m r correcting code is a triple C = (V,X, U), where
V is a finite-dimensional vector space over GF(2), X is a basis for V,
snd U is a subspace of V. The elements of U are the code words. If
d i m ( V ) = n and dim(U) = m then the code is an (m,n)-code.
We can view V as the power set of X with addition of two subsets u, v
of X defined to be the symmetric difference of u and v. From this point of
view the basis X consists of the one element subsets and v = EXEX azx
is identified with its support {x E X : ax = 1). The weight of a code
word u is the order of its support in the basis X, or equivalently if we
regard u as a subset of X by identifying u with its support, then the
weight of u is (uI.The Hamming distance d on U is defined by
In Section 19 we will encounter codes preserved by the Mathieu groups
including the binary Golay code which is a perfect (23,12)-code with
minimum weight 7 and correcting 3 errors.
11. Derived Forms
In this section V is a finite-dimensional vector space over F = GF(2)
and P : V -+ F is a function with P(0) = 0. For m a positive integer
and x = (xi,. . . ,xm) E Vm, write 2m for the power set of (1,. ,m)..
and for I E 2m let I(x) = xiGI
xi. Define

Thus d counts the number of places in which u and u' differ. The mini- The form Pmis the mth derived form of P.
m u m weight of the code is the minimum weight of a nonzero code word.
Notice this is also the minimum distance between distinct code words. Lemma 11.1: Let P E M(V; F) with P(0) = 0 and Pmthe m t h derived
The code words can be regarded as the admissible words sent as a form of P. Then
string of n zeros and ones. If errors are introduced in transmission we (1) Pmis symmetric.
receive a different word, hopefully in V- U.If M is the minimum weight (2) FOT all x,y,xi E V,
of the code, then the code can correct e errors, where e = [(M- 1)/2].
Namely if we receive a word v then we decode v as the member of U
of minimum distance from v. As long as at most e errors have been
introduced, there will be a unique code word u at minimum distance
from v, and u will have been the word sent. Thus we will have corrected (3) If v = {xl,. .. ,xm) is linearly dependent then Pm(v) = 0.
the error introduced in transmission. ..
(4) If v = {xl,. ,xm) is linearly independent then Pm(v) =
Given any u E U and positive integer r , we can consider the ball C u E ( v ) P(u).

B,(u) = {v E V : d(u, v) < r)
of radius r around u. A code C is perfect if C has minimum weight 2ef 1
and for each v E V, there is a unique u E U with v E BT(u). That is,
the code is e-error correcting and every member of V can be decoded
uniquely.
The group of automorphisms of the code (V,X, U)is the subgroup of
Sym(X) acting on U.Equivalently it is the subgroup of GL(V) acting
on X and U.
The level of the code is the greatest integer k such that 1 2 ~ 1 = 0
mod for all u E U.If the level of the code is at least 1 the code
is said to be even and if the level is at least 2 the code is doubly even.
Define the code to be strictly doubly even if the code has level 2.
Proof: Parts (1) and (4) are immediate from the definition of Pm.In
part (2) let z = (x2,. .. ,x,). Then by definition of Pm,
so (2) holds.
We prove (3) by induction on m. If m = 1 then (3) holds as P(0) = 0.
Assume the result for m. Let y = x i and x = Xm+l. We may as-
.. + ..
sume x E (y, x2,. ,xm) and x y E (22,. ,xm). SO by induction
.
on m, Pm(x + y, Z) = 0.Further if (xi,. . ,x,) is linearly dependent
then P(x,z) = P(y,z) = 0 by induction, while if (xl,. . . ,xm) is lin-
early independent then P(x, z) = P(y, z) by (4). Thus Pm+l(x, y, Z) =
+
P,(z, Z) P m ( ~Z), = 0, SO that (3) holds.
42 Chapter 3 Algebras, Codes, and F o m
Define deg(P) to be the maximum d such that Pd # 0. By 11.1.2,
Pm = 0 for m > dim(V), so deg(P) is well defined and deg(P) 5
dim(V). Observe also that by 11.1:
Lemma 11.2: Let P E M(V; F) with P(0) = 0 and d = deg(P). Then
Pd is a symmetric d-linear form on V.
Examples (1) The form P is of degree 1 if and only if P is linear.
(2) The form P is of degree 2 if and only if P is a quadratic form on
V (cf. Chapter 7 in [FGT]). Moreover in that event Pl is the bilinear
form associated with P and O(V, P) is an orthogonal group.
Lemma 11.3: If X is a set, V the GF(2) space of all subsets of X
under symmetric diffemnce, and u,v, w E V then
Lemma 11.4: Assume (V, X, U) is a binary error correcting code of level
1 and identify each v = CzEXazx E V with its support {x E X : ax =
1). Define P E M(U; F ) by P(u) = Ju1/2' mod 2. Let (xl, ...
,xm) E
Urn. Then
(1) I n g l x i l 5 0 mod 21-m+1 f o r m < l + l .
(2) Pm(x1, . . . , ~ ~ ) = l x l n . ~ . n x ~ l /mod2.
2'+~-~
+
(3) deg(P) S 1 1.
Proof: We first prove (1) and (2) by induction on m. Notice when m = 1,
(1) holds as our code is of level 1 while (2) holds by definition of P. So
the induction is anchored. Next let x = XI, y = x2, z = (xg,. . . ,xrn),
and v = nZ3 xi. Then by induction on m and 11.3,
=Prn-1(x,z)+Pm-l(y,z)-l~nynvl/2 mod 2.
Thus as Pm-l(u, z) E Z for u = x, y,x + y, we conclude lx n y n vl = 0
mod 21-m+1 and by 11.1.2, Pm(x, y, z) = lx n y n ~ 1 / 2 l - ~ + 'mod 2.
+
That is, (1) and (2) are established. Finally when m > 1 1, (2) says
-P~(X y,,z) = 0, so (3) holds.
Example (3) Let X be a basis for the GF(2)-space V and U the core
of V with respect to X; that is, U consists of the vectors of even weight.
Then (V,X, U) is of level 1, so the form P of 11.4 is of degree 2. That
is, P is a quadratic form on U.
11. Derived F o m s 43
We now specialize to the case where P is a form of degree 3, and
let C = Pz and f = P3. Thus f is a symmetric trilinear form by 11.2.
The triple (P,C, f ) induces extra geometric structure on the projective
geometry PG(V) of V (cf. Example 1 in Section 4) by allowing us to
distinguish subspaces of the same dimension via the restriction of our
forms to such subspaces. The next few lemmas introduce some geometric
concepts useful in studying this geometry.
Recall the radical of a symmetric bilinear form b on V is Rad(b) =
V I = {u E V : (u,v) = 0 for all v E V). Similarly a vector v E V is
singular with respect to a quadratic form q on V if q(v) = 0. More gen-
erally see Chapter 7 in [FGT] for a discussion of bilinear and quadratic
forms. In particular the proof of the following lemma follows trividy
from the definition of a quadratic form.
Lemma 11.5: For x E V let f, E L ~ ( v )and Cx E M ~ ( v ) be defined by
fsc(ylz) = f (x, y, Z) and Cx(y) = C(x, y). Then CZ is a quadratic form
on V with associated bilinear form fx.
Define R(x) = Rad(f,) and for U 2 V define R(U) = nUEU
R(u)
and UB = {x E V : f, = 0 on U). Observe that as f is trilinear, UB is a
subspace of V. Define U to be subhyperbolic if UB is a hyperplane of V.
Lemma 11.6: Let U be a subhyperbolic subspace and define fv E M ~ ( u )
by fv(x, y) = f (z, x, y) for z E V - UB. Then
(1) fu is independent of the choice of z V U8. -
(2) fv is a symmetric bilinear form on U.
(3) For A 5 U,R(A) n U is the subspace of U orthogonal to A with
respect to fu.
Proof: Parts (1) and (2) are trivial. For u E U and v E UB, f (A, u, v) =
0, so u E R(A) if and only if fu(A, u) = 0. Thus (3) holds.
Define a U 5 V to be singular if P is trivial on U and V = UB. Define
a line 1 of V t o be hyperbolic if all points of 1 are singular but 1 is not
singular.
Lemma 11.7: Let S V with P(s) = 0 for all s E S. Then (S) is
singular if and only if S G R(s) for each s E S.
Proof: Let U = (S)and x E V. Certainly the condition on S is necessary
for fx t o be trivial on U for all x E V. Conversely given the condition, U
is generated by a set of pairwise orthogonal singular points with respect
to the quadratic form C,,so C, is trivial on U.Finally let u = CKTt for
some T C S; we prove P(u) = 0 by induction on )TI.Namely u = s v, +
44 Chapter 3 Algebras, Codes, and F o m
Exercises 45

where v = Ctf t and by induction P(v) = 0, so P(u) = P(v) P(s) + +
C(s,v ) = 0.
Lemma 11.8: Assume (V,X , U ) is a strictly doubly even code and define
P E M'(v), C E M ~ ( V )and
, f E M 3 ( v ) by
P ( x ) = Ixl/4 mod 2;
C ( x ,y ) = 1x n y1/2 mod 2;
f ( x ,y, z) = 1x n y n zl mod 2.
Then
(1) C = P2 and f = P3 are the derived forms of P.
(2) deg(P) 5 3 so f is a symmetric trilinear form on V with
f ( x , x ,y) = 0 for all x , y E V .
(3) If dim(V) r 0 mod 8 then there are induced forms on V / ( X ) .
Proof: This follows from earlier lemmas.
Define a 3-form on V to be a triple F = (T,Q, f ) such that T : V -, F ,
Q : v2-* F, Q is linear in the first variable, and for all x, y, z E F:
(F1) T ( x + Y ) = T ( x )+ T ( Y )+ Q(x,Y ) + Q(Y,2).
(F2) f is a symmetric trilinear font on V .
(F3) Qx is a quadratic fonn with associated bilinear fonn f,; that is,
QX(Y+ 4 = Q X ( y +) Q x ( ~+
) f d y 14,
where QZ : Y Q(x,Y ) and fz : ( Y , z ) H f (2,Y , 4.
Thus T is a cubic form and Q is a linear family of quadratic forms.
Lemma 11.9: Let X be an ordered basis for V , and f a symmetric
trilinear form on V with f ( x ,x , y) = 0 for all x , y E X . Then
(1) 3 = (T,Q, f ) is a 3-form, where
Remarks. The material in Section 11 comes from [A41 but part of
that material is a rediscovery of earlier work of H. Ward. In particular
the notion of a derived form is a special case of what Ward calls com-
binatorial polarization in [Wa2],while the coding theoretic construction
of Lemma 11.4 appears first in [Wa3].
Exercises
1. Prove Lemma 11.9.
2. Assume the hypotheses of Lemma 11.8 and define
€:U-tv*
by cJ(v)= I J nvl mod 2. Prove:
(1) E is a well-defined surjective linear map with V 5 ker(e).
(2) If dim(V) = dim(U)/2 then e induces an isomorphiim of U/V
and V*.
(3) For u,v,w E V , cunw(v)= f(u,w,v).
3. Let V be a GF(2)-space and P : V -+ GF(2)a form. Suppose w 5 V
with P(w) = 1 for all w E w#. Prove:
(1) If dim(W) = 3 then P3(x,y, z) = 1 for each basis ( x ,y, z ) of V .
(2) If P has degree at most 3 then dim(W) 3. <

(2) 3 is unique subject to T ( x )= Q(v,x ) = 0 for all v E V , x E X .

<
(3) If G O(V,f) and for all x E X , u E xG, and v E V , T ( u ) =
Q(v,u ) = 0, then G 5 O(V,3).
Proof: Exercise 3.1.

Chapter 4
Symplectic 2-Loops
Recall that a loop is a set L together with a binary operation possessing
an identity, and such that for each x E L, the left and right translation
maps a H xu and a H ax are permutations of L. Notice that the
associative loops are precisely the groups. A loop is Moufang if it satisfies
a certain weak form of associativity (cf. Section 12). For example, by
Moufang's Theorem (cf. 12.2) each 2-generator subloop of a Moufang
loop is a group.
In Section 12 we study loops L which are extensions of the additive
group of the field F of order 2 by a finite-dimensional vector space V
over F. We term such loops symplectic &loops, as the groups of this form
are the direct product of an elementary abelian 2-group with a 2-group
of symplectic type (cf. page 109 in [FGT]).In particular the extraspecial
Zgroups of Section 8 are examples of symplectic 2-loops.
Each symplectic 2-loop L is determined by a cocycle 0 : V x V -,F and
comes equipped with a power map P, a commutator C, and an associator
A. weview asforms forms P : v-+F, C : v2-+F, and^: v3 -+ F.
In Section 1 2 we find that the central isomorphism type of L is determined
by the equivalence class of 8 modulo the coboundaries, and that this class
is determined in turn by the parameters par(L) = (P,C,A).
Then in Section 13 we find that L is Moufang if and only if (in the
language of Section 11) P has degree at most 3 and C = P2 and A = P3
are the derived forms of P. Moreover if L is Moufang then there exists
a cocycle 8 defining L such that (P,$,A) is a 3-form in the sense of
Section 11.
12. Symplectic 2-loops 47
Finally in Section 14 we see that if L is a Moufang symplectic %loop of
order 2nf l such that the radical of the associator A of L is 1-dimensional,
then a construction of Conway suppIies a group N containing a large
extraspecial 2-group Q 2 D i such that IN : NN(Q)I = 3.
In Chapter 7 we will construct a form P of degree 3 on a 12-dimension-
a1 F-space preserved by the Mathieu group M24. The corresponding
syrnplectic 2-loop is the Parker loop. When Conway's construction is
applied to the Parker loop we obtain the normalizer N of a 4group in
the Monster. This group is used in Chapter 10 to construct the Griess
algebra and the Monster.
This chapter is used elsewhere in the book only in Chapter 10 in the
construction of the Griess algebra and the Monster. Thus readers skip-
ping that chapter can skip this one too. Also much of the discussion in
Sections 12 and 13 is not necessary for the construction of the Mon-
ster. The Remarks at the end of this chapter indicate which lemmas
are necessary. On the other hand the material in these sections places
the Conway construction in a larger context which hopefully makes the
construction more natural and hence easier to understand. Further it
answers questions which will probably occur to the reader as the con-
struction unfolds.
12. Symplectic 2-loops
We begin by recalling some generalities about loops which can be found
in [B]. A loop is a set L together with a binary operation (x, y) I+ xy on
L such that
(Ll) L has an identity 1.
(L2) For each x E L the maps a I+ xa and a I-+ m defined via left
and right multiplication by x are permutations of L.
In the remainder of this section assume L is a loop. The loop L is said
to be Moufang if L satisfies the Moufang condition (MF):
(MF) For all x, y,z E L, (xy)(zx) = (x(yz))x.
Further L is diassociative if the subloop generated by each pair of
elements of L is a group.
Lemma 12.1: Assume L is Moufang and let x, y E L. Then
48 Chapter 4 Symptectic 2-Loops Id Symplectic 2-loops
Proof: Specialize y to 1 in ( M F ) to get (1). Then specializing z to x in (2) There exist 8 E 8 and an isomorphism a! : L -+ L(8) such that
(MI?)and using (1)we get (xy)x2= (x(yx))x= ((xy)x)x.But by (L2), Ira! = (1,O).
each u E L can be written in the form u = XY for some y E L, so ux2 = Proof: Exercise 4.1.
( u x ) ~giving
, (2).Similarly (3)follows by specializing y to x in (MF).
Remark 12.5. From 12.4 we have a bijection 8 I-+ L(8) between the
Theorem 12.2 (Moufang's Theorem): Moufang loops are diassocia- F-space 8 ( n )and the set of ail symplectic 2-loops defined on F x V.
tive.
Because of 12.4 and 12.5, we may take L = L(8) for some cocycle 0
Proof: See Chapter VII, Section 4 of [B]. We require Moufang's Theo- and n = (1,O). For x, y, z E L, define
rem only for syrnplectic 2-loops, where the result is easy to prove using
P(x) = x2,
12.1 and 12.3; see, for example, Exercise 4.5.
Define L to be a symplectic 2-loop if L is the extension of the additive C(x,Y ) = ( X Y ) ( Y X ) - ~ ~
group Z2 of the field F = GF(2) by a finihdimensional vector space V 4 x 1 Y,z) = (x(yz))((xy)z)--l.
over F. That is, here exists a surjective morphiim q5 : L -+ V of loops
Thus P is the power map, C ( x ,y ) is the commutator of x and y, and
such that ker(q5)E Z2.
A(x, y, z ) is the associator of x, y , z. The parameters of L are the triple
In the remainder of this section assume L is a symplectic 2-loop with
par ( L )= (P,C,A). Write par(8) for par (L(8)).
defining morphism q5 : L -+ V and ( 1 , ~ = ) ker(q5). Let n = dim(V).
Notice that
Observe
P(xn) = P ( x ),
Lemma 12.3: (1) For x, y E L, 4 ( x ) = $ ( y ) if and only if y = x or nx.
(2) n i s in the center of L. That is, for all x , y E L, xn = nx and c(x7ri,y d )= C ( x ,y),
(xy)n = x(yn) = (xn)y.
(3) For each x E L - (n),the subloop ( x ,n ) generated by x and n is a and
group of order 4, and the inverse x-I for x in ( x ,n) is the unique left,
right inverse for x in L.
Proof: As $(L) = V is a group of exponent 2, d ( x ) = $(y) if and only if for all x, y,z E L by 12.3. Further as Lq5 = V is an elementary abelian
1 = 4(x)q5(y)= $(xy) if and only if xy E ker(4) = (1,n). In particular,
2-group, P(x),C ( x ,y), A(x,y , z ) E (n). Thus we can and will regard the
by (L2) there are exactly two elements y E L with 4 ( x ) = +(y),and parameters P, C,A as maps from V n into F. Further we write 8(x,y) for
these must be x and xn = T X . So (1)holds. Then as +(xy)= q5(x(yn))= + +
e(q5(z),+(Y)), 8(x,Y z) for 0 ( 4 ( ~ ) , 4 ( y )d(z)),etc. Subject to these
#((xn)y),(1) implies (2). Finally (2) implies (3). conventions we calculate:
Lemma 12.6: For all x,y, z E V:
The usual construction from homological algebra for studying exten-
sions of abelian groups can be used to analyze our loops. Define a cocycle (1) P ( X )= e(x,X I .
on V to be a map 8 : V x V -+ F such that 8(v,0) = 8(0,v) = 0 for +
(2) C ( x ,y ) = B(z,y) 8(y,x), so C is symmetric.
all u E V. Write 8 = 8(n)for the space of all cocycles on a space V (3) 4 3 ,Yl z ) = @(x, + +
Y ) O(Y, z) + '4x9 Y + z ) + e(x Y 1 4 .
of dimension n. Given a cocycle 8 define L(8) = F x V and define a Write FV for the set of all maps E : V -+ F such that ~ ( 0=) 0. For
product on L(8) via E eE
E F~ denote by the cocycle defined by
(a,u)(b,v ) = (a + b + O(U, v ) ,u + v).
Lemma 12.4: (1) For each 8 E 8, L(8) is a loop and the projection Such cocycles will be termed coboundaries. Evidently the set of cobound-
(a,u) w u is a surjective morphism of loops whose kernel ((0, O ) , (1,O)) aries forms a subspace of the space of cocycles. Define an equivalence
is in the center of L(0) and isomorphic to Z2. +
relation on @ via 8 8' if 8' 8 is a coboundary.
N N
50 Chapter 4 Symplectic 2-Loops
Define Map(L) to be the set of functions a : L -t L permuting the
cosets of (T), acting as the identity on ( x ) , and such that the induced
map on V is linear. We also write a for this induced map; thus cr E
GL(V).Observe that there exists E, E FVsuch that
&(a,u) = (a + ea(u), a(u))-
Conversely given r E FVand a E GL(V) we get a E Map(L) defined
+
by a(a, u) = (a r(u), a(u)).
Given Ole1E 8, a centml isomorphism cr : L(8) 4 L(8') is an isomor-
phism acting as the identity on (T) and such that the induced map on
V is the identity. Thus if a is a central isomorphiim then a E Map(L)
with the induced map a on V the identity.
Lemma 12.7: Let 8,B' E €3 and a E Map(L). Then
+
(1) a : L(8) -+ L(0') is an isomorphism if and only if 8 8' o a + and Q(V) = 0 for v # XJ.
es, = 0.
(2) a is a centml autornorphisrn of L(8) if and only if the induced
map is the identity on V and e, f H m F ( V ,F).
Proof: Part (1) is an easy calculation, while (2) is a consequence of (I).
Lemma 12.8: Let U be a hyperplane of V and x E V - U. Assume
8,8/ E 8 with par(8) = and 8 = 8' on U and on all lines of V
amugh X. Then 8 = 8'.
Proof: The proof is by induction on n. If n = 1 the result is trivial as
8(x,x) = P(x) = B'(x,x). Similarly if n = 2 then V is a line through
x, so the lemma holds. Hence n 2 3. If n > 3 and y,z E V then
W = (x, y, z) # V, so by induction on n, 8 = I3' on W. In particular
8(y, Z) = el(ylZ) and as this holds for all y, z E V, 8 = 8'.
So let n = 3. Let U = (y,z). Now as 8 = 8' on U, 8(y, z) = 8'(y, z)
and as 8 = 8' on all lines through x, 8(x, y) = B1(x,y) and B(x, y + z) =
+ + +
8'(x, y 3). Hence by 12.6.3, 8(x y, t ) = 8'(x y, z). That is,
+ +
(a) 8(x u, v) = B1(x U,v) for a11 U, v E U.
+
Next substituting z x for z in 12.6.3, we conclude:
+ + + +
Now (a) and 12.9 imply 8(x y, x z) = B1(x y,x 2). That is,
(b) 8 ( ~ + ~ , ~ + ~ ) = 8 ' ( ~ + u , x + v ) f o r a l l ~ , v ~ U .
Notice that (a), (b), and the fact that 8 = 8' on U complete the proof
of 12.8.
12. Symplectic 2-loops 51
Lemma 12.10: Assume V = (x, y), par(8) = par(O1), and 8(x, y) =
#(x,Y). Then 8 = a'.
+
Proof: First by 12.6.2, 8(y, x) = B(x, y) C(X,y) = 8'(y, x). Next spe-
cializing y to x and z to y in 12.6.3, respectively, we obtain:
Lemma 12.11: A(x, x, z) = B(x, x)+B(x, z)+B(x, x+z) and A(x, y, y) =
+ + +
e(x, y) B(Y,Y) 8 ( ~Y,Y)for all X,Y, z E V.
We conclude from 12.11 that 8(x, x+ y) = A(%,x, y) +P(x)+O(x, y) =
+ +
B1(x,x + y) and similarly B(y, x Y) = #(Y, x y). So indeed 8 = O',
completing the proof of 12.10.
Let I = { l , ... , n ) , X = { x i : i € I) beabasisforv, and for k c Z
let A(k) = {J C I : IJI 2 k). For J E A(l), let m(J) = max(j : j E J),
3 = J - {m(J)], and XJ = xjer xj. Define r j E FVby r j ( ~ j =
) 1
Lemma 12.12: Let d E 9 ( n ) and a : A(2) -+ F. Then there exists a
-
unique 8 E 8(n) with par(8) = par(bl) and 8(xjlxm( J)) = a(J) for all
J E A(2). h r t h e r 8 13'.
Proof: Let U(m) = (xi :i 5 m). Proceeding by induction on m, we pro-
duce 8, = 6' N 8' with par(elU(,)) = pa~(8i&,)) and ~ ( x ~ , x , ( ~=
))
a(J) for all J E A(2) with m(J) < m. Further OIU(,) is unique.
If m = 1 then 8 = 8' works. Assume the result for m. Replacing 8' by
dm, we may assume 8'(xJ, x,( J)) = a(J) for all J E A(2) with m(J) <
+
m. For J E A(2) with m(J) = m 1, let b(J) = e1(xj1x,+~) a(J), +
and set E = CJ b(J)€j, where the sum is over those J E A(2) with
m(J) = m + 1. Then 8 = 8' + 8, satisfies S(XJ,X,+~) = a(J) for all
J with m(J) < m + 1. Further by induction, BlU(,) is unique, so the
uniqueness of 81u(,+l) follows from 12.8 and 12.10.
Theorem 12.13: Let 8, d E 8.Then the following are equivalent:
(1) eNel.
(2) L(8) is centmlly isomorphic to ~ ( 8 ' ) .
(3) par(8) = par(8').
Proof: By 12.7.1, (1) and (2) are equivalent. Further if L(8) is centrally
isomorphic to L(0'), certainly the two loops have the same parameters.
Finally if par(8) = par(B1)then by 12.12 there exists 8* with 8 N 8* N 8',
so (3) implies (1).
Remark 12.14. Let eO(n)be the space of all coboundaries and
52 Chapter 4 Symplectic 2-Loops
12. Symplectic bloops 53
Then by 12.13 the map iL(8)]I+ 8+80(n)is a bijection between the set
of central isomorphism classes of symplectic 2-loops of order 2"+l and
+ +
if 6' o a 8 8,- = 0. So L(8) is isomorphic to L(8') if and only if
eO(n).Thus we may regard e O ( n )as the space of all symplectic &loops
+
e + e O ( n )is conjugate to 8' e O ( n )under GL(V),and by 12.13 this
is equivalent to par(8') conjugate to par(8) under GL(V).That is, (1)
of order 2"+l. Notice that dim(^') = 2n - 1 and the kernel of the
map c H Be is Hom(V, F) of dimension n, so dirn(eO(n)) = 2" - n - 1. holds. Also O(par(8))is the stabilizer of the central equivalence class of
Therefore as dim(6(n))= (2n - I ) ~ we, conclude:
el SO (2)holds.
We say that 8 E 8 is diassociative if 0 is bilinear on each Zdimensional
= 2(2" - 1)(2"-l
L e m m a 12.15: dim(eO(n)) - 1) + n. subspace of V ; that is, for all z, y E V ,
Write O(par(8))= O(P,C,A) for the subgroup of GL(V) fixing P,
C , and A.
Lemma 12.18: Let par(8) = (P,C ,A). Then the following are equiva-
Theorem 12.16: Let G = A t ~ t ( L ( 8 ) )Then
~. lent:
E = CG(L(8)/(?r))
&' V * = Hom(V,F ) , (1) L(8) is diassociative.
GIE 2 O(par(B)),and these isomorphisms are equivariant with respect (2) A(x, y, z) = 0 for all linearly dependent subsets ( x ,y, z ) of V .
to the representations of GIE by conjugation on E and the dual action (3) 8 is diassociative.
of O(par(0))on V*. Moreover if8 is diassociative then C(x,y) = C(x,x+ y ) and C(x,y) =
Proof: Identify V with L / ( x ) via r$ and for g E G, let g be the map
+ + +
P(x) P(y) P(x y) for all x, y E V .
induced by g on V . For c E V* let a , be the central isomorphism induced Proof: The equivalence of ( 1 ) and (2) is just the definition of diasso-
by E as in 12.7.2, and let E = {a, : e E V*). By 12.7, E = CG(V)and ciativity. Notice (2) implies 8 is diassociative by 12.11. Finally assume
the map e t,a , is an isomorphism of V * with E. (3). Summing the equations for diassociativity of 8, we get C(x,y ) =
Thus E is the kernel of the map g I+ g. Further g fixes P, C,A, so d 5 +
C(x,x y). Then summing the three images of 12.11 under the per-
O(pur(8)).Conversely given d E O(par(B)),we have par(8od) = par(B), + + +
mutation (2,z, x t ) ,we get 0 = P(x) P(z) P(x z ) C(x,z ) + + +
+
so by 12.13, there.exists 6 E pV with 8 o d 8,5 = 8. Let g E Map(L) C ( ~ , x + z ) + C ( z , x + z so
) , asC(x,x+z) = C ( z , s + z ) , also C(x,z) =
with g = d and eg = 6 . By 12.7.1, g E G, so as g = d , G =OOCpaO)). + +
P(x) P(z) P(x 2). +
Finally (u)= ~ 9 ( g - ~ ( uso
)), Specializing z to s in 12.6.3, we get:

g f f ~ (ua) ,= ga,g-l(a, u ) = gcu,(a + 6(g-'(u)), g-l (u)) Lemma 12.19: A(x, y,x) = C ( x ,y) + C ( x , x + y ) for all x , y E V.
So as C ( x ,y ) = C ( x ,x + y), A(x,y, x ) = 0. Also diassociativity of 8
= g(a + GI-~(u))
+ e(g-l(u)),g-l(u))= (a e(g-'(u)),~), + and 12.11 shows A(x,x,y) = A(x, y, y ) = 0. Thus it remains t o show
so ga, = aEOg-1= ag(r).Thus the proof is complete. + +
A(x, y, x y) = 0. Specializing z to x y in 12.6.3 yields:
Theorem 12.17: (1) L(8) is isomorphic to L(O1)if and only ifpar(8) is Lemma 12.20: A(x,y, x + y ) = 8(xly ) + 0(y,x + Y ) + P(x)+ P(x + Y )
conjugate to ~ a r ( 8 'under
) +
GL(V) i;f and only if 8 e O ( n )is conjugate for all x, y E V .
+
to 8' e O ( n )under the action of GL(V) on e O ( n ) .
Then by 12.20, diassociativity of 8, and 12.6, A(x,Y , X+Y) = C(X,Y)+
(2) IGL(V) : O(par(8))I is the number of central isomorphism classes
in the n-stable isomorphism class of L(8).
+ +
P(y)+ P ( x )+ P(x y). Hence A(x,y, x y) = 0 by an earlier remark.
Remark 12.21. Write e l ( n ) for the space of diassociative members
Proof: Notice that (*) is the intersection of the maximal subloops of
of e(n)and let = el(n)/eo(n). B~ 12.18 and m a r k 12.14,
~ ( 8unless
may
) par(8) = 0 and 15 E~.+I. In this case (1) is trivial, So We
wr(') f O hence each isomorphism @ : L(8) -t L(81) , have a bijection bekeen the set of central isomorphism dasses of
diassociative symplectic 2-loops of order 2"+' and e l ( n ) .Thus we view
n' Thus by 12'7, a : L(8) L(O') is an if and only el(,) the space diassopjative dymplectic2-loops of oder T+'.
54 Chapter 4 Symplectic 2-Loops 13. Moufang symplectic 2-loops 55

Notice that given x, y E v#,diassociativity of 8 and the elements 8(x,y), +

C(u,v ) = Q(u,v ) Q(v,u ) for all u, v E V . Further f = P3 is the third
+
P ( x ) ,P(y),and P(x y) determine 8 on ( x ,y), so dim(Ql (n))= (2n - derived f o m of P.
+
1)(2"'l- 1)/ 3 2n - 1. Hence as dim(eo( n ) )= 2n -n - 1, we conclude: ProoE Let v E V. Then v = EXEX
axx. Hence from 11.9,
Lemma 12.22: dim(el(n))= (2n - 1 ) ( 2 ~ --l 1)/3+ n.

13. Moufang symplectic 2-loops = 1 azq,azf ( x ,Y , 4 = P(v)

x<y<z
In this section L = L(8) is a symplectic 2-loop. We continue the notation
of Section 12. We also use the terminology of Section 11. by symmetry of f and as f (x,x,y) = 0 for all x, y E X . That is, P(v) =
Lemma 13.1: Let par(8) = (P,C,A). Then Q(v1v).
+
By 12.6.2, C(u,v ) = Q(u,v ) Q(v,u).By (F3) in the definition of a
(1) If L is Moufang then C = Pz is the second derived fonn of P. , 3-form,
(2) L is Moufang if and only if A = P3 is the third derived f o m
of P. +
Q(v,21 w ) = Q(v,4 + Q(v,w) + f (v,21, w )

Proof: Part (1)follows from 12.2 and 12.18.

and as Q is linear in its first variable, Q(v + u, w ) = Q(v,w ) + Q(u,w).
Therefore
Let x , y , z E V and assume L is diassociative. Then
f ( v ,u, W ) = Q(v,u ) + Q(u, + Q(v,
W) 21 + W ) + Q(v+ 21, w).
So by 12.6, par(L(Q))= (P,C1f 1.
Finally by ( F l ) ,
=xz+P(y)+A(x,y,y+z)+C(x+y,y+z)
by diassociativity. Similarly

= P(x)+ P(y) + P ( z )+ C(x,y) + a x , + C ( Y , ~+)f (xlylz)

2)

by (F3).But by ( F l ) , C(x,y) = P ( x )+ P(y) + P(x + y), so f ( x ,Y , z ) =

by diassociativity. Therefore (y(zx))y= (yz)(xy)if and only if
by diassociativity and 12.18. That is, if L is diassociative then L is
Moufang if and only if A = P3.
But if L is Moufang then by 12.2, L is diassociative, so A = P3.
Conversely if A = P3 then A(%,x, z ) = A(x,y, y ) = 0, so by 12.11 and
12.18, L is diassociative and hence L is Moufang.
P3(x,y, z). Hence L(Q) is Moufang by 13.1.
Example 13.3 Let n = 3, X = { x ,y, z ) a basis for V , and f the
symmetric trilinear form on V with one monomial xyz in the basis X.
Form the 3-form 3= (P,Q, f ) as in 13.2 and let L = L(Q).Then setting
s = x + y + z, we have P(s) = 1 and P(v) = 0 for v E V - (s).Further
for distinct a, b E X , Q = 0 on (a,b), while for W = ( x f y,x z ) , +
Q(a,b) = 1 for all distinct a, b E w#.
For the purposes of Lemma 13.5 it will be more convenient to consider
a different cocycle 8 with 8 Q. Namely define E f F~ by E = 1 on
N

Lemma 13.2: Assume X is a basis for V and f is a symmetric trilinear ~#andr=OonV-W,andlet8=Q+8,.Observethat8=OonW

form on V with f ( x ,x, y) = 0 for all x, y E X . Let 3 = (P,Q, f ) be the while 8(u,v ) = 1 for all distinct u,v E (a,b)# and all distinct a, b E X .
unique 3-form with P ( x ) = Q(v,x) = 0 for all x E X , v E V . Then By 12.12,B is the unique cocycle such that par(8) = (P,C,f ) , 8 = 0 on
L(Q) is a Moufang symplectic &loop with par(&) = (P,C,f), where W , and 8(s,w ) = 1 for all w E w#.
56 Chapter 4 Symplectic 2-Loops
For 0 5 m E Z , define F; to consist of those P E FV such that
deg(P) 5 m , where deg(P) is defined in Section 11. Then
Lemma 13.4: (1) 0 = F: 5 F,V 5 ... 5 F: = FV is a GL(V)-
invariant filtration of FV.
(2) dim(Fm vlFm-
v 1 ) = (g)
- Let U be a complement to ( 5 ) in V . Pick a basis Y = (xl,x2,x3)
(3) For each P E F? there exists a wcycle 8 such that L(8) is a
Moufang symplectic &loop with par(L(8)) = (P,P2,P3) and (P,8, P3)
is a 3-form.
Proof: For (1) and (2) observe that the map 11, : P H Pm is a linear
map of F: into the space Rm(V) of all symmetric m-linear forms f on
V such that
.
for all X I , . . ,Xn-1 E V . F'urther ker(11,) =FL-~, SO (1) holds. Also
dim(Rm(V)) = (E). Hence dim(F:) = Cgl d(i) with d(i) =
dim(Fiv /E-l) v 5(7). So as CL1d(i) = 2"- 1 = dim(FV),(2) follows.
Thus we may take P E F: and it remains to prove (3). Observe first
that if B is a cocycle with par(8) = (P,P2,P3) then (P,8, P3) is a 3-form
if and only if 8 is linear in its first variable. This follows from 12.6. We
term such 8 1-linear. Hence it remains to show there exists a 1-linear
cocycle 8 with par(L(8))= (P,P2, P3).
Next by 13.2 there exists P' E F: and a 1-linear cocycle 8' such that
+
Pi = P3 and par(B1)= (P', 5,pi). Thus P = P P' E F:, so if 8 is a
+
1-linear cocycle for P, then 8 = 8' 8 is a 1-linear cocycle for P.
So we may assume P E FT. Notice this means P is a quadratic form on
V and P2 is the bilinear form defined by P. Then V = Vo$ Vl$. $ V,,
with the summands orthogonal with respect to P2, Vo = Rad(P2),and
d i m ( 5 ) = 2 for i > 0. There is a bilinear cocycle 80 for P on Vo and
each cocycle Bi for P on 5 is diassociative for i > 0 by 12.18, and
hence bilinear. Therefore 8 = Ci Bi is bilinear with B(x,x ) = P ( x ) and
+
8(x,y) 8(y,x ) = P2(x1y) for all x , y E V . Bilinearity of 8 shows 12.6.3
is satisfied, so by 12.6, 8 is a cocycIe for P , completing the proof.
Lemma 13.5: Let P E F'. Then there &ts a Moufang symplectic
2-loop L with par(L) = (P,P2, P3) if and only $ deg(P) 5 3.
Proof: If deg(P) 5 3 then L exists by 13.4. Conversely assume L =
L(8) is a symplectic 2-loop with par(8) = (P,C,A) and A = P3, but
deg(p) > 3. Then restricting P to a 4-dimensional subspace of V on
which P4 # 0, we may assume n = 4. Now by 13.4, F? is a hyperplane
of FV such that for all P E v:, there exists a cocycle # with P the
14. Constructing a 2-local from a loop 57
power map of the Moufang loop L(@. Hence for any P E vF- F:,
+ +
3 = P P for some P E F? and 8 = 8 8 is a cocycle such that L(8)
has power map p. So without loss of generality P ( x ) = 1 for a unique
x E V.
for U and let X = Y U {x). By 12.12 we may assume @(xi, xj) = 0 =
+
8(x3,xl x2) for all 1 5 j < i 2 3 and B(x,u) = 1 for all u E u#.Then
as P = 0 on U,0 = O on U by the uniqueness statement in 12.12.
Let u ,v be distinct members of U# and V = (u,v, x). Then 8 = 0 on
W = U n V while B(z,w ) = 1 for w E w#, so 8 satisfies the defining
relations of the second cocycle of example 13.3 on V . Hence from the
+
discussion of that example, 8(u,v x ) = 1.
+
Let Z = ( x l ,2 2 , x3 x). Then P = 0 on Z so all associators on Z are
0. Hence
But by the discussion above, the first term in this sum is 0, while the
+
last three terms are 1, so 1 = A(xl,x2,x3 x), a contradiction. This
completes the proof of the lemma.
Remark 13.6. Write 8 * ( n ) for the space of cocycles 8 such that
par(8) = (P,P2,23) for some P E FV. By 13.1, L(8) is Moufang if and
only if B E 0 * ( n ) .Thus 8 * ( n )= 0 * ( n ) / e 0 ( n )is the space of Moufang
symplectic 2-loops of order 2n+1.
Theorem 13.7: (1) There is an isomorphism E : -+ e * ( n ) such
that (P,P2,P3) = par(L(E(P))for each P E FY.
(2) dim(0*(n))= n(n2$ 5 ) / 6 .
(3) L(<(P))r L(<(P'))i f and only if P is conjugate to P' under
GL(V).
(4) IGL(V) : O(P)I is the number of central isomorphism classes in
the n-stable isomorphism class of L(<(P)).
Proof: Part (1) is a consequence of 12.13, 13.5, and 13.6. Then part (2)
foliows from 13.4.2. Parts (3) and (4) follow from 12.17.
14. C o n s t r u c t i n g a 2-local f r o m a loop
In this section L is a Moufangsymplectic2-loop with parameters (P,C,A).
We continue the notation of Section 13. In particular L consists of all
58 Chapter 4 Symplectic &Loops 14. Constructing a &local from a loop 59

pairs (a,u ) with a E F, u E V , where multiplication is defined by We write $i(a) for $,(a,O), where (a,0) E 1;. Let S3 act on R3 via

(a,u)(b,v ) = (a b + + B(u, v),u + V)

with respect to some cocycle 8 such that (P,8, A) is a 3-form. We write for a E: S3.
?r for the generator (1,O) of Z(L). Define N to be the subgroup of syrn(a3) generated by the maps
We let E = CAUt(L)(V) and recall that by 12.16, Aut(L)/E = O(V,P ) $i(d),$i(i(a), d E L, a E I', and i = 1,2,3. Define N+ to be the sub-
and E consists of d maps a,, E E V*,defined by a, : (a,v) H (a + group generated by the maps $+(d), &(a), d E L, a E I' even. Set ki =
e(u),u). In addition let I'o 5 O(V,P ) and assume vg E V# such that $i'i-l(s)$i+l(sr) (where the indices are read modulo 3),K = ( k l ,k2,k3),
ro fixes vo and is faithful on V/(vo),vo is in the radical of A, and Zi =$i(r), and z=(zl,z2,~3).
< <
P(vo)= C(v,vo) = 0 for all v E V . Let E I' Aut(L) with I'/E = ro, Lemma 14.2: (1) For each a E A3 and x € L U r, $:(x) = $$,(x).
and pick s E L such that #(a) = vo,where q5 :(a,u) H u is the projection
(2) +i : I' -t sym(f13)is a faithful permutation representation.
of L onto V .
As vo is in the radical of A and C(v,vo) = 0 for each v E V , s is in (3) $i(d)2 = lli(d2) = &(P(d)) and $i(d)-l = &(d-l) for each
d€L.
the center of L. As P(vo) = 0, s2 = 1.
We term a E I' to be even if a 6xes s. Notice the even automorphisms
(4) For each a E I' and d E L, ~ ~ ( d ) * = ' ($i(da),
~) $i(dcu)-l, for
even, odd, respectively.
form a subgroup of I' of index 2. Define E E V * to be even if a , is even;
(5) If d E L and a E I' is odd then $l(d)*2(a) = +3(da)-'.
that is, if vo E k e r ( ~ ) .
(6) zi centmlizes Qj(d)for all d E L and all i, j .
Remark 14.1. Each pair of elements u, w E V determines a unique (7) For e E L,+l(d)$l(e)= 'dJl(de)$3(C(e, d))l(ll(a(e,d))-
E ( = , ~ ) E V *via q,,,) ( v ) = A(u, w, v). As A is symmetric and A(x,x, y) = (8) For d E L and a , E E , [ k ( d ) ,$i (a,)] = $ i ( ~ ( d ) $i(P(d)
), +~ ( d ) )
0 for all x, y E V , this definitionis independent of the generators u , w for for E even, odd, respectively.
(u,w). Write a(,,,) for the corresponding element a,,(, E E. (9) [$~i(e),+i(d)]= +i([e,dl)= A(C(e,d)).
Similarly if d,e E L, write ~ ( d , ~a(d,,) ) , for the maps E ( , + ( ~ ) , ~ ( ~ ) ) , (10) For d , e E L, $1 ( d ) * ~ ( ~=)$1 (d)$3(C(e1d))$i ( ( ~ ( ~ , d ) ) .
a(,+(e),+(d))l respectively. Observe that a(4e. is even and if Proof: Parts (1) and (2) are straightforward, as are (3)-(6) once we
recall that L is diassociative. Also, in (8)

then a(d,e)= 1. ( d ) ,+i( a L )=

] $i(d)-'$i(d)'i(') = $i (d)-'&(d +~ ( d ) ) ' ~ ~ " )
.
Let R = L U ( 0 ) and decree that 0 . d = d 0 = 0 for all d E L. Write by (4).Hence (8) follows from ( I ) , (3), and (7).
fi3 for the set of all ordered %tuples from R. We now associate to each Similarly in (9),
d E L three permutations $is i = 1,2,3, of R3 by decreeing that (a,b, c)
is mapped by ~,+(d) for i = 1,2,3 to

(d-lad-', $b, cd), (ad,d-'bd-l, dc}, (da,bd, d-led-l), by repeated applications of (7) and keeping in mind that q3(r)and
+l(a(d,e))centralize each other and ql(x) for each x E (e,d).
- respectively. Next we associate three permutations &(a)of R3 to each So it remains to prove (7)and (10).We prove (7);the proof of (10) is
a E r. If a is even we define (a,b, c)$i(a) = (cia,b a l m ) for each i = similar and left as Exercise 4.2. F i s t
1,2,3. If cr is odd we define the image of (a,b, c) under $i(a) to be
$1 (d)+l(e): (a,b, c) H (e-l(d-'ad-l)e-', e(db),(cd)e),
(a-'a, c-la, b-'a), (c-'a, b-'a, a-'a), (b-'a, a-'a, c-'a),
while
for i = 1,2,3, respectively. &(de) : (a,b, c) H ((de)-'a(de)-l, (de)b,c(de)).
60 Chapter 4 Symplectic &-Loops
Next
Also as A is symmetric trilinear with A(x,x, y) = 0 for all x,y E V, we
+ +
have A(e, d f a, d e) = A(d, el d a). Therefore $1 (de) maps (a,b, c)
to
(e-l(d-lad-l)e-l + C(d,e) + A(d,el a),
e(db) + C(d,e) + A(d, el b),(cd)e+ A(d, el c ) ) .
Now (7) follows.
Lemma 14.3: (1) zlz2z3 = 1 = $l(d)$2(d)$~~(d)
for all d E L.
(2) Z and K are normal 4-subgmt~psof N with centralizer N+.
(3) N/N+ 2 s3.
Proof:Part (1) is an elementary calculation. By 14.2.6, Z is centralized
by .&(d) for all d E L and all i = 1,2,3. Similarly as s is in the nucleus of
L, K is also centralized by these elements. By 14.2.4, KZ is centralized
by $i(a) for each even a E I?. So K Z 5 Z(N+).
Next let a E I' be odd. By 14.2.4, $ l ( a ) centralizes zl and [$l(s),
$i(a)]= 21, while by 14.2.5, [zi,$2(a)]= s and [$i(s),$2(a)l =
$2(s)z3. Therefore Z a N , and N / C N ( Z ) S3. Moreover by 14.2,
N+ a N and $i(a)2E N+, while we calculate that & ( a ) * ~ = ( ~$3(a),
) is the kernel of the action of N1 on A l / ( k l ) 2 V with (Q2n N+)/E+
so also N/N+ E S3.Therefore (3) holds and N+ = C N ( Z ) .
Finally from the commutators in the previous paragraph,
is centralized by +l(a)and [kl,&(a)] = k2, completing the proof of (2).
14. Constructing a 2-local from a loop
= Kg and adopt the bar convention. Define
For g E N, let
A 2 = {(O,d,O) : d E L),
A3 = {(0,0,d) : d E L},
and A = A 2 u A 3 .
Lemma 14.4: (1) Q1 Nl = C N ( z l ) and kl € Z(N1).
(2) Q1 Dg is edmspecial and c R I ( Q 1 )= (zl).
(3) E2"+1 2 E+ 9 N .
(4) Each g E Nl can be written uniquely in the fonn
f o r d , e ~ L a, E r ; a n d g ~ Q 1i f and only i l e € ( n ) a n d a E
~.
(5) K n Q1 = ( k l ) .
(6) Q2nQ1= E f and N1/Q1 is the split extension of (Q2nNl)/E+Z
v by $1 (r)/$l(El 2 ro.
Proof: As vo is r-invariant, E+ is a $(I?)-invariant subgroup of N by
14.2.2 and 14.3.2. By 14.2.8, &(d) acts on E+ for each i = 1,2,3 and
d E L. Hence E+ a N .
<
Next by 14.2.2, 14.2.8, and 14.2.9, [Q1,Q1] ( z l ) . Then by 14.2.2,
14.2.7, and 14.3.1, each g E Q1 can be written as g = $l(d)l12(f)$l(a),
with d E L, f E ( n ) , and a E E. For uniqueness observe that ES is the
kernel of the action of Q1 on the space A / ( z l ) of orbits of (21) on A and
+ regular on A / ( z l ) . Similarly E+ is faithful on A of order 2n+1.
Q 1 / ~ is
So the uniqueness statement in (4) is established for elements of Q1.
By 14.3, Nl = N+(llrl(a)) for any odd a and kl E Z ( N l ) . Next Q1
acting by translation and qbl(I') acting naturally. This shows Q1 N1,
establishes (6),and shows k2 Q1, so (5) holds.
Now (6) gives the existence of an expression for g E Nl as in (4),
so to complete the proof of (4) suppose g = g' = $l(d')$2(e')$l(cr')
is a second expression. Then as Q1 is the kernel of the action on V ,
7+b2(e)$l(a)5 $2(e')$l(a') mod Q1. Then by (6) and the regular action
of (Q2n N+)/E+ on V , we have 4(e) = r$(et)and a z a' mod E. Then
62 Chapter 4 Symplectic &Loops
multiplying by $1 (~t)-l$~(e)-l on the right and appealing to 14.2.2
and 14.2.7, we may assume g,g' E Q1. But we handled that case in the
previous paragraph, so the proof of (4) is complete.
We have seen that [Q1,Q1] 5 (21). Further E+ is an abelian subgroup
of Q1 and for each d E L - (n) there exists e E V* with e(d) # 0,
so by 14.2.9, [$l(d), I+bl(cu,)] = zl. Hence Z(Q1) 5 E+. Similarly for
0 # e E V* there is d E L with ~ ( d # ) 0 and hence [$i(d), I+bl(cud)]= 21.
Thus Q1 is extraspecial of order 22nS1 and as Ef 5 Q1 is isomorphic
to E2n+l, Q1 % Dg.
Finally by 14.2.4, (Q2nN+)/3+ acts as the full group of transvections
of Ef/(zl) with center 2/(zl). Also by the hypothesis of this section,
$(I')/$(E) 2 I'0 is faithful on E+/z E V/(vo). So from (6), Q1 is the
kernel of the action of on E+/(E~).This completes the proof of (2)
and the lemma.
Lemma 14.5: Let R = (Q1 n N2)(Q2 n Nl). Then
( I ) R q N.
(2) N/R = (N-/R) x (Nf/R) with N-/R E S3 and N+/R E ro.
(3) R is class at most 3 with Z(R) = 2 % E4, Z2(R) 2 Ef = n
Q2 r E2n+1,and R/E+ = ((Q1 nN2)/E+) x ((Q2n Nl)/Ef) S
E2s("-I).
(4) N- induces S3on 2 and centralizes E+/Z, while Nf centralizes
Z and E+/z E Hom(V/(vo), F) as a module for N+/R S rO.
(5) R/E+ is isomorphic to the tensor product of the &dimensional
irreducible module for R+/R E S3 with the module V/(vo) for
N+/R 2 Po.
Proof: This follows from 14.4.2, 14.3, and 8.15.
Lemma 14.6: There &ts a monomial representation of Nl of dimen-
sion 2n over R with kernel ($2(sn), $3(s)) in which Q1 acts imducibly
as Dg and z1 acts as -1.
Proof: Recall the set A defined earlier. Then Kl = (A1) has orbits
_ and
d3 = ((0, Old), (40, dsn)),
d E L, on A. h r t h e r z1 is fued point free on A/Kl. So by Exercise 4.3,
the monomial representation of N over R with basis A/K1 subject to
the constraint that 4 z l = -di is of dimension 2n = tA/K11/2. As 2.1 is
faithful, the kernel of our representation is contained in K(zl) by 14.4.2,
Exercises 63
and then an easy calculation shows the kernel is J = ($2(~n),$3(s)). By
construction zl acts as -1, so Q1 acts as Q1/(JnQ1) = Q1/Kl % Q1 S
D;. In particular a s the minimal dimension of a faithful representation
of an extraspecial group of order 22n+1 is 2n (cf. 34.9 in [FGT]), Q1 acts
irreducibly.
Remarks. In [CO~], Conway uses the Parker loop to construct the
normalizer of a 4subgroup of the Monster and uses this normaluer to
construct the Griess algebra and the Monster.
In the terminology of Section 12, the Parker loop is the Moufang
symplectic 2-loop L(0) with parameters (P,C,A), where V is the 12-
dimensional Golay code module of Section 19 for M24 and (P,C, A) =
(P, P2,P3)is the series of derived forms on V defined in Section 20 using
11.8, and (P,O,A) is a 3-form. By 13.4.3, such a cocycle exists, and by
13.1, L(0) is Moufang. By 12.13, the isomorphism type of L(8) depends
only on P, not on 0.
The construction of the group N in Section 14 is essentially the same
as Conway's construction in [CO~].From 14.4 and 14.5, N has a large
extraspecial Zsubgroup Q1 and a 4subgroup 2 = (fl, Z2) 5 Q1 with
(2,) = Z(Ql), 2 9 N, and N/Cm(Z) % S3. For the Parker loop L(B),
Q1 turns out to be a large extraspecial subgroup of the Monster and fi
is the normalizer of 2 in the Monster.
Only a small part of the discussion in Sections 12 and 13is necessary to
construct # and make the calculations needed to construct the Monster.
We use 13.2 and the first few lemmas in Section 12 to construct the
Parker loop L. We need that L is diassociative, which is easily verified
using arguments in 12.18. We need that Aut(L) is large enough, which
follows from 12.16, which depends in turn on some of the earlier results
in Section 12. This information is sufficient to apply the construction of
Section 14 to construct N from L.
Exercises
1. Prove Lemma 12.4.
2. Prove Lemma 14.2.10.
3. Let g : G -t S y m ( X ) be a permutation representation of a group
G such that za is fixed point free on X for some involution z with
<
[z,GI ker(0). Prove there exists a monomial ZG-representation p
such that
(1) zp acts as -1 on the module V for p.
(2) The permutation representation of G on fY is equivalent to o for
some basis Y of V.
64 Chapter 4 Symplectic %Loops
(3) G p preserves the bilinear form on V with orthonormal basis Y.
4. Let Q be an extraspecial 2-group and q the quadratic form of 8.3.3
on Q = Q / Z ( Q ) . Let p : Q -+ SL(V) = G be the unique faithful
irreducible RQ-representation and M = NG(Qp). Prove M/Qp %
0(Q, 9).
(Hint: Use 12.16 and 1.1.)
5. Prove that if L is a Moufang symplectic 2-loop then L is diassociative, Chapter 5
without using Moufang's Theorem.
6. Assume the hypotheses of Section 14, let D = V x V* as a set, and
define addition on D by
The Discovery, Existence, and
Define q : D -, GF(2) by q(u,P) = (1 + s(P))P(u) + P(u) and Uniqueness of the Sporadics
P : D x D * G F ( ~ ) by

where s(P) = 0 , l for ,f3 even, odd, respectively. Let Q1 = Q 1 / ( ~ l )

and define P : QI * D by P : $i(d)$2(b)+(a4 ( d ~ ( d+
) t(b)~o,~),
where t(b) = 0 , l for b = 1,n, respectively. Prove
(1) D is a GF(2)-space under this definition of addition.
(2) q is a quadratic form on D with bilinear form p.
, (3) p is a group homomorphism with kernel (21, kl) inducing an isom-
etry p : 0 1 -, D, where ~1 is an orthogonal space via 8.3.
(4) p induces a n equivalence of the actions of Nl on Q1 and Dl when
we define $l(e) = 1 on D and $l(a) and &(e) on D, for a E I'
andeEL,by ' listing the twenty-six sporadic groups with the notation and name used
In this chapter we discuss the history of how the sporadic groups were
discovered and were first shown to exist uniquely. Then we provide a gen-
eral outline of how Sporadic Groups proves the existence of the twenty
sporadics which are realized as sections of the largest sporadic group,
the Monster. Finally we outline our approach for proving the uniqueness
of the sporadics.
Chapter 5 includes several tables. At the end of Section 15 is a table
in Sporadic Groups to label the group. This table also lists the group
order. The table at the end of Section 16 summarizes the existence results
proved in Sporadic Groups.

(Hint: See the proofs of 27.2 and 23.10.)
7. Assume the hypotheses of Section 14 with L associative. Prove GI :
L -, Q1 is an injective group homomorphism and $ l ( ~ )a fi with
~ and E+ n (L) = 2.
Q~ = E + $(L)
15. History and discovery
Group theory had its beginnings in the early nineteenth century, with
Galois making some of the most important early contributions. For ex-
ample, it was Galois who first defined the notion of a simple group in
1832. During most of the nineteenth century the term "group" meant
'Lpermutationgroup." Thus it is natural that the first sporadic groups
were discovered by Mathieu as multiply transitive permutation groups;
papers describing this work appeared in 1860 and 1861 [MI] [M2].
More than a century passed before the discovery of the next spc-
radic group. This is perhaps not too surprising, since with a few notable
 Chapter 5 The Sporadics
exceptions in the work of mathematicians such as Burnside, Frobenius,
Brauer, and Phillip Hall, there was little progress in the theory of finite
groups during the first half of the twentieth century. However, in the
mid fifties three crucial events occurred in finite group theory.
First, at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Amsterdam
in 1954, Brauer proposed that finite simple groups might be character-
ized by the centralizers of involutions. Brauer's program was inspired
by the Brauer-Fowler Theorem [BF] (cf. Section 8), which says that the
order of a finite simple group G is bounded by the order of CG(z) for z
an involution in G. Brauer's program lead to the discovery of many of
the sporadic groups and eventually to the classification.
The second major event in finite group theory in the fifties was Cheval-
ley's Tohoku paper of 1955 [Ch] in which he gave a uniform construction
of Chevalley groups over all fields, and began modern work on the finite
groups of Lie type. The Lie theoretic point of view provided a uniform
perspective from which to view most of the simple groups known in the
fifties, and thus gave hope that the nonabelian finite simple groups might
consist of the alternating groups, the groups of Lie type, plus the five
"sporadic groups" of Mathieu.
The third major event was Thompson's thesis of 1959 establishing the
conjecture of Frobenius that Frobenius kernels are nilpotent. Thomp
son's thesis marked the beginnings of serious local group theory: the
study of finite groups G from the point of view of normalizers of p
subgroups of G, soon termed p-local subgroups.
All three of these events contributed to the discovery of the next spo-
radic group by Janko in a paper appearing in 1965. First, Brauer's pro-
gram had taken hold and group theorists were busy characterizing simple
groups via the centralizers of involutions. One class of groups for which
such a characterization seemed difficult was the Ree groups 2~2(32n+1),
one of the families of groups of Lie type. The problem studied by Janko,
Thompson, and Ward was to determine all finite simple groups G pos-
sessing an involution z such that CG(z) E 2 2 x L2(q), q odd, and with
Sylow 2-subgroups of G abelian. Using a mixture of character theory and
local group theory, Janko, Thompson, and Ward [JT],[Wa]showed that
under these hypotheses, q is an odd power of 3, or q = 5. In [Jl], Janko
showed that there exists a unique group in the last case: the sporadic
group now denoted by J1.
The next two sporadic groups were also discovered by Janko. Again
Janko studied groups with a certain involution centralizer. This time the
centralizer satisfied Hypothesis E(2, A5), in the notation of the Preface.
15. Histol~land discovery
In a paper appearing in 1968 [J2], Janko showed that if G satisfies Hy-
pothesis X(2, As), then G has one of two possible structures. In partic-
ular in each of the two cases, Janko showed that IGI is determined, as
is the local structure of G. On the other hand Janko did not show that
a group existed in either case, nor did he show that such a group was
unique up to isomorphism. The existence and uniqueness of the Janko
groups J2and J3 were established by M. Hall and D. Wales in the first
case [HW, and by G. Higman and J. MacKay [HM] in the second.
This was the first instance of a fairly typical pattern. Namely many
sporadic groups were discovered via considering groups with a certain
centralizer, often satisfying Hypothesis E(w, L) for suitable w and L.
Further the mathematician "discovering" the group often only showed
that the order and local structure of a group satisfying his hypotheses
was determined, but did not demonstrate the existence or uniqueness of
the group.
HaH and Wales constructed the group J2 as a rank 3 permutation
group (cf. Section 3). Very soon after the Hall-Wales construction, three
more sporadic groups were discovered as rank 3 groups: HS discovered
by D. Higman and C. Sirns [HS]; Mc discovered by J. McLauglin [Mc];
and Suz discovered by M. Suzuki [Suz]. Indeed Higman and Sirns con-
structed their group in just a few hours, shortly after hearing Hall lecture
on the construction of Jz.
Somewhat later, Rudvaliis discovered the group Ru as a rank 3 group
and Conway and Wales constructed a 2-fold cover of the group as a
subgroup of GL2*(C) [CW].
J. Conway discovered the three Conway groups Col, Co2, and Cog
as automorphism groups of the Leech lattice; this work appears in his
1969 paper [Co2] (cf. Chapter 8). Also visible as stabilizers of sublattices
of the Leech lattice or local subgroups of Col were J2,HS, Mc, and
Suz. Thus if Conway had become interested in the Leech lattice a little
earlier, he would have discovered a slew of sporadic groups. In any event
these embeddings supplied convenient existence proofs for the groups.
Bernd Ficher discovered the three Fischer groups by studying groups
generated by %transpositions. This work appears in his Warwick pre-
print, the first few sections of which make up the 1971 paper [F]. As
defined by Fischer, a set of 3-transpositions of a group G is a G-invariant
set D of involutions such that for all a,b E Dl lab1 5 3. In addition
to the three Fischer groups, the symmetric groups and several families
of groups of Lie type are generated by 3-transpositions. The theory of
groups generated by %transpositions is beautiful and useful. Indeed it is
68 Chapter 5 The Sporadics 15. History and discovery 69

probably the best way to study and prove the uniqueness of the Fischer Table 1 The sporadic groups
groups. The theory is not considered here, as it does not fit well with
the main topics of this book. But the author is planning a book on Notation Name Order
3-transposition groups to cover the topic. MII Mathieu 24.32.5.11
Fischer was also lead t o the Fischer group F2 (also known as the 26.33.5.11
M12
Baby Monster) in 1973 via the study of groups generated by (3,4)- M22 * 27.32.5.7.11
transpositions. The existence and uniqueness of the Baby Monster were M23 27.32.5.7-11.23
established later by Sims and Leon using extensive machine calculation Mz4 21° . 3 3 . 5 . 7 . 1 1 . 2 3
discussed in [LS]. 51 Janko 23.3.5.7-11.19
The remaining sporadics were discovered via the centralizer of invo- Jz 27 .33 -52 - 7
lution approach. For example, Held discovered He. In particular in his 53 27.36.5.17.19
1969 paper [He], Held studied groups satisfying Hypothesis H ( 3 , L3(2)) J4 221 . 3 3 a 5 . 7 - 1 1 3 * 2 3 . 2 9
and showed each such simple group is isomorphic to L s ( 2 ) or M24, or -31 .37 43
has a uniquely determined order and local structure. Soon after, G. Hig- HS Higman-Sims 29 . 3 2 . 5 3 . 7 . 1 1
man and MacKay showed there exists a unique group He in this last Mc McLaughlin 27.36.53.7.11
case. In Chapter 14 we give a simplified treatment of groups satisfying Suz Suzuki 213.37-52.7-11.13
Hypothesis 'H(3,L3(2)). This is perhaps the most accessible illustration
LY Lyons 28.37.56-7-11.31-37.67
in Sporadic Groups of how to prove the uniqueness and derive the basic He Held 210.33 .52 .73 .17
structure of a sporadic group. Ru Rudvalis 214 33 53 7 . 1 3 .29
The group L y was discovered by Lyons (with the paper [Ly] describing O'N O'Nan 29 .34 5 + 7 3- 11 1 9 . 3 1
this work appearing in 1972) and shown t o exist uniquely by Sims [Si2] cog Conway 210.37-53a7.11.23
using the machine. O'Nan discovered O'N; his work appeared in 1976
COZ 21sa3"53.7.11.23
in [ON]. (301 -
2" .3' 54 * 7' 11 ~ 1 323
Fischer and R. Griess independently were led to consider groups sat- 217.39.52.7.11.13
M(22) Fischer
isfying Hypothesis 3C(12,Col). One quickly sees that if G is a group
M(23) a - -
2'' 313 - 5' . 7 11 13 17 . 2 3 a

satisfying this hypothesis then G has a second class of involutions M (24)' 2" . 316 * 5' . 73 11 . 13 .17 2 3 . 2 9
whose centralizer is the covering group of the Baby Monster. During
F3 Thompson 215 .31° . 53 . 7 2 . 1 3 . 1 9 . 3 1
one of his annual meetings in Bielefeld, Fischer discussed the possibili- 214 .36 . s 6 . 7 . i i . 19
F5 Harada
ties of such a group with mathematicians then a t Cambridge, including
F2 Baby Monster -
241 313 56 7' 11 13 17.19 ~ 2 331 47 - a

Conway, Thompson, K. Harada, and S. Norton. The Cambridge math-
ematicians began to study the potential group, which they dubbed the
Monster. They showed that if the Monster existed then the centraliz-
ers of certain elements of order 3 and 5 had to contain sections which
were new sporadic groups. In Griess' notation these sporadics are F3
and F5. '
Harada [Ha] concentrated on the Harada group F5, pinning down its
order and local structure. By some oversight, no uniqueness proof for the
group was generated until Y. Segev [Se] took up the problem in 1989.
Thompson studied the Thompson group F3, generating the group or-
der, local structure, and even the character table. With the character
Monster 226 3" .5' 76 .112 1 3 ~17 .19 - 23
Fl
.29.31.41.47.59.71
table, Thompson had a proof of the existence of an irreducible repre-
sentation of degree 248. This representation makes possible a one page
proof of the uniqueness of the Thompson group. Using machine calcu-
lation done by P. Smith, Thompson [Thl]showed F3to be a subgroup
of the exceptional group E8(3) of Lie type, hence also establishing the
existence of the group.
70 Chapter 5 The Sporadics
Thompson [Th2] also showed that if the Monster Fl possesses an ir-
reducible representation of degree 196,883, and several other fairly weak
constraints are satisfied, then the Monster is unique. Norton went on to
verify the existence of this representation assuming certain other fairly
weak properties, but he did not publish this work. Finally in 1989, Griess,
Meierfrankenfeld, and Segev [GMS] published the first complete unique-
ness proof for the Monster.
In the meantime, working independently from the Cambridge group,
Griess had been generating properties of the Monster too. In 1980 he was
able to construct the Monster as the group of automorphisms of a real
algebra in 196,883 dimensions [Grl]. Later in [Gr2], Griess worked with
the Griess algebra, a 196,884dimensional real algebra with an identity.
Griess' existence proof established a t the same time the existence of
the twenty sporadic groups which are sections of the Monster. Conway
[Co3] and Tits [T2] later produced simplifications of portions of Griess'
arguments.
It is fitting that Janko, who discovered the first of the modern spo-
radic groups, also discovered the last of the sporadics, J4.Janko [J4]
discovered J q in 1975 while studying groups satisfying Hypothesis U(6,
Aut(M22IZ3)). (Our notational convention is that Hl/H2/. . /Hn de-
notes a group with normal series
~ = G ~ A 9G ...A
~ -G o~= G
with Gi-l/Gi 2 Hi.) As usual he determined the order and local struc-
ture of such a group. Norton [N] established the existence and uniqueness
of J4 using the machine.
Table 1, on page 69, lists the twenty-six sporadic groups and their
orders.
16. Existence of the sporadics
In this section we give a very broad outline of how Sporadic Groups
proves the existence of the twenty sporadics realized as sections of the
Monster. We also speculate briefly on how best to establish the existence
of the remaining six sporadics.
Our first step is to construct the Mathieu group M24. Thii is accom-
plished in Chapter 6 by realizing M24 as the group of automorphisms
of its Steiner system S(24,8,5). A Steiner system S(v, k,t) is a rank
2 geometry (cf. Section 4), whose objects are called points and blocks,
such that the geometry has v points, each block is incident with exactly
k points, and each set o f t points is incident with a unique block. Steiner
16. Existence of the sporadics 71
systems provide a geometric point of view for studying multiply transi-
tive groups. Witt was the first t o study M24 via its Steiner system in hi
1938 paper [Wl]. His approach is rather different from the one used here,
which proceeds by constructing a tower of extensions of Steiner systems
beginning with the projective plane of order 4. The five Mathieu groups
are then realized as stabilizers of subsystems of the Steiner system for
M24. This gives a constructive existence proof for the Mathieu groups,
which makes it easy to establish various properties of the groups such
as their order and local structure. In later instances, some of our exis-
tence proofs are nonconstructive, so we get relatively little information
about the group. In particular in many cases we do not calculate the
group order. Table 2, on page 74, indicates which sporadics have their
order calculated in Sporadic Groups; for each of these groups, either our
existence proof is constructive, or we calculate the group order as part
of the uniqueness proof.
Next the Steiner system is used to construct two 11-dimensional mod-
ules for M24 over the field of order 2, which in turn provide a realization
for the 2-local geometry of M24. One of these modules is associated t o
an error correcting code (cf. Section 10) for M24, the binary Golay code.
The Steiner system and Golay code for M24 are then used in Chapter
8 to construct the Leech lattice A. The Leech lattice is a certain 2 4
dimensional Z-submodule of 24di~nensionalEuclidean space. Its group
of automorphiims is the covering group 0 of the largest Conway group
Col. The sporadic groups C m , C03, HS, and Mc are shown to exist as
stabilizers of certain sublattices of A. Again these existence proofs are
constructive and allow us to calculate the group orders.
On the other hand we show the existence of J2and Suz as sections
of Col by nonconstructive methods. Namely we prove that G = Col
has a large extraspecial 2-subgroup Q (cf. Section 8). Then we produce
subgroups Ap of NG(Q) of order p = 3,5 and use 8.13 to show that
CQ(Ap)* is a large extraspecial subgroup of CG(Ap)* = CG(Ap)/Ap.
Then we appeal to 8.12 or Exercise 2.4 to see that CG(Ap)* is a simple
group satisfying Hypothesis X(w, L), where w is the width of CQ(Ap)
and L = (NG(Q) f? NQ(Ap))/CQ(Ap)Ap. Thus, for example, we prove
there exist simple groups satisfying Hypothesis Z(3, Ri(2)) and Hy-
pothesis X(2,A5),living as sections of Col, and define these sections t o
be Suz and J2, respectively. We postpone to Chapter 16 the problem of
proving the uniqueness and deriving the structure of such groups.
The theory of large extraspecial subgroups is also used t o show that
Coi and Co2 are simple. This theory is used in an analogous manner in
 Chapter 5 The Sporadics
Chapter 11t o establish the existence and simplicity of sporadic sections
of the Monster.
The Monster is constructed as the group of automorphisms of the
Griess algebra. Unfortunately this object is not so natural, so it gives
us little information about the Monster and its subgroups. Following
Conway, we begin by constructing the Parker loop and using it to con-
struct a group N which will turn out to be the normalizer of a certain
Cstlbgroup of the Monster. The necessary disctission of loops and of Con-
way's construction of fl from the Park.jr loop is contained in Chapter
4. The discussion in Chapter 4 gives a general method for constructing
Moufang symplectic 2-loops given a form of degree 3 over the field of
order 2 (cf. Section 11). The Parker loop is constructed from the form
defined by the Golay code.
Our next step is to construct a group C which will turn out to be
the centralizer of an involution z in the Monster G. The group C is con-
structed t o have a normal extraspecial 2-subgroup Q of order 21+24 with
C/Q Col and Q/(z) 2 A/2A. Then the Griess algebra is constructed
so as to admit C and &? with C n fl of index 3 in N. Finally using
arguments of Tits we show G = (C,fl) is finite and C = CG(z). Thus
G is constructed so as to satisfy Hypothesis R(12, Col), so in particular
G is simple. We define G to be the Monster; it is constructed to satisfy
Hypothesis 'H(12,Col, ).
In [FLM],Frenkel, Lepowski, and Meurman use an alternate approach
t o construct the Monster as the symmetry group of a vertex operator
algebra. Vertex operator algebras are infinite-dimensional graded Lie
algebras together with a family of 'bertex operators." They play a role
in string theory but are also of independent interest to mathematicians.
The Frenkel, Lepowski, and Meurman construction has several advan-
tages. For one thing it can be viewed as fairly natural within the context
of the theory of vertex operator algebras. For another it "explains" the
connection between the Monster and modular functions of genus 0, dis-
cussed in [CN]. The reader is directed to the introduction of [FLM] for
a nice discussion of these very interesting properties of the Monster.
On the other hand the Frenkel-Lepowski-Meurman construction is
quite lengthy and complicated. Thus we have opted here for the shorter,
more group theoretic approach of Griess, Conway, and Tits.
The six sporadic groups F2, F3, F5,He, and M(24) are shown t o
exists as sections of CG(A) for suitable subgroups A of NG(Q) using
the same approach we used to prove the existence of J2 and S u t in
Col. Namely we show the existence of a group satisfying Hypothesis
16. Existence of the sporadics 73
x ( w , L) for suitable w, L. In most cases we do not obtain any further
information about the structure of such groups. However, in Chapter
14 we do investigate groups satisfying Hypothesis x(3,L3(2)). In the
process we derive the order of He and much of its local structure. This
illustrates how the structure of a sporadic can be derived beginning only
from Hypothesis X(w, L). In Chapters 16 and 17 we determine the group
order and structure of J2,SUZ,and Col, and prove the uniqueness of
these groups.
The group M(24) is the largest of Fischer's sporadic 3-transposition
groups. We leave till later the problem of showing the subgroup NG(A)
of the Monster of type M(24) is generated by 3-transpositions. Once that
is accomplished, the theory of 3-transpositions can be used t o prove the
existence of the M(22) and M(23) sections of M(24) and t o determine
the order and local structure of these groups.
This is our outline of the existence proofs for the twenty sporadic
groups which live as sections of the Monster. We add a few words of
speculation as to the best means for demonstrating the existence of the
remaining six sporadics. The groups J1, J3, and Ru can be shown t o
exist as subgroups of the exceptional groups of Lie type G2(ll), E6(4),
and E7(5).The existence proofs for these groups via these embeddings
are fairly elegant and satisfactory. I have no good ideas to advance for
establishing the existence of O'N, Ly, and Jq. The present existence
proofs are highly machine dependent.
We close this section with Table 2 summarizing the existence results
established in Sporadic Groups. Column 1lists the sporadic group. Col-
umn 2 lists the hypothesis 7-1 under which the group is shown to exist;
that is, we show that there exists a simple group G satisfying Hypothesis
3t. However, often very little information is obtained about the group
other than its simplicity; for example, sometimes the group order is not
calculated. Column 3 indicates if the order of at least one group satisfy-
ing Hypothesis 3-1 is calculated in Sporadic Groups. Column 4 indicates
the page where existence is established.
The question marks in column 2 and asterisks in column 4 for J1,
J3, J4, Ly, Ru, and O'N indicate that the existence question for these
groups is not addressed in Sporadic Groups. Similarly the asterisk in
column 4 for M(22) and M(23) indicates that the proof of existence
of these groups is postponed until a later book, where the normalizer
in the Monster of the subgroup of order 3 described in 32.4.3 is shown
to be a 3-transposition group, and 3-transposition theory is used t o
demonstrate the existence of the smaller Fischer groups. Sometimes more
 Chapter 5 The Sporadics 17. Uniqueness of the sporadics

Table 2 Existence of the sporadic groups Spomdic Groups is to correct this situation by providing a uniform a p
preach to uniqueness which will work for almost all the sporadics. Our
Group ExistenceHypothesis O ~ d e r ?Page approach is the one introduced by the author and Yoav Segev in [ASl].
Ml1 Multiply transitive Y e s 89 Conceptually the approach is as follows:
M12 group of Yes 89 We consider groups G satisfying a suitable group theoretic hypothesis
M22 automorphisms of Y e s 82 x; for example, 7-l will usually be W(w, L) for suitable w and L. We
M23 a Steiner system Yes 84 show that any such G possesses a suitable family F(G) = (Gi : i E I )
M24 ?-t(3,L3(2) Yes 85 of subgroups. Associated to 3 is a simplicial complex K and the topo-
51 ? No * logical space IKI of K. We form the free amalgamated product G of the
J2 H(2, A5) Y e s 135 amalgam defined by the family F(G) and the topological space I K Iof
53 ? No * the complex K defined by 3(@. The universal property of G translates
54 ? No * into a covering I K (-t ( K Jof topological spaces. On the other hand we
HS rank 3 group and stabilizer Y e s 119 prove (KI is simply connected, so 1 ~ =1 IKI and hence G = G. As this
Mc of a sublattice of the Leech lattice Y e s 118 holds for any G satisfying I-I, and as the isomorphism type of the amal-
SUZ x(4,s~6(2)) Ye3 135 gam of 3 ( G ) depends only on 3-1 and not on G, we have our uniqueness
LY ? No * proof.
He 71(3,L3(2)) Y e s 173 While this is conceptually one way of viewing what goes on, in prac-
Ru ? No * tice we introduce no topology, but instead carry out our proof at a
O'N ? No * combinatorial level. Thus we consider the coset geometry I' = r(G, 3 )
c
0 3 Stabilizer of a Y e s 116 of the family 3 as defined in Section 4 and'form the collinearity graph
co2 sublattice of the Leech lattice Y e s 116 A on G/G1 defined by .'I Our simplicia1 complex is the clique complex
c01 a(4, fG(2)) Y e s 116 K = K ( A ) of the graph A (cf. Section 4). Similarly we have the coset ge-
M(22) Will exist as a subgroup of M(24) using No * ometry I;= ~(G,F(G) and its collinearity graph d and clique complex
M(23) 3-transposition theory once a suitable subgroup No * K = K(&).The covering of topological spaces corresponds to a covering
M(24)' of the Monster is shown to be a 3-transposition group No 173 of clique complexes which corresponds in turn to a covering d : -+ A
F3 H(4, As) No 173 of graphs. Here d : A -t A is a covering of graphs if d is a surjective
Fs w(4, As UJT Z2) No 173 local isomorphism of graphs (cf. Section 35). Then we can define A to
F2 H(11, (302) No 173 be simply connected if it possesses no proper connected coverings, and
Fl %(I%Col) No 169 this turns out to be equivalent to IKJbeing simply connected. We work
only with this combinatorial definition of graph covering.
, Part I11 of Sporadic Groups puts in place the machinery for i m p k
than one existence hypothesis is obtained. For example, we show there menting this approach for proving the uniqueness of the sporadics. Thus
exists a simple 5-transitive group of automorphiirns of a Steiner system in Chapter 12 we develop the basic theory of coverings of graphs, includ-
S(24,8,5) and we also calculate that such a group satisfies Hypothesis ing various means for verifying that a graph is simply connected. Then
w 3 , L3(2)). in Chapter 13 we record the theory of group amalgams we will need,
including- results which will allow us to prove that our group theoretic
hypothesis H determines the isomorphism type of our amalgam 3 ( G )
17. Uniqueness of the sporadics
independently of the group G satisfying 'H.
The present treatment of the uniqueness of the sporadics is ad hoc. The discussion in Section 4 and Chapters 12 and 13 is more extensive
In many cases the uniqueness proofs are machine aided. One goal of than necessary simply to prove the uniqueness of the sporadic groups.
76 Chapter 5 The Spomdics PART
However, the extra material is useful in studying geometries and sim-
plicial complexes associated t o finite groups, such as the Quillen com-
plexes [Q].
Finally the last few chapters of the book illustrate how the machinery
can be used by proving the uniqueness of various sporadics. In partic-
ular in Chapter 14 we prove Ls(2), M24, and H e are the only simple
groups satisfying the Hypothesis N(3, L3(2)).In Chapter 15 we prove Chapter 6
the uniqueness of U4(3). While U4(3) is not a sporadic group it does
exhibit sporadic behavior, and its characterization is crucial to proving
the uniqueness of various sporadics. In Chapter 16 we prove J2, Suz, The Mathieu Groups,
and Col are unique. In the process we also derive the group order of J2
and Suz and much of the subgroup structure of these groups. Finally Their Steiner Systems,
Chapter 17 closes the book with a list of the subgroups of prime order
and their normalizers in the five sporadic groups M24, He, J2, SUZ, and the Golay Code
and Col considered here in detail. Most of this information is generated
while proving the uniqueness of the groups; the remainder is established
in Chapter 17,

The first five sporadic groups were discovered by Mathieu as multiply

transitive permutation groups around 1860. There are by now many
constructions of the Mathieu groups. Our approach is to construct the
groups as automorphism groups of their Steiner systems.
We recall that a Steiner system S(v, k, t) is a rank 2 geometry (whose
objects are called points and blocks) with v points, such that each block
contains exactly k points and each set oft points is incident with a unique
block. For example, the projective plane of order 4 is a S(21,5,2). In
Section 18 we construct a tower

of Steiner systems admitting the corresponding Mathieu groups. At the

same time we establish many of the properties of these Steiner systems
needed t o analyze the structure of the Mathieu groups and construct the
Leech lattice, the Griess algebra, the Conway groups, and the Monster.
The blocks in the Steiner system S(24,8,5) are called octads. In Sec-
tion 19 we construct certain subgroups of the largest Mathieu group
M24 and determine the action of these subgroups on the octads. Fur-
ther we study two 11-dimensional GF(2)-modules for M24, the Golay
I
code module and the Todd module. These modules are sections of the
I
78 Chapter 6 The Mathieu Groups
permutation module for M24 on the points of its Steiner system. The
Golay code module is an image of a (24,12)-code module.
18. Steiner systems for the Mathieu groups
A Steiner system S(v, k, t) or t-design is a rank 2 geometry (X,U)
(cf. Section 4) whose objects are a set X of points and a collection U of
k-subsets of X called blocks such that each t-subset of X is contained in
a unique block. Of course incidence in this geometry is inclusion.
Example (1) Recall the definition of a projective plane from Exarn-
ple 2 in Section 4. Each projective plane of order q is a Steiner system
s(q2 + q + l , q + l , 2 ) .
Let (X, U) be a Steiner system S(v, k, t). Given a point x E X define
the residual design D(X, x) of X at x to be the geometry (X(x), U(x)),
where
X(x) =X - {x),
U(x) ={B- {x) : x E B €23).
Observe:
Lemma 18.1: If t > 1 then the residual design D(X,x) of X at x is a
Steiner system S(v - 1, k - 1,t - 1).
Next define an extension of X to be a Steiner system (2, A) such that
(X, 23) = D(Z, z) is the residual design of Z at some point z E Z. Notice
if Z is an extension of X then by 18.1, Z has parameters (v+l, k+1, t+l).
Our object is to construct a tower
of extensions of Steiner systems beginning with the projective plane of
order 4, such that the Mathieu group Mv is an automorphism group of
the Steiner system S(v, k, t). The remainder of this section is devoted
to this construction and to the generation of properties of these Steiner
systems that we will need to analyze the Mathieu groups.
+
-Define a subset I of X to be independent if no (t 1)-subset of I is
contained in a block of X .
Example (2) If X is the projective plane of a vector space V, then the
independent subsets are just the sets O of points such that each triple
of points in 0 is linearly independent in V in the usual sense.
18. Steiner systems for the Mathieu groups 79
Write I,(X) for the set of all independent subsets of X of order rn.
Define an extension subset of X to be a subset C of Ik+l
such that each
member of It+lis contained in a unique member of C.
Lemma 18.2: Let t > 1, x E X , C(x) the set of blocks of X not
containing x, and Y = D(X,x) the residual design of X at x. Then
C(x) is an extension subset of Y.
Lemma 18.3: Let C be an extension subset of X. Then
(1) There exists an extension Z of X such that C is the extension
subset C(z) induced by Z and the point z in Z - X.
(2) The restriction map a I-+ alx defines an isomolphism of Aut(Z)Z
with NAU~(X)
Proof: The blocks of Z are the members of C together with the blocks
{z)uB, B E U.
Remark 18.4. If Z is an extension of X at some point z we identify
Aut(Z), with NAUt(x)(C(z)) via the isomorphism of 18.3.2. For exam-
ple, this convention is used in the statement of the following hypothesis:
Extension Hypothesis: Y is a Steiner system S(v, k,t) with t > 1,
<
y E Y, and A A U ~ ( Y )Further
~.
(Exl) Aut(Y) is transitive on the extension subsets of Y invariant
under some Aut(Y)-conjugate of A, and there exists such an
extension subset.
(Ex2) I f A S A ' < A U ~ ( Y then
) ~ A=A'.
(ExJ) If Y' is an extension of D(Y, y) with A 5 Aut(Y1) then there
exists an isomorphism ?r :Y -t Y' acting on D(Y, y).
(Ex4) NAUt(Y)(C)is t-transitive on Y for each A-invariant exten-
sion subset C of Y.
Lemma 18.5: Let Y be a Steiner system S(v, k, t) and A < Aut(Y).
Then
(1) If A,Y satisfies (Exl) then, up to isomorphism, there exists
a unique extension X of Y with A 5 NAut(x)(Y). Moreover
NAut(x)(Y) = NAut(Y)(C), where C is the extension subset of
Y induced by X.
(2) Assume t > 1 and A,Y satisfies the Extension Hypothesis with
+
respect to some y E Y. Then Aut(X) is (t 1)-transitive on X
and transitive on the blocks of X.
+
Proof: For i = 1,2, let Xi be (t 1)-designs, xi E Xi, & = D(Xi, xi),
and Ci the extension subset of Yi induced by Xi, and assume ai :Y -+ &
80 Chapter 6 The Mathieu Groups
<
is an isomorphism with Aaf NAut(Xi)(q).Notice a = a ~ : Yi~+ a
Y2 is an isomorphism. Then C l a is an extension subset of Y2 invariant
under (A+* = Aa;. SO by (Exl),there exists 0 E Aut(Y2) with
Clap = C2. Let y = a@,and extend 7 to X1 by xi7 = x2. Then C17 =
C2. Hence 7 : X1 + X2 is an isomorphism. Therefore the uniqueness
statement in (1) is established while the other parts of (1) follow from
18.3.
So assume the hypothesis of (2) and let X = Y U { x ) be the unique
extension of Y with A < Aut(X), supplied by (1). Let xl = x, x2 = y,
and define % and Ci as in the previous paragraph with respect to X =
<
X1 = X2. Then Y2 is an extension of Z = D(Y,y ) with A Aut(Y2),
so by (Ex3) there exists an isomorphism a2 : Y 4 Y2 with ya2 = x
and Zaz = Z. Then Aa?j 2 A 5 Aut(Y2), so by EX^), A = Aa;. Thus
Aa?j = A 5 N A U ~ ( X )
(%)a
Let a1 : Y 4 Y be the identity map. Then we have achieved the
hypothesis of paragraph one, so by that paragraph there exists an au-
tomorphism 7 of X with xy = y. Hence as NA2ct(Y)(C) = NAut(X)(Y)
+
is t-transitive on Y , Aut(X) is (t 1)-transitive on X. Then as each
+
(t 1)-subset of X is in a unique block, Aut(X) is also transitive on
blocks.
L e m m a 18.6: Let F = GF(4),X the projective plane over F, p a point
of X , and A the stabilizer of p in L3(F). Then, up to isomorphism, X
is the unique extension of D(X,p) admitting A.
Proof: By Lemma 18.5, it suffices to establish (Exl) for the pair Y, A,
where Y = D(X,p).
Let V be a vector space over F with basis { X Ix2,
, x3) and take X =
PG(V) and p = ( X I ) . Let B be the group of transvections with center p
and D the stabilizer of p and the line 1 = (x2,x3). From 5.1, B S EI6,
D 2 L2(4)S A5, and A is the split extension of B by D.
Let A be the set of lines of X through p and R the remaining lines.
Let A = {k - ( p ) : k E A). Then A is the set of five blocks of the
residual design Y and 0 is the extension subset induced by X . Observe
that the members of A are the 5 orbits of B on Y of length 4 and that
no member of B# fixes a point in each orbit. Also B is regular on R and
D is the stabilizer in A of 1 E 0.
Let C be an A-invariant extension subset of Y and m E C. As lml =
5 = 1dl and each pair of points in m is independent, it follows that m n k
is a point for each k E A.
If b E B fixes m then b fixes the point m n k for each k E A. But
c 18. Steiner systems for the Mathieu groups 81
~ then b = 1. So all orbits of B on C are regular. However, by a counting
argument, ICI = 16 = IBI, so B is regular on C.Thus NA(m) = E is a
complement to B in A and C = mB. Further A, and hence also El is
transitive on A and therefore also on m = { mnK : k f A}. So m = qE
is the orbit of E on Y containing any point q 6 m. Pick q E 1.
Observe that Aq = BqDq with Dq = ND(k), where q E k E A.
Similarly Aq = BqEq with Eq = NE(k). Now there exists an auto-
morphism a of A centralizing B and A / B with Da = E (cf. 17.3 in
[FGT]). As a centralizes B , (Bq)a= Bq. Also as a centralizes A / B ,
NA(k)a= NA(k).SO (Dq)a= Da Cl NA(k)a = E n NA(k) = Ep.Thus
(Aq)a= (Bq)a(Dq)a= Aq.
Define a on Y by (qa)a = q(aa) for a E A. As Aqa = Aq, this
action is well defined. Then la = (qD)a = q(Da) = qE = m. As a
commutes with B and A is the set of orbits of B on Y, a permutes A.
So a E Aut(Y). Similarly Qa = (1B)a = 1aB = m B = C. Thus (Exl)
is satisfied, and the proof is complete.
We now begin to construct the Steiner systems for the Mathieu groups.
This requires a detailed analysis of the independent subsets in the plane
of order 4.
Lemma 18.7: Let F = GF(4), V be a vector space over F with ba-
sis {xl,x2,x3), Y = PG(V), M = PGL(V), G = PSL(V), H =
NG((xl)),and I' = P r ( V ) . Then
(I) M is transitive on I4 as a set of ordered .&tuples.
(2)
. . G is tmnsitive on 13, and has three orbits on 4 as a set of
unordered 4-tuples.
(3) Each S E 14 is contained in a unique I ( S ) E 16.
+
(4) For S = { ( x i ) (, x z ) ,( ~ 3( 2)1 +
~ 2 2 ~ 3 )E) 14,
1
+ + a-'x3), ( x i + a-'x2 + ax3)),
I ( S ) = S U { ( x i ax2
where F# = (a).
(5) M is tmnsitive on I6 and G has three orbits 16, < <
1 i 3, on
16 -
(6) Each S 6 I3 is contained in a unique member li(s)of I: for
i
each i = 1,2,3.
(7) I:, 1 < i < 3, are the H-invariant extension subsets of Y and
H has two orbits on I$.
;
I (8) For I E 16, NG(I) A6, Nr(I) 2 196, and Nr(I) is faithful
on I.
82 Chapter 6 The Mathieu Groups
Proof: Let pi = (xi). Clearly each member of I3 is conjugate to T3 =
pi + + + +
(p1,m,p3) under G. Let = ( X I 2 2 x3), pi = ( X I 2 2 ax3), and
pi = (xl +z2 + a-lz3). Then NG(T3) = (g),where g = diag(l,a,adl).
So pi,1 5 i 5 3, are representatives for the orbits of NG(T3) on points
<
p of Y with T3U { p ) E Iq. Hence T:, 1 i 5 3, are representatives for
the action of G on I4 as a set of ordered 4tuples, where = T3 U { p i ) .
Also N M (T3) = (g,h ) , where h = diag(1, 1, a). So N M (T3)is transitive
on members of I4 through T3, and hence (1) holds.
To prove (3) and (4) it suffices by (1) to prove I ( T ~ is) the unique
member of Is containing ~i. + +
But if x = xl rx2 sx3 E V with
+ +
T: U { ( x ) ) E I5 then, as x l x2 tx3 E ( ~ 3 , ~ :for ) all t E F#,
r E {a, adl). Similarly s = r - l , so (3) and (4) are established.
Let I = I ( T ~ )By . (1) and (3), N M ( I ) is 4transitive on I . As (g) =
N M ( I ) * ~N
, M ( I ) is faithful on I and isomorphic to A6 by Exercise 1.2.
Then N M ( I ) = NM(I)= 5 G, so N M ( I ) = NG(I). Also the field
automorphism f determined by T3 induces a transposition on I , so
&(I) S6. Thus (8) holds.
By (8), N G ( I ) is transitive on I3 r l I , so NG(T3) is transitive on the
members of I G through T3. Also as N G ( I ) is 4transitive on I , q is
not G-conjugate to a subset of I for i = 2,3. Therefore ( 2 ) holds. Thus
I ( q ) G = I:, 1 5 i 6 3, are the orbits of G on 16. Of course M is
transitive on I6 by (1) and (3). F'urther (6) holds with l i ( ~ 3= ) I(q).
As N G ( I ) is transitive on the points of I, H is transitive on the set
A, of members of I: through pl. Also if J E I6 with pl 4 J , then J is
conjugate under H to a &set containing T = {p2,p3,(x1+x2)).Hence as
T is in a unique member of I:, H is transitive on the set B, of members
of I; not through pl.
Notice by (6) that I; is a G-invariant extension subset of Y for each i.
Conversely suppose C is an H-invariant extension set. We may assume
I E C , and it remains to show C = 161. But A1 = I H E C so if C # 161
there is J E C n I: for j = 2 or 3 with pl $ J. Then ~j = J H % C .
But if T E 13 r l I with pl 4 T , then T C J, E I;. Also I = I ( T U {pl)),
so J, E B ~Thus. T is in two members of C , a contradiction. Hence ( 7 )
is established.
Lemma 18.8: Let F = GF(4), Y the projective plane over F , p a point
in Y , and H the stabilizer in L 3 ( F ) of p. Then
<
(1) There exists a unique extension X of Y with H A u t ( X ) .
(2) Let M = A u t ( X ) and G = M fA ll t ( X ) = Mzz. Then
IM : GI = 2, N G ( Y ) = L3(F), N M ( Y ) is N G ( Y ) extended by a
18. Steiner systems for the Mathieu groups 83
field automorphism, G is 3-transitive on X , and G is transitive
on B ( X ) .
(3) M is tmnsitive on h ( X ) and G hos two orbits I$(x), i = 1,2,
on I7 ( X ).
(4) G is tmnsitive on 1 4 ( X ) , M is transitive on 1 5 ( X ) , and G has
two orbits on 15(X).
(5) Each member of 1 5 ( X )is contained i n a unique member of 17(X)
and each member of 1 4 ( X ) is contained i n a unique member of
I$(x), i = 1,2.
(6) For I E 1 7 ( X ) ,N G ( I ) Gi A7 is faithful on I .
(7) q(~), i = 1,2, are the unique NG(Y)-invariant extension sub-
sets of X .
Proof: We claim the pair (Y,H) satisfies the Extension Hypothesis.
First ( E x l ) and (Ex4) are satisfied by 18.7.5 and 18.7.7. By 5.1 and 5.2,
H = A u t ( Y ) F , so (Ex2) holds. Finally (Ex3) holds by 18.6. So the claim
is established.
Now the claim and 18.5 implies ( I ) , and we may take the extension
subset Cx of Y induced by X to be I ~ ( Y )Then . by 18.5 and 18.7,
NM(Y)= NAUt(Y)(CX)is L3(F) extended by a field automorphism f .
Notice f interchanges 1; ( Y )and I ~ ( Y )Further
. by 5.2.2, f fixes exactly
seven points of Y . So f has seven orbits of length 2 on X , and hence
f @ G. Therefore N G ( Y ) = L3(F) and lM : GI = 2. By 18.5, M is
3-transitive on X , so G is transitive on X . Then as L3(F) is 2-transitive
on Y , G is also 3-transitive on X . So G is transitive on B ( X ) . Thus (2)
holds.
Let q be the point in X - Y and suppose I E 17(X). Conjugating in
G , wemay takeq E I . Then I. = I - { q ) E 16(Y)and as lion BI 5 3
for each B E C X ,IO E I ~ ( Yfor ) i = 1 or 2.
Conversely let J = { q ) U Ji, Ji E I:(Y), i = 1 or 2. As J, E 16(Y),
no 4-subset of J through q is in a block of X . As i < 2, IJi n BI 5 3
for each B E CX by 18.7.3, so no Csubset of Ji is in a block of X .
Hence J E 17(X).That is, the members of 17(X) through q are the sets
Ji U {q), J, E I:(Y), i = l , 2 .
If U E 1 5 ( X ) , conjugating in G we may t&e q E U. Then Uo =
U - {q) E 14(Y),so by 18.7.3, Uo is in a unique member Eo of 16(Y).
As U E 1 5 ( X ) ,Eo E I i ( Y ) for i 5 2. So by the previous paragraph,
E = {q) U Eo is the unique member of 1 7 ( X ) containing U. Similarly if
q E W E 1 4 ( X )then Wo = W' - {q) is in a unique member Ji of G(Y),
for i = 1,2.
84 Chapter 6 The Mathieu Groups
Further by 18.7.1 and 18.7.2, G is transitive on 14(X), G has a t most
two orbits on 15(X), and M is transitive on 15(X) as f interchanges the
two G-orbits on Iq(Y) whose members are not in a member of I~(Y).
As M is transitive on 15(X) and each member of 15(X) is in a unique
member of 17(X), M is transitive on 17(X) and NM(I) is &transitive
on I E 17(X). As NG(Y) n N(I) = NM(Y) n N(I) = A6 is faithful on
I , NG(I) = NM(I) = A7 is faithful on I. (I.e., (6) holds.) In particular
~ = Il is not conjugate t o { q ) J2
NG(I) is transitive on I, so as { q ) J1 ~=
I 2 in Gq, I 2 4 IIG. Thus G has two orbits I$(x) on 17(X) and (3) is
established. Indeed the members of l i ( x ) containing q are of the form
{q)UKi, Ki E I~(Y). Similarly as NG(U) is transitive on U E 15(X) but
NG(q) has two orbits on members of 15(X) through q, G has two orbits
on 15(X). This completes the proof of (4). Also each member of 14(X)
through q is in a unique member of I+(x), so as NG(W) is transitive on
W, the proof of (5) is complete.
Finally by (51, I~(x), i = 1,2, are G-invariant extension subsets of
X . Conversely suppose C is an NG(Y)-invariant extension subset of X.
Let Cq = {I E C : q E I) and C: = {I- {q) : I E CQ1. Then C: is
an NG(Y)-inmriant extension subset of Y, so by 18.7, Ci = I~(Y). As
Cx = I:(Y), i 2.<
Now NG(Y) is transitive on Cq. Similarly, for y E Y, N G ( Y ) ~is
transitive on {S E C : y E S, q 4 S) from the penultimate paragraph of
the proof of 18.7. Thus as NG(Y) is transitive on Y, NG(Y) is transitive
on C - Cq.Now an argument in the last paragraph of the proof of 18.7
completes the proof of (7).
The following two lemmas can be proved along the lines of the proof
of 18.8:
Lemma 18.9: Let Y be the 3-design of Mz2 and H the stabilizer L3(4)
in M22 of a point of Y. Then
<
(1) There exists a unique extension X of Y with H Aut(X).
(2) Let G = Aut(X) = M23. Then NG(Y) = M22, G is 4-transitive
on X , and G is transitive on B(X).
(3) G is transitive on 18(X).
(4) G is transitive on Im(X) for m = 5 and 6, and each member of
Im(X) is contained in a unique member of 18(X).
(5) For I E I8(X), NG(I) = As is faithful on I.
(6) 18(X) is the unique extension subset of X .
19. The Golay and Todd modules
Lemma 18.10: Let Y be the 4-design of M23 and H the stabilizer Mz2
in M23 of a point of Y . Then
(1) Them exists a unique extension X of Y with H 5 Aut(X).
(2) Let G = Aut(X) = M24. Then NG(Y) = M23, G is 5-transitive
on X , and G i.9 transitive on B(X).
(3) I7(X) is empty.
(4) G is transitive on Is(X).
Notice that by 18.10.3, the M24-design has IIO extension subsets, and
hence the M24-design cannot be extended.
Lemma 18.11: (1) The groups M22, M23, and M24 are simple.
-
(2) lMz21= 27 . 32 5 . 7 - 11.
(3) lM231 = 2 7 . 3 2 . 5 - 7 . 1 1 . 2 3 .
-
(4) IMZ41= 2'' .33 . 5 7 . 11.23.
Proof: Let G be M22, M23, or M2*, and let X be the design of G.
Then G is t-transitive on X for t = 3,4, or 5. Suppose 1 # K 9 G, let
p E X , and let H = Gp. By 2.2.2, G = K H . By 2.2.3, H n K # 1. But
if G = MZ2 then H = L3(F) is simple, while if G is M23 or M24 then
H= or M23 is simple by induction. Then as H n K <1 H, we have
H=HnK<K.ThusG=HK=K.
Of course (Mz21= 22.)L3(4)(,so (2) holds. Similarly (3) and (4) hold.
19. The Golay and Todd modules
In this section (X,C) is the Steiner system S(24,8,5) for M24 and
G = Aut(X,C) is M24, as discussed in Section 18. Let V be the bi-
nary permutation module for G on X and proceeding as in Section 10,
identify V with the power set of X by identifying v E V with its support.
The members of C will be called octads. As (X,C) is a 5-design, each
5-subset U of X is contained in a unique octad; denote this octad by
B(U). So there are (?)I(;)= 23.11 . 3 = 759 octads. Recall also from
-
18.11 that G has order 21° 33 - 5 - 7.11.23.
We first prove two lemmas giving fairly complete information about
the action of G on the octads.
Lemma 19.1: Let B be an octad, M = NG(B), Q = GB, and z E
X - B . Then
(1) M is the split extension of Q % El6 by Mz &' As.
1
(2) Q is regular on X - B .
i
(3) M, acts faithfully as Alt(l3) on B.
86 Chapter 6 The Mathieu Groups
(4) Mz = GL(Q).I n particular As 2 L4(2).
(5) M is 3-transitive o n X-B, with the representation of Mx on X-
B equivalent to the representation of Mz on Q via conjugation.
Proof: Let Y = D(X,x).Then B E Is(Y),so by 18.9.5, M, = NGz( B )=
Alt(B) = As.
LetUbeabsubsetofB,H=Gu,Y=X-U,andl=B-U.Then
Y is a projective plane, 1 is a line in Y , H = L3(4),and Q = Hl. So
Q S El6, H n Mx = L2(4)is faithful on Q, and Q is regular on X - B
by the dual of 5.1.
Next as Q is regular on X - B, M = QMx is the split extension of Q
by Mx % As. As Mx is simple and CM=(Q) s Mx, CM=(Q) = 1 or Mz.
The latter is impossible as H n Mz is faithful on Q. Thus Mx is faithful
on Q, so Mx 5 GL(Q)2 L4(2). As IL4(2)1 = IA81, Mx = GL(Q)and
L4(2) G As.
By 2.1, the representation of M, on X - B is equivalent to the r e p
resentation of Mx on Q by conjugation. So as L4(2)is 2-transitive on
Q#,M is Stransitive on X - B.
For v E V denote by C , ( v ) the set of all octads B such that IvnBl = n.
Lemma 19.2: Let A, B be octads, M = NG(B),Q = GB,and if A #
B l e t x E A - B . Then
(1) lAnBl = 0, 2, 4, or 8.
(2) M is transitive on Cn(B)for each n.
(3) ICn(B)I = 30, 448, 280, 1, for n = 0, 2, 4, 8, respectively.
(4) If A E C4(B)then NM(A)is the split eztension of NQ(A)r E4
by NM(A)x = NM=( An B ) z2/(A4 x 444).
(5) If A € C2(B)then NM( A ) is a complement to Q i n NM( An B ) ,
8 0 NM( A ) s6.
(6) If A E Co(B)then NQ(A) Eg is a hyperplane of Q and NM(A)
is the split eztension of NQ(A)by NMm(NQ(A))% L3(2)/Es.
+ +
(7) If A E Co(B) then X A B = X - ( AU B ) is a n octad.
+
(8) If A E C4(B) then A B is an octad.
Proof: Let A be distinct from B and x E A - B. Notice NM(A)5
NM( An B) = QNMz( Ar l B ) , and NQ(A)is semiregular on A - ( An B),
SO INQ(A)Ii ( A - ( A n B ) ( 2= [ A nBI2.
As each 5-subset is in a unique octad, IA n BI = n 2 4. Also if U is
a Csubset of B, then there exists a unique octad B(U,x) containing U
and x; further U = B(U,x ) n B. Counting the set R of pairs U,x in two
ways we get 16(:) = 41C4(B)Ilso IC4(B)(= 280. As Q is transitive on
19. The Golay and Todd modules 87
X - B and Mx is transitive on the 4-subsets of B, M is transitive on R,
and hence on C4(B).So I M : NM(A)I = 280 for A E C4(B).
Next NMs( AilB ) Z Z2/(A4X A*). Thus NMz( An B)! = INM(An
B)/Ql 2 INM(A)Q/&I= INM(A)/NQ(A)I2 INM(A)1/4= INMZ(An
B ) [ ,as INM(A)I = (M1/280 = 41NM= ( An B)I. SO d inequalities are
equalities and hence NQ(A) E4 is regular on A - B, so NM(A)=
NQ(A)NM=( A )with NMs( A )= NMz( An B). Thus (4)holds.
-
Also there exists t E Mz with (AnB)t= B A. Indeed t E NM(NQ(A)),
so ( A - B)t = (xNQ(A))t=xNQ(A)= A - B. Thus At = ( B - A ) +
( A - B ) = A + B. So A + B = At is an octad, establishing (8).
If U is a 3-subset of B then Y = X - U is a projective plane and B - U
is a line in Y . Then if U 5 A, A - U is another line, so ( B- U )n ( A- U)
is a point. In particular n # 3.
Counting the set of pairs (U,C) with U a 2-subset of C E C in two
ways, we get 759(:) = (\4) N ~where
, N2 is the number of octads through
a iixed 2-subset U of B. Hence Nz = 77. hrther there are (62) &subsets
W of B through U, and 4 octads in C4(B)through W, so there are 60
+
members of C4(B)through U. This leaves 77 - (60 1) = 16 octads in
C2(B)through U.
Let A E C2(B)with A n B = U. If g E NQ(A)# then U = FixA(g),
so g induces an odd permutation on A. This is impossible as N G ( A ) = ~
Alt(A). So NQ(A)= 1. Thus Q is regular on the sixteen members of
C2(B)through U. So NM(A)is a complement to Q in NM(U),and
hence NM(A)2 Ss and (5) is established. Also as Q is transitive on the
members of C2(B)through U and M is transitive on 2-subsets of B, M
is transitive on C2(B).Then IC2 (B)I = IM : NM(A)J= 448.
+ +
We are left with 759 - (1 280 448) = 30 octads in C1(B)UCo(B).If
<
A E C1 ( B )then NQ( A )= 1 as IA- BI is odd. firther NM(A) NM( A n
B),so IAM] = I M : NM(A)I2 JM:NM(AnB)I-1627.16>30.S0
C1(B)is empty and Co(B)is of order 30. Thus (1) and (3)hold.
Let A E Co(B).As Q is regular on X - B, Q # NQ(A).On the
other hand as (Co(B)I-= 2 mod 4, we may choose A so that 1 AM1 is not
divisible by 4. Hence a Sylow 2-subgroup of NM(A)is of index 2 in a
Sylow 2-group of M and NQ(A)is regular on A. Indeed A and A+ B + X
are the two orbits of NQ(A)on X - B, and g E Q - NQ(A)interchanges .
+
these orbits, so A f B X = Ag is also an octad, establishing (7).
Finally as NQ(A)is regular on A, NM(A)= NQ(A)NM=(A). Also
NM=(A) L N M (NQ(A)),
~ so
88 Chapter 6 T h e Mathieu Groups
so all inequalities are equalities. That is, NM=(A) = NMz(NQ(A)) and
M is transitive on Co(B). Therefore (2) and (6) hold, and the lemma is
established.
+
Define a dodecad of X to be a subset of the form A B, where B is
an octad and A E C2(B). Thus each dodecad is of order 12.
+
Lemma 19.3: Let D = A B be a dodecad, with B an octad and
A E CZ(B). Let C be an octad. Then
(1) IC n Dl is even.
(2) D contains no octads.
(3) For each 5-subset U of Dl B(U) E C6(D) and B(U) + D is an
octad.
Proofi L e t r = I C n A n B I , s = IAnCnDI, a n d t = ( B n C n D I . T h e n
r+s=IAnCIandr+t=IBnCIareevenby19.2.1.Thuss=rrt
+
mod 2, so s t = IC n Dl r 0 mod 2, and (1) is established.
SupposeC C D. T h e n r = 0 and s + t = 8. By 19.2.1, s , t 5 4,
+
so s = t = 4. By 19.2.8, C' = C B is an octad. But IC' f l A1 = 6,
contradicting 19.2.1. Hence (2) holds.
Notice (1) and (2) imply the first part of (3). Let C = B(U), so that
s + t = 6. Then s or t is a t least 3, say t. So by 19.2.1, either C =,B or
+
IB n C ( = 4, and we may assume the latter. Then B C is an octad by
19.2.8. Further by inspection, IAn(B+C)I = 4, so also A+(B+C) is an
octad. But addition in .V is associative, so A + (B + C) = (A +B ) C = +
+
D C. Hence the proof of (3) is complete.
Given a dodecad D define
O(D) = {B(U) n D : U is a 5-subset of D).
Lemma 19.4: Let D be a dodecad and K = NG(D).
(1) (D, L?(D)) is a Steiner system S(12,6,5).
(2) K is transitive o n B(D) and 5-transitive and faithful on D.
(3) G is transitive on dodecads.
(4) IKI = 1 2 - 1 1 . 1 0 - 9 . 8 = 2 6 - 3 3 - 5 . 1 1 .
(5) For S E B(D), NK(S) = S6 is faithful o n S and D S. + (4) If B E C2(D) then NK(B) 2! S6 is transitive o n B f l D and
Proof: By 19.3.3, each 5-subset of D is in a unique member of B(D), so
(D, B(D)) is a Steiner system S(12,6,5). By 19.2, G is transitive on pairs
+
A, B of octads with A B a dodecad, so (3) holds and K is transitive
on O(D). Further if A + B = D then by 19.2.5, NK(A) acts faithfully as
the symmetric group on A n D and on B n D = D + ( A n D). Of course
19. T h e Golay and Todd modules
A n D E B(D), so (5) holds. Now (5) and the transitivity of K on B(D)
show K is 5-transitive on D, completing the proof of (2).
-
Finally as K is 5-transitive on D, IK1 = 12 11.10.9.8. IKuI, for U
a 5-subset of A n D. But K U = NK(A n D)u = 1, so (4) holds.
Given a dodecad D and subsets Di of D of order i, 0 5 i 2 4, denote
by Mi2.4 the pointwise stabilizer in NG(D) of Di. Thus M12 = NG(D).
The groups M24, M23, M22, Mi2, Mi1 are the Mathieu groups. Notice
that each Mathieu group is t-transitive on its t-design for t = 3, 4, or
5. It turns out that the Mathieu groups, the symmetric groups, and the
alternating groups are the only Ctransitive groups. So far this has only
been proved using the classification of the finite simple groups.
We have already seen that the first three Mathieu groups are simple.
By Exercise 6.1, M12 and Mll are also simple, while Mlo has a unique
minimal normal subgroup, and that subgroup is isomorphic to A6.
Lemma 19.5: Let D be a dodecad. Then
(1) D + X is a dodecad.
(2) There exists g E G interchanging D and D +X .
Proof: By definition D = A + B for suitable octads A, B. Let C E Co(B)
and C' = X + B + C . Then C' is anoctad by 19.2.7. Now D n C = A n C
is of even order, as is A n C'. Also (An C) + ( A n C') = A n D. So either
A n C o r A n C 1 isoforder 4, say A n C . T h u s A + C = C* is anoctad.
Finally D + X = ( A + B ) + ( B + C + C i ) = A + C + C 1 = C * + C ' , so
D + X is a dodecad.
+
By 19.4.3 there exists g E G with Dg = D X,Then (D X)g = +
Dg+X=D+X+X=D,soginterchangesDandD+X.
Lemma 19.6: Let D be a dodecad, K = NG(D), and B an octad. Then
( I ) I D n B I = 2, 4, or 6.
(2) K is transitive on C,(D) for each n.
(3) If B G C6(D) then NK(B) E S6 is faithful on B nD and D - B.
Also B + D is an octad.
+ +
faithful and &-transitive on D - B. h r t h e r B D X is an
octad.
(5) If B E C4(D)then NK ( B )= NK (BnD) and B+ D is a dodecad.
I (6) Cn (D) is of order 132, 495, 132, for n = 2,4,6, respectively.
I
/ Proof: As K is transitive on B(D), K is transitive on C6(D). Further
IC6(D)I = (l52)/6 = 132. Also (3) holds by 19.4.5.
I
90 Chapter 6 The Mathieu Groups 19. The Golay and Todd modules 91

+
Let D' = D X. Then C2(D) = C6(D1), so (C2(D)I = 132 and
+
NK(B) r S6 for B E C2(D). Also D + B X = D' B is an oc- + +
tad. By 19.2.5, NK(B) is transitive on B - D' = B n D. As K is
sharply 5-transitive on D, KsnD is btransitive on D - B and IKBnDI =
10 9 8 = (NK(B)l. Thus NK(B)BnD is of index 2 in KBnD and hence
is 2-transitive on D - B by 2.2.4. So (4) is established.
By 19.3, I B n Dl is even for each octad B, but no octad is contained in
D or Dr. So (1) holds. Thus as ICz(D)I = (C6(Dt)I= 132 and ICI = 759,
IC4(D)I = 495. But 495 = (I:), SO the map B I-+ B n D is a bijection of
C4(D) with the set of Csubsets of D. Hence as K is Ctransitive on D,
K is transitive on C4(D). Thii completes the proof of (2) and (6) and
shows NK(B) = N K ( B n D ) for B fC4(D). Further B n D I A n D for
someA~C~(D).NowC=A+DisanoctadandAnB=BnDisof
+
order 4, so A B = B' is an octad. Notice IB' n CI = 2, so B' C is + ule for G = M24.
adodecad. Then B + D = B + ( A + C ) = ( B + A ) + C = B 1 + C is a
dodecad.
We now use the detailed knowledge of the action of G on its octads
and dodecads which we have developed to construct and study several
GF(2)G-modules. These modules can be studied using the theory of
codes and forms in Chapter 3, which in turn endow the modules with
a geometric structure in the sense of Section 4. The resulting algebraic
and geometric structure is interesting in its own right, but is also an
important tool in studying the Mathieu groups.
Denote by Vc the subspace of V generated by C. The error correcting
code (cf. Section 10) (KX, I+) is the extended binary Golay code. As G
permutes C, G acts on Vc, so Vc is a GF(2)G-module.
Lemma 19.7: (1) Vc is of dimension 12.
(2) G has 5 orbits on the vectors of Vc: 0, X , the octads, the dodecads,
and the complements of the octads.
ProoE We know G is transitive on octads and on dodecads, so the
five subsets of V listed in (2) are orbits of G on Vc. Further there are
759 octads and hence 759 complements. By 19.5, the complement of
I
a dodecad is a dodecad. Also there are IG : M121 = 2,576 dodecads.
." -
I
Thus the union S of the five orbits of (2) is of order 4,096 = 212. So to
complete the proof, it remains to show each element of VC is in S.
+ +
Let v E VC. Then v = vl ..+ v, with vi E C. We prove v E S by
induction on n. As 0 E S we may take n > 1. Then v = u vn with +
u E S by induction on n. Indeed u or u + X is 0, an octad, or a dodecad,
+
so as v E S if and only if v X E S, without loss of generality u is 0,
an octad, or a dodecad. If u = 0 then v = v, is an octad. If u is an
octad then by 19.2, u vn E S. Finally if u is a dodecad then by 19.6,
+
u Vn E S.
Observe that (V,X, Vc) is a (24,12)-code with minimum weight 8.
Thus the code corrects 3 errors. As G = Aut(X,C), G is the group
of automorphiims of the code. Pick x E X and let X' = X {x), -
V1 = ( X I ) , and Vi the projection of VC on V' with respect to the de-
composition V = (2) CB V'. Then (V', X', Vi) is a (23,12)-code with
minimum weight 7 which corrects 3 errors. This code is the binary Go-
lay code. It turns out the binary Golay code is perfect (in the sense of
Section 10) with automorphiim group The proof of these remarks
is left as an exercise.
Set = V/(X). Define Vc to be the 11-dimensional Golay code mod-
Lemma 19.8: (1) G has czactly two orbits on ~t: the images of the
octads, of length 759, and the images of the dodecads, of length 1,288.
(2) If B is an octad then NG(B) = NG(B) E As/Els.
+
(3) If D D a dodecad then NG(D) = NG((D, D X)) Z2/M12.
(4) Vc is an irreducible GF(2)G-module.
ProoE Rom 19.7.2, each member of v~X +
is of the form X v, with
v = 0, an octad, or a dodecad. So each element of V# is the image of
an octad or a dodecad. As G is transitive on octads and dodecads, their
images are the orbits of G on ~t. +
If B is an octad then B X is not an
+
octad, so NG(B) = NG({B, B X)) = NG(B). But if D is a dodecad,
19.5 says NG(D) is of index 2 in NG(D).
If 0 # a is a G-invariant subspace of Vc then a# is a union of orbits
+
of G. So if 0 Vc, then o# is the set of images of octads or dodecads,
and hence of order 759 or 1,288, respectively. But then 101is not a power
of 2.
Define a sextet to be a partition A of X into six Csubsets such that
for each pair of distinct S,T from A, S + T is an octad.
Lemma 19.9: Let S be a 4-subset of X. Then
(1) S is contained in a unique sextet A(S).
(2) For each 3-subset T of S,
A(S) = {S,L-{s) : L E t),
where C is the set of lines through s E S - T in the projective
plane X - T.
92 Chapter 6 The Mathieu Groups
(3) G is transitive on sextets.
(4) If A is a sextet then N ~ ( A ) * = S6 and N G ( A ) ~is the split
extension of E64 by a self-centralizing subgmup of order 3.
(5) There are exactly (?)/6 = 1,771 sextets.
Proof: Let T be a %subset of S, s E S - T, and C the set of five
lines through s in the projective plane T on X - T. Then T 1 E C +
for each 1 E t by construction of C. Define A(S) as in (2). Then for
S f R E A ( ~ ) , R + s = ~ ( R ) E C , S O S + R = T + ~ ( R ) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~lulC- ~IvI ~>~4. with
+
if R' E A(S) - {R, S) then R R' is the sum of the octads S R and +
+ +
S+ R' with ( S R) n ( S + R') = S of order 4. Thus R R' is an octad
by 19.2.8. Hence A = A(S) is a sextet.
Suppose A' is a sextet through S. For x E X - S there are unique 4
+
sets R E A and R' E A' containing x. Then S R = B(S+x) = S+R',
so R = R'. Hence A = A'. This completes the proof of (1) and (2).
Moreover (1) and Ctransitivity of G on X imply G is transitive on pairs
(S, A) such that S is a 4-set and A a sextet through S. In particular (3)
holds and NG(A) is transitive on A.
By (1) there are (244)/6 = 1,771 sextets; that is, (5) holds.
Let T = {tl, t2, t3) and H = G s . Notice GT = L3(4) acts faithfully on
n with H the split extension of E = HA E E16by A5 = Alt(A - {S)).
+
As S R = B is an octad, N ~ ( B = ) ~A8, so there is an involution some w of weight at most 4 and some u E VC. Thus d(u,v) = lu vl =+
g E NG(B) acting as (tl, t2) on T and fixing exactly 2 points of R. Then
Tg = T, so g acts on n and fixes exactly 3 points on the line {s, R).
So by Exercise 1.3, (g, GT)*is L3(4) extended by a field automorphism
and ( H , ~ =) Sg~ = Sym(A - {S)). Thus as NG(A) is transitive on A,
N ~ ( A= ) Sym(A)
~ = Ss.
Let K = N G ( A ) ~be the kernel of the action of NG(A) on A. Then
Kg = EB Z E4, so by Ztransitivity of NG(A) on A, KA E E4, where
+
A = R R', R' E A - {S,R). As E is faithful on A, KA n E = 1.
Also KA and E are normal in K , so M = (KA,E) = KA x E % E64
and M K. But by ( 5 ) , ING(A)I = 3 26 IS61,SO as NG(A)/K S6,
-
1K1 = 3 26. Hence M E Syl2(K) and K is the split extension of M by
P of order 3. By Ctransitivity of G, NG(S)~= S4. Also M~ % E4,so
M~ E4 by symmetry. Thus ( P M ) ~= K~ 2 A4 since E <
q q K~ S4.
Thus CM(P)< Ks. Then by transitivity of NG(A) on A, CM(P) = 1.
Set v = V I E . The moduleis the 12-dimensional Todd module for
G= Notice that if U = core(V) is the subspace of vectors of V of
even order then 0 is an 11-dimensional GF(2)G-submodule of calledv
the 11-dimensional Todd module for M24.
19. The Golay and Todd modules 93
Lemma 19.10: (1) G has four orbits Vnl 1 5 n < 4, on v#, consisting
(2) IVnl =(z)
of the images of the n-subsets of V.
for n = 1,2,3. and IV41 = (7116 = 1,771.
(9) Each coset in Vn contains a unique n-set for n < 3, while the
&sets in a coset of V4 form a sextet.
(4) Let U = wre(V); then o# = V2 u Vq.
Proof: Let B E 8# with v of weight n 5 4. Then for u E v$, (u vl + >
A ~ equality
SO if and only if u E C, n = 4, and v C u. This
proves that if n I: 3 then v is the unique element of weight at most 4
+
in the coset C = v Vc. Further for n = 4, the set of elements in 6 of
weight at most 4 are v plus those of the form u + v, u E C, v cl: u. But
Further as the number of n-sets is (z),
by 19.9.3, these elements are just the members of A(v). So (3) holds.
we also have (2). By (2),
so (1) holds. As the members of core(V) are the vectors of even weight,
(4) holds.
+
Observe that 19.10 shows each vector v in V is of the form u w for
lwl 5 4. So each vector in V is in a sphere of diameter 4 from some code
word in the extended Golay code.
Lemma 19.11: Let A be a sextet, L = NG(A), and K = LA. Then
(1) Ci(A), 1 5 i < 3, are the orbits of L on C.
(2) Ci(A) is of order 15, 360, 384, for n = 1, 2, 3, respectively.
+
(3) C1(A) consists of those B with B = S T for some S,T E A.
Thus NL (B) = NL({S,T)) .
(4) C2(A) consists of those B with lBn Rl = 2 for all R f A -{S, T)
for some S, T E A. NL(B) is the split extension of NK(B) FZ E8
by N L ( B ) ~= NL({S,TI)~.
(5) C3(A) consists of those B such that IB n SI = 3 for some S E A
andIBnTI = 1f o r T E A-{S). NK(B) Z Z 3 andIVL(~)*=
NL(S)*.
Proof: By 19.9, C1(A) is an orbit of L of length 15 and (3) holds.
Let S,T E A and A = S + T E C1(A). Then Co(A) is of order 30 by
19.2 and hence the set C2(A,A) of octads in &(A) but not in Cl(A) is
of order 24. As IB n C J is even for each B E C2(A,A) and C E Cl(A),
94 Chapter 6 The Mathieu Groups
we conclude lR n BI = 2 for each R E A - {S,T). Thus
Cz(A>= U Cz(A1A)
AECi (A)
is of order 15.24 = 360.
Let Si E A intersect A trivially, 1 5 i 5 3, and let P = 02(K).
Then NK(B) acts on B r l Si of order 2 so NK(B) 5 Np(B n Si) and
IP : Np(B n Si)l = 2. Then NK(B) < ni Np(B nSi), which is of index
>
24 in K. So IK : NK(B)I 24 = lC2(A,A)I, and hence K is transitive
on C2(A,A). Thus as L is transitive on Cl (A), L is transitive on C2(A)
and (4) holds.
+ +
Finally let xi E S, and B = B(Sl +XI 2 2 +x3). As IBn (Sl R)) is
even for all R E A, we conclude B n R is a point for each R E A - (Sl)
and S1 + X I = B n S1 is of order 3. That is, B E C3(A). Also K is
transitive on triples (xl,x2, 23) with xi E Siand hence transitive on
of order 64. So INK(B)I = IKI/IRI = 3, and hence as L is transitive on
A, L is transitive on C3(A) and (5) holds.
Finally CilC,(A)l = 759 = )CI, so (1) holds, completing the proof.
Remarks. The Mathieu groups made their first appearance in two
papers of Mathieu in 1860 [MI] and 1861 [M2]. However, M24 was men-
tioned only briefly and Mathieu did not supply details about the group
until 1873 [M3]. Even then there remained uncertainty about the group.
For example, in 1898 [Mil], G. A. Miiler published what puQorted to
be a proof that M24 did not exist, although a year later in [Mi21 he had
realized his mistake.
In 1938, Witt published two papers [Wl], [W2]studying the Mathieu
groups from the point of view of their Steiner systems. This may have
been the first fairly rigorous existence proof for M24.
J. Todd's papers in 1959 [Toll and 1966 [To21 seem to represent the
first serious attempt to study the Steiner systems of the Mathieu groups.
In particular Todd begins the study of the Todd module, and indirectly
the Golay code module, as the latter module is the dual of the Todd
module. It is in these papers that the terminology of octads, sextets, etc.
is introduced and most of the results of Section 19 first proved.
The existence of the invariant submodule Vc of the 24-dimensional
binary permutation module was recognized at least implicitly by Paige
[Pa] in 1957, two years before Todd's first paper. The Golay code had
been discovered in 1949 by Golay in [GI,although he did not realize it
was invariant under the Mathieu group M23.
Exercises 95
Exercises
1. The Mathieu groups Mi1 and M12 are simple while F*(Mlo) E A6.
2. Assume the hypotheses and notation of Lemma 18.7 and let T E 13.
Prove
+
(1) There exist ~ , T ' , T *E l3with I ~ ( T )= T + T', I3(T) = T 'ii,
+
and I3(TI) = TI T*.
+
(2) T T* E I& SO r2(T) = 'ii T*.+
3. Let (X, C) be the Steiner system S(24,8,5) for Mz4 and let x and y
be distinct points of x. Prove
(1) There are exactly 330 octads missing x and y.
(2) The number of members of Vc containing exactly one of x and y
is 211.
4. Prove the binary Golay code is a perfect (23,12)-code with minimum
weight 7 which corrects three errors. Its automorphism group is M23.
5. Let G be a group t-transitive on a set X of order n, T a t-subset of
X , and B a k-subset of X with T 2 B such that G(T) 5 G ( B ) and
G(B) is t-transitive on B. Let B = {Bg : g E G).Prove (X,B) is a
Steiner system S(n, k, t).
6. Let Xg = (Xg, D9) be the affine plane over GF(3). Prove
(1) X9 is a Steiner system S(9,3,2).
(2) Aut(Ug) = HE is a split extension of E by H, where E E Eg is
the translation group and H S GL2(3).
(3) Let Q8 S A 5 H. Prove Xg, A satisfies the Extension Hypothesis.
(4) Let Xlo be the projective plane over GF(9) and 2310 the collection
of translates of the projective line B = {m, O,1, -1) over GF(3)
under M = PI'L2(9). Prove Xlo = (Xlo, Blo) is a Steiner system
S(10,4,3), M = Aut(Xlo), and Xlo is the unique extension X of
x 9 with A I N~,,t(x)(Xg).
(5) Prove Xlo,AE satisfy the Extension Hypothesis and there ex-
ists a unique extension Xll = (Xll,Ull) of X10 admitting AE.
Moreover Aut(Xll) = M11.
(6) Prove Xl1, Mll satisfy the Extension Hypothesis and there ex-
ists a unique extension X12 = (X12,B12)of X11 admitting Mil.
Moreover Aut(X12) = M12.
(7) Mil, Mi2 are the unique 4,5 transitive groups with point stabilizer
Mlo, Mll, respectively.
(Hint: To prove (7) use (5) and (6) plus Exercise 6.5.)

Chapter 7
The Geometry and
Structure of M2,
In Lemma 11.8 we saw that if (V,X, U) is a strictly doubly even binary
code then there exists a triple (P, C, f ) of forms on U inducing a geomet-
ric structure on U.In this chapter we study the geometry induced on the
Golay code module Vc in this fashion. In particular we find that the oc-
tads are the singular points in this module with the trios corresponding
to the singular lines and the sextets to maximal hyperbolic subspaces.
The tlocal geometry for M24 is the geometry of octads, trios, and sex-
tets with incidence defined by inclusion, subject to the identification of
these objects with subspaces of Vc just described. In Section 20 we de-
rive various properties of this geometry which will be used in Section 21
t o investigate the basic local structure of M24, and later t o establish the
uniqueness of M24 and other sporadics.
20. The geometry of M24
In this section we continue the hypothesis and notation of Sections 18
and 19. In particular G is the Mathieu group M24 and (X,C) is the
Steiner system for G. Recall V is the power set of X regarded as a
GF(2)G-module via the operation of symmetric difference. Also Vc is
the 12-dimensional Golay code submodule of V generated by the octads
and Vc = Vc/(X) is the 11-dimensional Golay code module.
By 19.7, (V,X, Vc) is a doubly even code so by 11.8 there is a triple
20. The geometry of Mz4
of forms P, C, f defined on Vc via
Moreover by 11.8:
Lemma 20.1: (1) f is a symmetric trilinear form with f (x,x, y) = 0
for all x , y E VC.
(2) Rad(Vc) = (X), so we have induced forms i n vc
which we also
write as P,C ,f .
For x E Vc, fx is the bilinear form fx(y,z) = f(x,y,z), Cz is the
quadratic form Cx(y) = C(x,y) (which has fx as its associated bilinear
form) and R(x) = Rad(fx). In Section 11 we saw how this algebraic
structure on Vc can be used t o define a geometric structure preserved
by the isometry group of P. In particular M24 preserves this geometry,
which is an excellent tool for studying the group.
For example, recall from Section 11that a subspace U of Vc is singular
3 if P is trivial on U and U is singular with respect to f , for all x E V.
Further given S C_ Vc, SO consists of those v E Vc such that f,, = 0 on
, S. Recall from the discussion in Section 11 that SO is a subspace of Vc.
Further a subspace U of Vc is subhyperbolic if U8 is a hyperplane of Vc
and P is trivial on U.
Define a trio to be a triple {B1,B2, B3) of octads such that X is the
disjoint union of B1, B2, and B3. Thus Bi E Co(Bj) for each i # j and
B3=B1+Bz+X.
Lemma 20.2: (1) G is transitive on the 3,795 = 23.11 5 . 3 trios.
+ +
(2) The stabilizer L of a trio {A,B, A B X ) is the split extension
of E64 by S3 X L3(2)-
(3) Let A be a sextet such that A, B E C1(A). Then L = NL(B)NL(A)
with lL : NL(B)I = 3 and IL : NL(A)I = 7.
+ +
Proof: Let 7 = {A, B, A B X) be a trio. Part (1) follows as G is
transitive on its 759 octads and Co(B) is an orbit for M = NG(B) of
length 30. Also this shows IL : L n MI = 3 and L~ = S3. By 19.2.6,
LT is the split extension of Q7 Ea by L3(2)/E8, so as L~ = S3,
I
02(LT) = QT x 9% E E64 for g E L - NL(B). Then (2) holds. Finally
NL(A) induces S3 o n 7 and (NG(A): NL(A)I = 15by 19.9.4, so (3) holds.
Lemma 20.3: (1) The octads are the singular points of Vc and the
dodecads are the nonsingular points.
98 Chapter 7 The Geometry and Structure of M24
(2) G has three orbits on lines of Vc generated by octads: the singular
lines, the hyperbolic lines, and the lines (A,B ) with A E C2(B).
(3) The singular lines of & are the lines 1 with 1# the octads in a
trio.
(4) The hyperbolic lines of Vc are the lines (A, B} with A E C4(B).
Proof: By 19.8, G has two orbits on v?: The octads and the dodecads.
So as Ivl = 0,2 mod 4 for v an octad, dodecad, respectively, (1) holds.
Next by 19.2, G has three orbits on lines of Vc generated by singular
points, and thoseprbits have representatives (B,Ai), where Ai E Ci(B),
i=0,2,4.NowB+A:!isadodecadso~(~+~q)=1,whie~+~~is
an octad for i = 0,4. By 19.11 there exists an octad C with IBnA4nCI
odd, so f(B,A4,C) = 1 and hence (B,A4) is hyperbolic. Finally as
B n Ao = 0,IC n B nAol is even for all C E C, so (B, Ao) is singular.
Lemma 20.4: Let A be a sextet. Then
(1) {B : B E C1(A)) = U# for some 4-dimensional subspace U =
U(A) of &.
(2) U is subhyperbolic.
(3) NG(U) is irreducible on U, U8/U, and Vc/UB of dimension
4,6,1, respectively.
(4) Let fu = fv for v E V - U8. Then (U, fu) is a 4-dimensional
symplectic space over F and NG(U) induces the symplectic group
O(U, f,) Z Sp4(2) on U.
(5) For A 5 U, R(A) n U is the subspace of U orthogonal to A under
fun
(6) If P E Sy13(CG(U)) then NG(P) 5 NG(U) and CG(P)
A6/Z3 is quasisimple.
+ + +
Proof: For distinct A, B E Cl(A), A B or A B X is in Cl(A), so
as lCl(A)l = 15, (1) holds.
Let L = NG(U) and K = LA a s i n 19.9, and take P E Sy13(K). By
19.9.4, CL(P) S A6/Z3 and 02(K) G% E64- Thus 02(L) is a faithful
3-dimensional GF(4)CL(P)-module, so a Sylow 3-subgroup R of CL(P)
is--Sylow in SL3(4), and hence is isomorphic to 31+2. Therefore CL(P)
is quasisimp!e.
As K fixes each member of Cl(A), K = CG(U) and K acts on
the hyperplane (A, B)B of Vc for (A, B) a hyperbolic line in U. Thus
> +
dim(Cvc(P)) dim(U) 1 = 5, so dim([Vc, PI) 2 6. So as 6 is the
minimal dimension of a faithful GF(2)R-module, dim([Vc, PI) = 6 and
20. The geometry of M24
+
CL(P) is irreducible on ([Vc, P] U)/U of dimension 6. In particular
+
[Vc, PI U is generated by octads.
Now by 19.11, if C E C3(A) then IAnBnCl is odd, so f (A, B, C) = 1
<
and C 4 UB, while if C 4 C3(A) then f (A, B, C) = 0, so C UB. Thus
+
as [Vc, P] U is a hyperplane generated by octads, U6 = [Vc, P] U, +
so (2) and (3) hold. Then (4) and (5) hold by 11.6 and 19.9.
We also see that dim(Cvc (P)) = 5 and U is the unique subhyperbolic
hyperplane of Cvc(P),so NG(P) IL, completing the proof of (6).
Using 20.3 and 20.4, we identify the octads, trios, and sextets with
subspaces of Vc of dimension 1,2,4, respectively.
Proceeding as in Section 4, let 'I be the geometry on I = {1,2,3)
whose objects of type i are the octads, trios, sextets, for i = 1,2,3,
respectively, and with incidence equal to inclusion, subject to our iden-
tification of the objects of I" with subspaces of Vc. The geometry I'is the
2-local geometry of M24, since the stabilizers of objects in a chamber are
the maximal 2-local subgroups of M24 containing a Sylow Zsubgroup of
M24 fixing the chamber.
The identification of I' with subspaces of Vc gives an injection of ge-
ometries l? -t PG(Vc) embedding I' in the projective geometry of Vc.
The algebraic structure supplied by the forms P, C, f allows us to dis-
tinguish subspaces of Vc and hence use the embedding of r in pG(VC)
effectively.
We say a pair of octads are collinear if they are incident with a com-
mon trio and octads or trios are coplanar if they are incident with a
common sextet. See Section 4 for definitions of geometric terminology
such a s "residue," etc. See Chapter 7 in [FGT] for a discussion of syrn-
E
plectic and orthogonal spaces.
Lemma 20.5: (1) r is a residually connected string geometry.
(2) G is flag tmnsitive on .'I
(3) The residue of an octad is isomorphic to the points and lines of
4-dimensional projective space over GF(2).
(4) The residue of a sextet is isomorphic to the singular points and
lines of 4-dimensional symplectic space over GF(2).
.(5)-The-e are three octads and seven sextets incident with each trio.
Proof: Part (4) follows from 20.4.4 and 20.4.5 and part (3) follows from
20.6.1 and 20.6.3 below. Moreover these lemmas show the stabilizer of
an octad or sextet is flag transitive on its residue. Notice (3) and (4)
say the residues of octads and sextets are connected. By 20.2.3 part (5)
holds and the residue of a trio is a generalized digon with the stabilizer
100 Chapter 7 The Geometry and Structure of M24
of the trio flag transitive on the residue. Thus to complete the proof it
suffices to prove I? is connected. But from 19.2, G is primitive on octads,
so I' is connected.
Lemma 20.6: If x is an octad then
(1) dim(R(x)) = 5, G, is the stabilizer of x in GL(R(x)), and R(x)
is the union of the trios through x.
(2) (Vc/R(x), C,) is a 6-dimensional orthogonal space of sign +1,
Gz acts as Ri(2) on Vc/~(x),and for U E r3(x), U+R(x)/R(x)
is a singular point of Vc/R(x) and UB/R(x) is the subspace or-
thogonal to that point.
(3) The map U -+ R(x) nU is a bijection between r3(x) and the set
of 3-subspaces of R(x) containing x.
(4) Each pair of distinct coplaner trios is contained in a unique sex-
tet.
(5) If U E F3(x) then G,,u has three orbits on r3(x): {U), the
eighteen sextets W in UB with U n W E r2, and the sixteen
sextets Z not contained in UB with Z n U = (x).
(6) Each hyperbolic line h is contained in a unique sextet U, and
u = h $ R(h).
Proof:Adopt the notation of 19.2 with B = x and (x, I, U) a chamber.
Thus, for example, M = Gx, and by 19.2, M/Q r L4(2), while by
19.2.6, Ml/Q is the stabilizer of a point in the natural module for MI&.
In particular M is therefore 2-transitive on r2(x). But by 20.5.4 and
+
20.5.5, A C is an octwl if 1 = (B, A) and k = (B, 6 )are trios in U,so
+
A C is an octad for all distinct A, C E Co(B). Hence as ICo(B)I = 30,
(1) holds.
Next by 20.4, R(x) n U is the hyperplane of U orthogonal to x under
fU, so 0 is a point in Vc = VC/R(U).Further (vc, C,) is a nondegenerate
orthogonal space of dimension 6 and Gx induces Rgf(2) on Vc, so the
space is of sign +l. By definition of C,, U is a singular point in PC
and 8 0 = O1.Then as Mu is the parabolic subgroup of M stabilizing
R(x) n U and 0, (3) and (5) hold.
+
If 1 and m are trios in U then either 1 m = U or 1n m is an octad
which we take to be x. In the first case clearly U is the unique sextet
+
containing 1 and m. In the second 1 m = R(x) n U, so U is unique by
(3). Thus (4) is established.
I t remains to prove (6). As each sextet contains a hyperbolic line h and
G is transitive on hyperbolic lines, we may take h 5 U. Then UB 5 he,
so a s UB is a hyperplane, UB = he. Then as G is transitive on sextets
20. The geometry of M2* 101
and NG(U) = NG(UB), U is the unique sextet containing h. By 20.5,
U n R(h) = k is the line orthogonal to h in U, so U = h @ k. h r t h e r if
+ <
x E R(h) then x h W E 1'3 by (3), so by uniqueness of U,W = U
and hence x E k.
Given a trio 1 let ((1) = (R(x) : x E 1).
L e m m a 20.7: Let 1 be a trio and x, y E 1 distinct octads. Then
+
( I ) dim(C(1)) = 8 and c(1) = R(x) R(y) with R(x) n R(y) = 1.
(2) ((1)/1 is the tensor product of natural modules for the factors of
G1/02(Gr) L3(2) x L2(2).
(3) G~ acts as ~3 (2) on Vc/c(l).
(4) Each octad in ((1) - 1 is in a unique R(u), u E z#.
Proof: From 20.6, Gz,y acts irreducibly on R(x)/l as L3(2), so R(x) n
+
R(y) = 1. Thus dim(R(x) R(y)) = 8. Let Q(z) = 02(Gz) for z = x, y.
By 20.6, [Q(z), VC] L R(z), so S = (Q(x), Q(Y)) acts on R(x) + R(Y).
Thus as GI = GZIyS,it follows that ((1) = R(x) + R(y) is of dimension
8, and (2) holds. As R(x) nR(y) = 1, each octad in ((1) -1 is in at most
i one R(u), u E 1#. By (2), GI has two orbits on vectors in <(I) - I, and as
one of these contains nonsingular points, each such octad is in at least
one R(u). Thus (4) is established. Finally dim(Vc/C(l)) = 3, so from the
action of Gx,y on Vc obtained from 20.6, (3) holds.
Lemma 20.8: The stabilizer GI of a trio 1 has five orbits fii(l), 0 5 i 5 4,
on I'2 as follows:
(1) 60(1) = {ll.
(2) S1(l)= {k:O# k n l #1) is of order42.
(3) S2(1) = {k : k + 1 E r3)is of order 56.
(4) s3(l) = {k : dim(k n c(1)) = 1) is of order 1,008.
(5) S4(1) = {k : k n ((1) = 0) is of order 2,688.
Proof: First Gl is transitive on the three octads on 1 and taking x E 1,
by 20.6, R(x) contains fifteen trios through x and G, acts Ztransitively
as L4(2) on these trios, so there are 3 . 14 = 42 trios in Sl(1) and they
form an orbit under G1.
Second GI is transitive on the seven sextets incident with 1 and if U
is such a sextet, then from 20.5, Gu,1 is transitive on the eight trios of
i
U intersecting 1 trivially, so there are 7 8 = 56 trios in S2(1) and they
form an orbit under Gr.
Third by 20.6, GI,, is transitive on the 28 octads z in R(x) - 1. By
20.6.3, z + I is contained in a unique sextet U and by 20.6.3, 20.6.6,
102 Chapter 7 The Geometry and Structure of M24
and 20.7.4, ( ( 1 ) n R ( z ) = U n R ( z ) is a 3-subspace of R ( z ) with Gz,u =
Gz,UnR(z).Now CG(U) < G,,l,u is transitive on the 12 trios in R ( z ) -
<(1). Thus the 3.28 12 = 1,008 trios in b3(l) form an orbit. This leaves
2,688 trios k with k n ( ( 1 ) = 0. Checking the permutation character of
G on GIGl, we find G is rank 5 on lines, and hence conclude that &i4(1)
forms the fifth orbit.
Lemma 20.9: The stabilizer GU of a sextet U has orbits Ei(U), 0
i 5 3, on sextets, where:
(1) = {U}.
(2) Z1(U) = { W : W n U E r 2 ) is of order 90.
(3) Z 2 ( U ) = { W : W n U E r l ) is of order 240.
(4) E3(U) = { W : U n W = 0) is of order 1,440.
Moreover members of E;(U) are not contained i n U 8 for i = 2,3.
Proof: As G u is transitive on the fifteen trios 1 E r 2 ( U ) and Gl is
2-transitive on the seven sextets in r3(1), Z1(U) is an orbit of length
1 5 . 6 = 90. As G u is transitive on the fifteen octads x E r l ( U ) and
by 20.6.5, Gut, is transitive on the sixteen sextets W E r 3 ( x ) with
( x ) = U n W , B2(U) is an orbit of length 15 16 = 240. Further by
20.6.5, W $ UO. This leaves 1,440 sextets W with W n U = 0. 'From the
character table of G, G is rank 4 on GIGU, so E3(U) is the fourth orbit
of G u on planes.
Lemma 20.10: Let U E r3,W E Z l ( U ) , and 1 E r z ( W ) with I n U = 0.
Then((1)nU = W n U ~ r 2 .
Proof: If x E U n ( ( l ) # then by 20.7.4, x E R ( y ) for some y E 1#.
Further if ( x , x ' ) is a trio in U then as U = ( R ( x )n U ) + ( R ( x f )n U ) ,
+
( R ( x ) U )n ( R ( x / n +
) U ) = U ( R ( x ) n R(x')) = U , SO ~ ( yn )u = ( 2 ) .
Thus by 20.7.7,
Lemma 20.11: For each sextet U , GU is transitive on the 384 octads
and 640 nonsingular points i n PC- U0, and if x is such an octad then
-.
(U,Cx) is an orthogonal space of sign -1 and GU,, r Z3 x S5 induces
the isometry group of Cx on U with kernel of o d e r 3.
Proof: Let x E Vc - UB be an octad. Now 0 2 ( G u )= E is the group of
transvections with axis UB/U on V/U, so E is regular on V/U - UB/U.
Thus H = Gu,u+, is a complement to E in Gu, so H Z S6/Z3. Now H
21. The local structure of M24 103
+
has two orbits xiH on x U of order 6,10, respectively. So as 27 does
not divide the order of Gx, we conclude x = x i , G u is transitive on the
64 6 octads in V - UB, and Gu,, is as claimed.
Lemma 20.12: The stabilizer of a sextet U has orbits y ( U ) , 0 < i 5 3,
on r2, where:
(1) no(U) = r 2 ( U ) is of order 15.
< (2) tcl(U) = {I : 1 n U E r l ) is of order 180.
(3) tc2(U) = (1 : 0 = 1 fl U and 1 5 W E E 2 ( U ) ) w of order 720.
(4) rc3(U) = ( 1 : 1 $ UO) is of order 2,880.
Proof: Of course q ( U ) is an orbit of length 15. Next Gu is transitive
on the 15 octads x E r l ( U ) and by 20.6, GXluis transitive on the twelve
trios 1 with U n 1 = ( x ) , so tcl(U) is an orbit of length 15 - 12 = 180.
Now W E E1(U) contains eight trios 1 with 1 n U = 0 and by 20.10,
W n U = ((1) n U . Then W = ( { ( l )n U ) + 1 is uniquely determined by
I, so tc2(U)is of order 90.8 = 720. This leaves 2,880 trios. From 20.11,
Gu is transitive on the 384 octads x E V - UO, and G,,u is transitive
on the fifteen trios through x , so Gu is transitive on the 384.15/2 =
2,880 trios in tc3(U).
Lemma 20.13: W o s 1, m are coplanar if and only if m E &(l) for
i 5 2.
Proof: This follows as G is flag transitive on I? and if 1 is a trio in a
<
sextet U then the orbits of Gl,u on r 2 ( U ) are bi(l) n U for i 2.
21. The local structure of M24
In this section (X, C) is the Steiner system for G = M24, V is the binary
permutation module for'G on X, Vc is the Golay code submodule, and
Vc = Vc/(X) is the 11-dimensional Golay code module. We also use the
rest of the notation and terminology of Chapter 6 and Section 20.
Our object in this section is to determine the conjugacy classes of
subgroups of G of prime order and the normalizers of such subgroups.
Lemma 21.1: (1) G has two classes of involutions with representatives
z and t .
(2) F i x X ( z ) E C and t has no fixed points o n X.
(3) F*(CG(z)) = Q % 0;is a large extmspecial subgroup of G and
C G ( ~is) the split extension of Q by L3(2).
(4) CG(t) 5 NG ( U ) for some sextet U , and CG(t) is the extension of
E64 by 5 5 -

104 Chapter 7 The Geometq and Structure of M24
Proof: Let i be an involution in G. As G is simple, (Fixx(i)l 1x15 0
mod 4. But the stabilizer L of three points of X is L3(4), which has
one class of involutions with representative z such that FixX(z) E C.
Further (3) holds by 8.10.
Thus we may assume i has no fixed points on X. Now 40.6 and 40.4.2
complete the proof.
Lemma 21.2: Let v be a dodecad. Then
(1) Gu is irreducible on Vc/(8).
(2) R(a) = (8).
Proof: Recall from 19.4 that Gv 2 M12 has order divisible by 11.
But 10 is the minimal dimension of a faithful GF(2)Z11-module, so
as dim&) = 11, (1) holds. Then as f, # 0 is preserved by Gv, we
conclude from (1) that (Vc, f,) is nondegenerate and hence (2) holds.
Lemma 21.3: If 1 is a trio (regarded as a singular line of Vc) then 1 is
the radical off restricted to C(1).
Proof: From 20.6 and 20.7, <(Z)/R(x) is a totally singular %space in
Vc/R(x) with respect to C, for each octad x E 1. Thus 1 < R =
R ~ d ( f ~ < ( On
~ ) )the
. other hand by 20.7, G1 is irreducible on c(1)/1, so if
R # I then f is trivial on <(I). But there is a dodecad v with 8 f [ ( l ) ,
so if f is trivial on c(1) then [(1)/(5) is a totally singular subspace of
(G/(G),f ) of dimension 6, whereas by 21.2.2, that space is nondegener-
ate of dimension 10 and hence has no such subspace.
Lemma 21.4: (1) G has two classes of elements of order 3 with repre-
sentatives y and d.
(2) I Fixx (d) 1 = 6 and y has no fixed points on X.
(3) dim(C&(d)) = 5 and dim(Cvc(y)) = 3. Moreover y centralizes
no octads in Vc.
(4) CG(d) S AslZ3 is quasisimple, NG((d))/(d) S Ss, and NG((d))
is a complement to O2(NG(U)) in NG(U) for some sextet U < Cvc (d).
(5) NG((y)) 2 53 x L3(2) and NG(Y) is a complement to O2(NG(1))
in NG(l) for some trio 1.
Proof: First the stabilizer L3(4) of three points of X has one class of
elements of order 3, so G is transitive on elements of order 3 fixing a
point of X. Now by 20.4 if U is a sextet then there is an element d of
order 3 fixing each block in the sextet, fixing six points of X , and satis-
fying (4). Notice as V/VCis dual to I+, dim(Cv(d)) = 2dim(Cv,(d)) =
+
2(dim(CVc(d)) 1) and as V is the permutation module for G on X,
21. The local structure of Mz4 105
dim(Cv(d)) is the number of orbits of d on X. This gives the dimensions
in (3). We use this same argument below without further comment. No-
tice also that if g of order 3 fixes an octad B it fixes a point of B , so the
final remark in (3) holds too.
Next we saw during the proof of 20.4 that a Sylow 3-subgroup P of
G is 31+2 and we may take (d) = Z(P).Then from (4), NG(P) has two
orbits on elements on P - (d). One of these orbits is fused to d in L3(4),
leaving the other fixed point free on X and completing the proof of (2).
Let 1be a trio. By 20.7 there is a subgroup Y of order 3 with NG, (Y)
L3(2) x S3 a complement to 02(Gl) in Gl and [Vc, Y] = c(1). Then by
21.3, NG(Y) 5 GI, completing the proof of the lemma.
Lemma 21.5: (1) G is transitive on subgroups of o d e r p for p =5, 7,
11, and 23.
-
(2) NG(A) is h b e n i u s of order 11 10, 2 3 . 11, for A of order 11,
23, respectively.
(3) If B is of order 5 then JFixx(B)l = 4, dim(Cvc(B)) = 3,
CG(B) 2 Z5 x A4, ING(B) : CG(B)I = 4, and NG(B) &es a seztet.
(4) If E is of order 7 then IFixx(E)( = 3, dim(Cvc(E)) = 2,
NG(E) 2 Z3/Z7 x S3,and NG(E) jixes a trio.
Proof: For p > 3 a prime divisor of IGI, p divides IG/ to the first power,
so (1) follows from Sylow's Theorem. Similarly if p = 11 or 23 then
Sylow gives us ING(A) : A1 modulo p and from 21.1 and 21.4, ICG(A)[
is prime to 6. We conclude (2) holds.
Next the stabilizer L3(4) of three points contains subgroups B, E of
order 5,7, respectively, allowing us to calculate the number of fixed points
of our element on X and Vc. In particular from 20.7, CVc(E) = 1 is a
trio and then (4) holds. Also Fixx(B) is of order 4 and hence contained
in a unique sextet, and this observation together with 20.4 gives (3).
Remarks. I believe Ronan and Smith were the first to discuss the 2-
local geometry r for M24 in [RS]. Ronan and Smith also point out the
representation of r as points, lines, and 4-subspaces of the Golay code
module VC. The use of the derived forms (PIC,f ) on Vc to induce and
study the structure of I' and G comes from [AS2].
Some of the facts about I? established in Section 20 first appeared in
, Todd's paper TO^]. Others appear in R. Curtis's thesis [Cu] and still
others in [AS2]. The facts about the local structure of M24 fall in the
realm of the "well known."
106 Chapter 7 The Geometry and Structure of M24 Exercises 107
I

The reader may wonder why the 2-local geometry r of M24 is discussed
here in such excruciating detail. It is because l' appears as a residue of
the 2-local geometries of Col, Jq, M(24), and Fl. Thus the uniqueness
proofs for these groups require detailed knowledge of I?.
4. Let Vc be the 11-dimensional Golay code module for G = M24. Prove
that for each elementary abelian 2-subgroup A of G, IVc : Cvc (A)I >
IAI.
5. Let G = Mu, v = 22,23, or 24, and (X, B) be the Steiner system for G.
Prove Aut(G) = Aut(X, B), so Aut(M24) = M24, A~t(M23)= M23,
and IAut(Mz2) : M221 = 2.

Exercises
1. Let A be the collinearity graph of the 2-local geometry I' of M24 and
let x E A. Prove
(1) A(x) = Co(x), a 2 ( x ) = C4(x), and h3(x) = C2(x), SO A is of
diameter 3.
(2) xL = R(x) n A and A 1 2 ( ~= ) {y E A : Cx(y) = 0).
(3) The collinearity graph of the residue of a plane is the graph of
singular points in a Cdimensional symplectic space over GF(2).
(4) Each pair of singular lines through x is incident with a plane.
(5) If z E A2(x) then x and z are incident with a unique plane.
(6) For each line k of there is a unique point y of k with d(x, y) =
4 x 1 k)-
(7) If U is a plane determined by a sextet S then d(x, U)= 1 if and
only if x E C2(S).
(8) If d(x, y) = 3 then G=,v 2 Sp4(2) with R(x)/x the 4dimensional
symplectic module for Gx,v and U E r3(z) is at distance 1from y
if and only if (U 17R(x))/x is a singular line in that space. Hence
the graph on r2(x) with 1 * k if and only if d(n(1, k), y) = 1 is
connected, where ~ ( 1 k), is the unique plane through 1 and k.
2. Let G = M24.
(1) Let P be the binary permutation module for G on the set C of
octads and Q the submodule of P generated by all elements A +
+
B C such that {A,B, 6 ) is a singular or hyperbolic line in the
Golay code module Vc. Prove P/Q is GF(2)G-isomorphic t o vc.
(2) Let M be the stabilizer in G of an octad and V a faithful GF(2)G-
module such that
(i) M stabilizes some z E V with V = (zG).
(ii) M is faithful on some U 5 V with 2 E U, dim(U) = 5, and
U# E zG.
Prove V is GF(2)G-isomorphic to Vc.
3. Let Vc be the Golay code module and W 5 Vc with dim(W) > 3.
Prove W contains a singular point.
(Hint: Use Exercise 3.3.)
 22. The Leech lattice and 0
of M, so for C, a, and Exbx in R ~ ~ ,
/ \

For v E R~~define q(v) = (v,v)/16. Thus q is a positive definite

quadratic form on R ~ Given ~ .Y X , define e y = CvEYy ER ~ ~ .
Chapter 8 For x E X let Az = e x - 4x.
The Leech lattice is the set A of vectors v = C, ass E R~~such that:
a, E Z for all x E X.
The Conway Groups and (Al)
(A2) m(v) = (Ex
ax)/4 E Z.
a, = m(v) mod 2 for all x E X.
the Leech Lattice (A3)
(A4) C(v) = {x E X : a, f m(v) mod 4) E Vc.
Lemma 22.1: Let u, v E A. Then
( I ) m ( u + v ) =m(u) +m(v) andm(-u) = -m(u).
(2) C(U+V)=C(u) +C(v) andC(-u) =C(u).
(3) A is a 2-submodule 0 . f ~ ~ ~ .
The Leech lattice is a certain 24dimensional Z-submodule of 24dimen-
sional Euclidean space R~~discovered by John Leech. John Conway Proof: Parts (1) and (2) are easy. Further (1) and (2) together with the
showed that the group -0of automorphisms of the Leech lattice is a fact that Vc is a subspace of V, imply (3).
quasisimple group. The central factor group of S O is the Conway group
Col. Further other sporadic groups are the stabilizers of sublattices of Let A. denote the set of vectors v E A such that m(v) E 0 mod 4.
the Leech lattice; for example, Conway discovered the Conway groups Lemma 22.2: (1) 4eJ E A for each subset J of X of even order.
Co2 and Co3 in this way. (2) 2e, E A for each v E VC.
In Section 22 we construct the Leech lattice A and the Conway groups, (3) 8x E A for all x E X.
and establish various properties of A and the Conway groups. In Sec- (4) A. is the Z-submodule spanned by {2eB : B E C).
tion 23, we consider = A/2A, the Leech lattice mod 2. The Leech
lattice mod 2 supplies another tool for studying the Conway groups. Proof: Parts (1)-(3) are straightforward calculations, keeping in mind
For example, it allows us t o construct McLaughlin7sgroup Mc and the that Ivl r 0 mod 4 for all v E VC. By 22.1.1, A. is a Z-submodule of
Higrnan-Sims group HS. A. By (2), 2eB E A. for B E C, so the Z-submodule L generated by
{2eB : B E C) is contained in Ao. Hence to complete the proof of (4), it
remains t o show A. 5 L.
We claim 4(x - y) and 162 E L for all x, y E X. Namely if T is a
22. The Leech lattice and - 0
4subset of X then from 19.9.1, T is contained in a unique sextet A(T).
In this section M = M24 and (X,C) is the Steiner system S(24,8,5) for Then for R, S E A(T) - {T),
M. Let V be the permutation module over GF(2) for M with basis X
and I+ the Golay code submodule. Let R~~be the permutation module 4eT = 2eq-+s + 2 e T + ~- 2 e ~ + Es L.
over the reals for M with basis X and let ( , ) be the symmetric bilinear Then choosing U to be a 5-subset of X containing x, y,
form on R~~for which X is an orthonormal basis. Thus R~~together
with ( , ) is just 24dimensional Euclidean space admitting the action
 I

110 Chapter 8 The Conway Groups and the Leech Lattice i

I
22. The Leech lattice and 0 111
as U + x and U + y are Csubsets. Finally Lemma 22.5: Let P = {ey : Y E V ) , Q = {ey : Y E VC). Then
162 = +
4(x - t ) 4 e E~ L, (1) F o r g e S y m ( X ) , ( e y ) g = e y g and (cy)g=cyg.
tET (2) The map Y H ~y is an isomorphism of V with P as abelian
where T is a Csubset with x $ T. Thus the claim is established.
groups which commutes with the action of M I where M acts on
P by conjugation.
=
Now let v = Ex axx E ha;we must show v E L. As m ( v ) 0 mod 4,
ax is even for all x E X by (A3),and C(v) = { x X : a, G 2 mod 4 ) E - <
(3) P S y m ( X ) o ( R ~ and -
~N) = M Q 5 G .
I+ by (A4). But C(v) = CBES B for some S E C, so replacing v by Proof: Part (1) is straightforward and, together with the observation
v+CBES 2eB1we may assume C(v) = 0. Now taking X = ( X I , ... ,224) that eyez = cy+z, implies (2). As S y m ( X ) permutes X and X is an
and bk = Cislea,, we have orthonormal basis for ( , ), S y m ( X ) 5 o ( R ~Similarly <
~). P o(R~~).
As M preserves VC1 M acts on A. So M 5 G. Let B E C and e = eB.
v= C b i ( ~-i xi+l) + b24~24- It remains to show Q 5 G, and for this it suffices by 22.2 and 22.3 to
i<24 show the images 2eAc and Axe of 2eA and Ax under c are in A for each
But a, 0 mod 4 for d l i,so bi 0 mod 4, and hence b i ( ~ i - ~ i + El )L A E C and X E X.But = - 2 e and
~ and 2eB are in
by the claim. Similarly b24 = 4m(v) = 0 mod 16, so b 2 4 ~ 2E4 L by the +
A by 22.2. Similarly Axe = Ax - 2eB 82 if x E B, and Axe = A, - 2eg
claim. if x $ B , But by 22.2, 2 e and
~ 8x are in A, so the lemma holds.
Lemma 22.3: Let xo E X . Then A is the Z-submodule generated by Ao In the remainder of this section N will be the subgroup of lemma
and A,, . 22.5.3.
Given a positive integer n , write An for the set of vectors v in A with
Proof: Let X = Ax,. Evidently X E A with m(A) = 5. Conversely let
q(v) = n. By 22.4.2,
v = Ex a,x E A; we must show v is in the Z-span of A. and A. If m ( v )
+ + +
is odd then as m ( v A) = m ( v ) m(X), replacing v by v X we may A= UA..
take m ( v ) even. Similarly replacing v by v + 2X if necessary, we may n
assume m ( v ) = 0 mod 4. But then v E Ao, as desired. For v = Exax%E A and i a nonnegative integer, let
Si(v) = { x E X : la,/ = i),
Lemma 22.4: (1) ( x ,y ) 0 mod 8 for all x,y E h.
(2) q(x) E Z for all x E A. .
and define the shape of v to be (On,, lnl, . .), where ni = ISi(v)).
Let A$ be the set of vectors in A of shape (28,016), A$ the vectors in
Proof: By 22.2 and 22.3 it suffices to prove the remarks for x = 2eB or A of shape (3,123),and A: the vectors in A of shape (42,022).
A, and y = 2eA, where A, B E C , z E X. But (2eA,2eB) = 41An BI G 0
mod 8 by 19.2.1. Also (2eB,A,) = 8 or 16 for z E B , z !$ B , respectively. Lemma 22.6: (1) A;, 1 5 i < 3, are the orbits of N on A2.
Finally q(X,) = 2. ~ 212 - 24, and ) ~ f t =
(2) 1~?j1= 27 759, I A ; = l 22 . (224).
(3) lA21 = 196,560 = 2* . 33 .5 7 13.
Write o ( R ~ for~the) subgroup of G L ( R ~preserving
~) the bilinear
form ( , ), or equivalently preserving the quadratic form q. Let G be Proof: F i s t observe that by Exercise 8.1, a vector v = C, a,x E R~~
the subgroup of O ( R 2 4 )acting on A. The group G is the automorphism of shape (28,016) is in A if and only if S2(v) E C and T ( v ) = {X E X :
group of the Leech lattice; it is often denoted by - 0.- a, = 2 ) is of even order. Thus there are 759 choices for S2(v),and given-
c
For Y X , write cy for the element of G L ( R ~such ~ ) that Sz(v) there are 27 choices of signs for the coefficients ax, x E S2(v),so
that IT(v)l is even. So (2) holds in this case.
Further if u E A: then there is g E M with S2(v) = S2(u)g = S2(ug),
so in proving transitivity of N on A$, we may take Sz(u) = S2(v).
Next for each subset R of S2(v) of order 2, there exists B E C with
112 Chapter 8 The Conway Groups and the Leech Lattice
S2(v)n B = R by 19.2. Now veg differs from v only by a sign change
on R, so adjusting by such elements eg, we can map v to u , since T ( u )
and T ( v ) are each of even order. Therefore we have shown that N is
transitive on A;.
Similarly by Exercise 8.2, N is transitive on 1\32, while by Exercise 8.1,
if v E R~~is of shape (3, 123),then v E A if and only if S = { x E X :
ax r 1 mod 4 ) E I+. So there are 212 choices for S , and given S there
are twenty-four choices for the place S3(v).Hence (2) holds in this case.
Notice Exercise 8.3 handles the case of A!.
Finally suppose v = Exaxx E A2. We must show v has one of the
three shapes above. As 32 = 16q(v) = C,a%, we have laxl 5 5 for
all x. Indeed by (A3), if some az is odd, then all are odd, and hence
a$ 5 32 - 23 = 9. So laxl i 3, and if lazl = 3 then the inequality is an
equality, so v has shape (3,123),as desired. On the other hand if v has
shape 124 then q(v) # 2.
So we may take m ( v ) = m to be even and laxl = 0,2, or 4 for all x.
By (A4), S z ( v ) E 6. But 41S2(v)I 5 32, so ISz(v)l 5 8. Now if S2(v)
is empty then as q(v) = 2, v has shape (42,o ~ ~Thus ) . we may assume
S z ( v ) # 0,so as IS2(v)j 5 8, S2(v)E C and v has shape (28,016).
Lemma 22.7: If p is a prime diwisor of IGI then p 5 23.
Proof: Let g E G be of order p, let w be a primitive pth root of 1, and
let mi be the multiplicity of wi as an eigenvalue of g for 0 5 i < p. Then
the trace of g is T r ( g ) = xi mjwi. But as g acts on A, the matrix of g
is integral, so T r ( g ) is also integral. Thus T r ( g ) is invariant under each
automorphism w wi of Q(w), SO as {wi : 0 5 i < p) is a basis for
Q(w) over Q , mi = mj for all i,j > 0. In particular as mi > 0 for some
i > 0, 24 = dim(^^^) p - 1.>
Lemma 22.8: If g E G and z E X with (zg) = ( w ) for some w
then g E N .
Proof: Let 2 = X U -X and assume g E G, z E X , with (zg) = ( w )
for some w E X . Then zg zg 2 since q(z) = q(zg). For x E x let
S(x)= ( v E R ~ ( v~, x ):= O and 4 ( v + ~ x E
) A2 for e = f l ) .
Observe that using 22.6, S ( x ) = x - { A x ) . As G acts on A2, S(zg) =
S(z)g. Thus as zg E X, xg= ( f zg) U S(z)g = {fzg) U S(zg) = X .
So it remains to show N ~ ( x = ) N . But N ~ ( ~ ~ =~P). S( yxm ()X ) ,
where P is defined in 22.5. Thus g = hey for some h E S y m ( X ) and
Y E V . Let B E C and v = 2eg. Then v E A and supp(vg) = Bh. Hence
2.2. The Leech lattice and .0 113
by (A4),Bh E C. Therefore h E NSv,(x)(C) = M ,so we may assume
g = cy. Similarly for u E A:, R(u) = ( x E X : a, r 1 mod 4 ) E
+ +
and R(ug) = R ( u ) Y , so R(u) Y E Vc. As R(u) E VC and Vc is a
subspace of V , we conclude Y E Vc, so g E N .
Lemma 22.9: N =N~(A!).
<
Proof:By 22.6, N N ~ ( A ! = ) H. Let y, z E X and v = 4(z+ y). Thus
v E A;. Notice N(,,) has two orbits I1 and I2 on the set I = A: n vL:
namely I1 = { f 4(x - 9 ) ) and I2 = At n xL n yl. So either H(,) acts
on Il or H(,) is transitive on I. However III = 926 = 2 463 and 463 is
a prime, so the latter case is out by 22.7.
Hence H(,)acts on Il and hence also on { ( x ) ,(y)} = {(r+v) :r E II).
Therefore H(,) 5 N by 22.8. Then as N is transitive on A;, H =
NH@)= N .
Lemma 22.10: Let A be a sextet of X and for x E X let T ( x ) be the
4-set in A containing x. Define q to be the element of G L ( R ~ * with
)
xq = x - eT(,)/2 for each x E X . Then ET = q e E ~ G - N for each
TEA.
Proof: For x , y E X , (xq,y ~ =) ( x - eT(z)/2,y - e ~ ( ~ ) =
/ 2()x ,y). SO
q E 0(R2*), ~ )E ,= ET E o(R").Thus by
and hence as ry- E o ( R ~also
22.2 and 22.3, it remains to show 2eBt and A,< are in A for each B E C
and some x E X.
Notice ET = ER~R+Tfor each R E A - {T), so as ~R+TE G, we have
complete freedom in our choice of T , independently of B and x.
By 19.11, B E Ci(A),i = 1,2,3. If B E C l ( A )then B = R+S for some
R, S f A, and by the previous paragraph we may assume R # T # S.
Then 2eB( = 2(eg - 2es - 2eR)cT = -2eg E A.
E X, If B E C2(A)then B n Si is of order 2 for four Si E A. Let A be the
sum of the remaining two 4-sets in A. Then A E C with A n B = 0, so
A + B + X = C E C. We may assume T C A. Then 2egt = 2(eB -
xi eSi)eT = - 2 e ~E A.
Finally if B E C3(A)then B n Si is a point for five Si f A and B n S
is of order 3 for the sixth S in A. We may assume T = S . Then
is the element of A$ such that a, = 3 for x E S - B and
114 Chapter 8 The Conway Groups and the Leech Lattice 22. The Leech lattice and - 0 115

Lemma 22.11: If N < H < G then lbble 3

(1) H is transitive on A2.
(2) Hu is transitive on A2 n uL for each u E A2. Orbit A: A; A;
(3) IA2 nuLl = 93,150 = 2.34 .52 .23 for u E A2. Shape (212,012) (33,l2') (4,28,0'') (5, 123)
Proof: By 22.9, H does not act on A;. But A ~ His the union of orbits Length 211 .2,576 212 (y) -
2' ,759 16 212 - 24
of N on A2, so by 22.6, either H is transitive on A2 or A ~ H= A$ U
for i = 2 or 3. In the latter case by 22.6, A ~ Hhas order 24 .3 - 23.89 or Orbit A:+ A:-
AZ A: A:+
2 4 , 3.19.109. This contradicts 22.7, as 89 and 109 are primes. So ( 1 ) is Shape (216,0') (216,0') (3') 119) (44,020) (4*,2', 014)
established.
Next let xo E X and A = A,,. Then there is g E M of order 23 fixing
Length 211 ,759 211 ,759-15 212 (2t)24 )2:( .
2' 759 (126) - +

xo and transitive on X - {xo}. So if v = Ex a x x E CA(g) then a, = a Orbit A:- A: 4 A:

is independent of x # xo. Thus if v E L(X) = A2 n X L , then v = fA,
Shape (4, 212,0") (5,3', 12') (6,2', 016) (8,023)
contradicting (A,A) # 0. So all orbits of HA on L(A) have length divisible
by 23. As H is transitive on A2 and X E A2, the same holds for each Length 212 .2,576.12 212 (234) - 3 2' .'759 .8 48
u E A2.
+
Let u = 4(xo X I ) for some xo, x l E X. Then u E A2 and we find
that the orbits of N(,) on L ( u ) are: Proof: By 22.10, N is proper in G, so G is transitive on A2 and on
{4(x0 - x l ) , 4(x1 - s o ) ) of order 2.
(a) S = { ( u , ~ )u: E A2, v E A 2 n u L ) by 22.ll..Similarly if N < H 5 G
{ w E A; :xo,xl 4 supp(w)) of order 4(:).
(b) then H is transitive on S , so G = HGU,,, where u = 4 ( x y ) and +
.
{ w E A; :so, x l $ supp(w)) of order 330 Z7.
(c) +
v = 4 ( x - y). Now Gu,, fixes (u v ) / 8 = x, so by 22.8, GU,, 5 N . Thus
{ w E A; : xo,xl E supp(w)) of order 77.26.
(d) G = H N = H. So ( 2 ) is established.
{ w = E xalx E A: : xo E S l ( w ) and a,, = -axo) of order
(e) Further Gut, = N,,zr = M22/E210 as the subspace of elements of VC
22 - 211. not projecting on x or y is of codimension 2. So
For example, we calculated during the proof of 19.2 that there are
exactly 77 octads through { x o , x l ) ; this gives the order of orbit (d).
Similarly by Exercise 6.3, there are 330 octads missing both xo and X I ,
which gives the order of orbit (c). Finally by Exercise 6.3, the number
of members of 5 containing exactly one of xo and x1 is 2''. But w in
orbit (e) is determined by such a set plus the element x in S3(w). So as Lemma 22.13: The orbits of N on A3 and A4 are listed i n Table 3,
xo E S l ( w ) and a,, = -azo, there are 22 - 211 elements in orbit (e). along with the length and shape of each orbit. The members of A? are
Now the orbit lengths modulo 23 are: 2,4,12,6,22. But no proper sum of the N-conjugates of v,, where v+ has sixteen weficients equal to 2 and
these is congruent to 0 modulo 23, so H(,) is transitive on L(u). Then Hu v- has two weficients equal to 2.
is transitive on L ( u ) as H(,,) = (eB)Hu with B E C fixing w in orbit (b).
-" - Proof: This is Exercise 8.4.
Lemma 22.12: (1) G is transitive on A2.
(2) N is maximal in G. Lemma 22.14: (1) G is transitive om As and A4.
-
(3) IGJ = 222 -3'- 5 4 - 72 11 - 13.23. (2) /A3[= 212(212 - 1 ) = 212 . 32 - 5 7 - 13. -
(4) If u E A2 and v E A2 n uL, then G,,, = Nu,, 2 Mz2/E210. (3) lA41 = 398,034,000 = 24 37 . 53 7 13. - -
+
(5) If u = 4 ( x y) and v = 4(x - y) for x, y E X then GU,,= Nu,,. Proof: This is Exercise 8.5.
116 Chapter 8 The Conway Groups and the Leech Lattice
Notice EX is the scalar map on R~~determined by -1, and hence is in
the center of G. Denote by Col or .1 the factor group G/(eX). Denote
by Co2 or .2 the stabilizer of a vector in A2 and denote by Co3 or -3
the stabilizer of a vector in A3. The groups Col, Coal and Cog are the
Conway groups. We will see later that each of the Conway groups is
simple.
Lemma 22.15: (1) lCozl = 218 36 . 5 . 7 - 1 1 - 2 3 .
. .
(2) ICo3( = 2'' 37 s3 7 11 ~ 2 3 .
Proof: This follows from 22.14 as iContl = IGf/JAml.
23. The Leech lattice mod 2
In this section we continue the hypothesis and notation of the previous
section. In addition, for v E A let A,(v, i) denote the set of u E An such
that (v, u) = 8i.
Let 2A = (2v : v E A). Then 2A is a G-invariant Z-submodule of A, so
G acts on the factor module = A/2A. The module is the Leech lattice
m o d 2 . ~ o r v ~ ~ l e t 8 = v + 2 ~ a n d f o r ~ ~ ~ l e t ~ = { ~ : s Indeed
By construction 2G = 0 for all v E A, so is an elementary abelian
2-group which we may view as a GF(2)G-module. Also e x is trivial on
A, so is also a GF(2)-module for G = G/(ex) E! Col.
Define the coordinate frames of A to be the G-conjugates of A .!
Lemma 23.1: (1) N = NG(A:).
(2) The coordinate fmmes form a system of imprimitivity for G on
-
A4 of onler 8,292,375 = 36 53 - 7 13.
(3) If S is a coordinate frame, u E S, and v E A4(u, 0) with (u+v)/2 E
A2 then v E S.
Proof: Let u E A! and g E G with ug E A.: Then u = 8%or -82 and
ug = 8y or -8y for some x, y E X , and hence g E N by 22.8. This implies
(1)and shows the coordinate frames are a system of imprimitivity for G
on A4. Then as IA!~ = 48 by 22.13, we complete the proof of (2) using
22.14.3.
Assume the hypothesis of (3). Conjugating in G, we may take u = 82.
As v E uL, the projection of v on x is trivial and hence the projection
+
of w = (u v)/2 on x is 4. Then as w E A2, 22.6 says w has shape
(42, o ~ ~Hence
) . v E A:, as desired.
L e m m a 23.2: (1) A;, i = 2,3,4, are the orbits of G on A#.
(2) For i = 2,3, each coset in Ai contains exactly two members u and
-u of Aij and no member of Aj for i # j E (2,3,4).
23. The Leech lattice mod 2
(3) The members of A4 in a coset in ii4forn a coordinate frame.
(4) dimCF(2)(A) = dimz(A) = 24.
Proof: Let L = A2 U A3 U A4 and suppose u, v E L with (u) # (v) but
G = fi. Then u+v = w E 2A, so q(w) = 4q(w/2) 2 8, with equality if and
only if u/2 E hz by Exercise 8.8. Next replacing u by -u if necessary,
+ +
we may assume (v, u) 5 0. Now q(w) = q(u v) = q(v) q(u) (v, u)/8. +
< <
But (v, u) 0 and q(v), q(u) 4 as u, v E L, so q(w) 5 8 with quality
+
precisely when u and v are in A4, (u, v) = 0, and (u v)/2 E A2. Hence
by 23.1.3, u and v are in the same coordinate frame.
Conversely if u, v E A! then u = 82, v = 8y, and u + v = 2(4(x+y)) E
2A by 22.2. So A: ii. Thus (2) and (3) are established. Further by (2)
and (3):
+ +
I ~ =I IA21/2 lh31/2 1h41/48 = 224 - 1.
<
Thus 24 dirnGF(2)(d) 5 dimz(A). We will show d@(A) 5 24 t o
complete the proof.
. Zspan K of X is a 24-dimensional free Z-module, so as A
~ ~ ) the
is a 2-submodule of K , dimz(A) 5 dimZ(K) = 24.
Lemma 23.3: is a faithful irreducible ~ ~ ( 2 ) e - m o d u l e .
Proof: If 0 # U is a G-submodule of A then U# is the union of orbits
Ail i E {2,3,4). But also U# has order 2n - 1 for some n, which forces
u = ii.
We have already observed that e x is in the kernel K of G on A.
<
Conversely K N by 23.1.1. Also K fixes .It for each v = 2eB, B E C,
and hence acts on { f v ) by 23.2.2. So K = (EX).
Define a bilinear form ( , ) and quadratic form q on by
(6, G) = (u,v)/8 mod 2 and q(Q) = q(u) mod 2.
These maps are well defined since by 22.4, (u,v) r 0 mod 8 for all
u, v E A. Notice G preserves the bilinear form ( , ) and quadratic form
q on A. Recall a subspace U of A is singular if q is trivial on U.
'
Lemma 23.4: A2uX4 is the set of singular points of i\ and is the set
of nonsingular points, with respect to the quadratic form q. The bilinear
form ( , ) is nondegenerate.
I
Proof: The first two remarks are evident. For the third, G acts on the
radical R of the form, so by 23.3, R = A or 0. As q # 0, R # A.
118 Chapter 8 The Conway Groups and the Leech Lattice 23. The Leech lattice mod 2 119

Lemma 23.5: Let v E As. Then Proof: This is Exercise 8.9. The proof is much like that of 23.5 and uses
Exercise 8.7.
+ +
(1) v = u 2w with u E A3, W , u w E A2, (u,W ) = -24, and
( w , u + w ) = 8. The group Gv of 23.6.6 is the Higman-Sims group HS. We will see
(2) There is a unique way to un-ite v as the sum of two elements later that the Higman-Sims group is simple.
from A2: namely v = w (u w). + + Lemma 23.7: G has 3 orbits on 2-dimensional subspaces (G,9) of
<
(3) GV = NG({w,21 + w ) ) N G ( ( ~ ) ) . with6,o E x 2 .
(4) G is transitive on A5. They consist of:
-
(5) lAsl = 214. 33 5.7.13 - 23.
(6) [Gu,w~ -
= 27 3' . 53 7.11 and IGvl = 2(Gu,,l. (1) Totally singular lines with ii + C E &. C&((ii,ii)) G M22/E21~
for such a line.
Proof: By 23.2, v = u+2w for some u E Ail i = 2,3,4, and some w E A. +
(2) Totally singular lines with C ii E A2.
Then (3) Nondegenerate lines. CC((ii,6 ) ) 2 Mc for such a line.
+ +
5 = q(v) = q(u) 4q(w) (u,w ) / 4 = q(u) mod 2.
Proof: Let G E A2. By Exercise 8.6, G5 has 3 orbits on A2 - (5): namely
-
Thus u E A3. Now (u,w ) = 8 16n, where w E A,,. But by the Schwarz A2(v,i), i = 0, -1, -2. Then choosing u E A2(v,i), q(u v) = 4,3,2, +
+
inequality, (u,w ) 5~ (u,u)(w,w) = 1 6 ~3n, so 4n2 - 16n 1 5 0. Hence respectively. That is, G + C E &, &, i2, respectively. Then by 23.4,
n 5 3. However, if n = 3 then (u,w ) = -40, so q(u + w ) = 1, contrary (6,d) is totally singular in the first and third cases and nondegenerate
to Exercise 8.8. Thus n = 2, so (u,w ) = -24 and (w,u + w) = 8. in the second. Further if ii + G E A4 then ( I ) holds by 22.12.4, while if
+ + +
Next by 23.2.2, v = u 2w = -u 2(u w ) are the unique ways to ii + 6 E i3, then (3) holds by 23.5.
write u as the sum of an element from A3 and 2A. So Gv 5 NG((u))n
NG({w,u + w ) ) . Conversely NG({w,u + w ) ) acts on ( u + w ) + w = v. In the last few lemmas in this section we work toward a description
Thus (3) holds. of A as a GF(2)N-module.
A l s o i f v = s + t withs,t E A2 then ( s , t ) = 8 , s o q ( s - t ) = 3 . Then For J E V define
as v = ( s - t ) + 2t, {s, t ) = {w,u + w ) by the previous paragraph. So
(2) holds.
By Exercise 8.6, Gw is transitive on A2(w,1) and JA2(w,1))= 211 -23.
Hence by (2),G is transitive on As and Lemma 23.8: For all J, K E V,

so (5) holds. Now lGvl = (Gl/jA5Jis as claimed.

The group G,,w of 23.5.6 is the McLaughlin group Mc. We will see
Proof: Parts (1) and (2) are straightforward calculations and imply (3).
later that the McLaughlin group is simple.
Lemma 23.6: Let v E A7. Then &ernma23.9: The map f : V -, A defined by f : J I-+ +
f (J) 2A is a
homomorphism with kernel Vc .
(I) There is a unique way to write v as a sum v = u+w with u E A2
- -
and w E A3. Proof: Observe first that f ( J ) E A. I f ) JI is even this follows from 22.2.1
(2) u - w E A ~ ,v = ( u - w ) + 2 w , and(u,w)=16. and 22.2.2, while if I JI is odd then f ( J ) = f ( K ) - A, for x E J and
(3) Gv = Gu%w. K = J + x of even order. This also shows f ( x ) = -As.
(4) G is transitive on A7. Notice next that Vc 5 k e r ( f ) since if J E VC then 15112 is even and
(5) -
/A7(= 213 37. 5 7.13.23. fJ E A by 22.2.2. Thus it remains to show f is linear. But this follows
(6) lGvl=29.32.53.7.11. from 23.8 as f ( J n K ) E A.
120 Chapter 8 The Conway Groups and the Leech Lattice
Lemma 23.10: Define P,C, f as in Section 20 and make Vc x V/Vc
into an F-space via
(v, VC + J ) + (u, VC + K) = (v + u + C(U,v)X, Vc + J + K + (Vn u)),
a n d d e f f n e ) : l / c x ~ / & + h b y ) : ( v , l / c + J ) ~ f v + f(J)+2A. Then
(1) ) is an isomorphism of F-spaces.
(2) )(W) is totally singular, where W = ((0, Vc J) : J E V).+
(3) 9(4(v,3))=P(v) and(4(v,0),4(0,i'c+J)) =jJnvl+IJllv)/4.
(4) N acts on Vc x V/Vc via
ey : (v, J + I+) H (v+ s(J)Y + ((1+ s(J))C(v, Y)
+ eJ(Y))X, Vc + J + (1 + s(J))(v n Y))
so as to make ) N-equivariant, where s(J) = 0 , l for I JI even,
odd, wspectively, ,8 E M, and Y E Vc.
(5) N preserves a filtration
of A, where L1 = (A:) is a point and L3 = L; is a hyperplane of
A, and L2/L1, L3/L2 are isomorphic to the 11-dimensional Todd
module, 11-dimensional Golay code module for M, wspectively.
Further 0 2 ( N ) = Q acts on LP as the group of transvections
with center L1, and L4/L2 is dual to L2 as an N-module.
Proof: Let D = Vc x V/Vc and notice first that this construction is
a special case of the construction of Exercise 4.6; in particular D is an
F-space by Exercise 4.6.6. However, we sketch a proof of that fact in
this case. Check first that the definition of addition on D is associative.
This follows from a straightforward calculation once we observe that
C(v,u) + C(v + u, w) = P(v) + P(u) + P(w) + P(v + u + w),
that
V ~ +U((v + u ) n W)= (Vn u ) u (Vn W ) u (Un w ) ,
that C ( X ,v) = 0 for all v E VC, and that
Next by 23.9,) : W -t is a well-defined linear map. Write )(v),)(J) for
)(v, 0),)(0, V+J), respectively, and observe that q()(J)) = 1 Jl(l Jl+1) r
0 mod 2, so (2) holds.
23. The Leech lattice mod 2 121
Further for each v E El f, E A by 22.2.2, so 4 maps D into A. To
check that ) is linear amounts to a verification that
+
for all u, v E VC. But by 22.2.2 and 23.8.2, fv+, z fv fx for v E V,
and then (*) follows from 23.8.2.
Therefore 4 : D 4 k is linear. We observed during the proof of 23.9
that f (x) = -Ax. Thus ixE #(D)for each s E X, so as A is spanned
by A,, x E X , ) is a surjection. Then as dim(D) = 24 = dim(A), ) is
an isomorphism. Hence (1) is established.
If v E VC and J E V then q(4(v)) = lv(/4 = P(v) and ()(v), 4(J)) =
(jv,f (J)) = Iv n JI - IJllvl/4 mod 2. That is, (3) holds.
It is straightforward to see ,i3 acts linearly on D and commutes with
q5.p more elaborate calculation shows r y is linear. Further ) : (0, x) I-
-Ax and we check -Axey = )((O,x)ey) for each x, so as & = (-Ax : x €
X), 4 commutes with ey. Thus ) is N-equivariant and (4) is established.
+ +
Let Dl = ((X,O)), D2 = D l W+, W+ = ((0,Vc J ) : s(J) = 01,
and D3 = (02, (v,O) : v E V). Set Li = $(Di). To prove (5) given (4),
it remains to observe that the map
is an M-isomorphism of D2/D1 with the Todd module, while the map
is an M-isomorphism of D3/D2 with the Golay code module Vc. Sim-
ilarly acts on Dz as the group of transvections with center D l and
1
I then, as L2 is a maximal totally singular subspace of A,NLZ
is dual to
I Lz as an N-module.
1 Remarks. The Leech lattice A was discovered by John Leech in ILe2]
I extending his earlier construction of the sublattice A. in [Lel]. In [CO~],
II Conway determined the group .0 of automorphisms of A, proved that - 0
is quasisimple, determined its order, and determined the stabilizers of
various sublattices, hence also discovering the Conway groups Co2 and
Co3 and finding M c and HS as subgroups of -0.
Our treatment of A and .0 follows Conway's treatment in [Col] and
[CO~].
122 Chapter 8 The Conway Groups and the Leech Lattice Exercises

Exercises . The map q5 : D -t A of Lemma 23.10 is an isometry; that is,

(2)
,

1. Assume the hypotheses of Section 22 and let v = CXGx ax E R~~ q(d(d)) = q(d) for all d E D.
with a, E Z. Then (3)
.- For X # Y E V, (v, J) E CD(ry) if and only if s ( J ) = O = r j(Y)
(1) If ay is odd for some y E X then v E A if and only if the following and V n Y E VC.
hold: (4) dim(cA(rv)) = 16.12 for Y an oetad, dodecad, respectively.
(a) a, is odd for all x E X. (Hint: See Exercise 4.6.)
(b) {x E X : a, 5 1 mod 4) E VC.
(c) {x E X :a, r f3 mod 8) is of odd order.
(2) If ay is even for some y E X then v E A if and only if the
following hold:
(a) ax is even for all x E X.
(b) { x E X : a, E 2 mod 4) E Vc.
(c) {x E X :a, E 4 or 6 mod 8) is of even order.
2. Let v E A with m(v) odd and ISj(v)J 2 20 for some j,Then N is
transitive on the set of elements of shape v.
3. For each k 5 5 and r = 28 _> 4, N is transitive on the set Rk of
vectors of shape Further Rk C A and lRkl = (2k4)2k.
4. Prove Lemma 22.13.
5. Prove Lemma 22.14.
6. Let u, v E A2. Prove
(1) (v, u) = 8i with lil = 0,1,2, or 4.
-
(2) fA2(v,i)l = 47,104 = 211 -23or 4,600 = 23 52 -23 for JiJ= 1 or
2, respectively, while A2(v,4) = {v) and A2(v, -4) = {-v).
(3) Gv is transitive on A2(v, i) for each i.
7. Prove that for v E 112, Gv is transitive on A3(v, 2) and IA3(v, 2)1 =
2'. 34 23. 1
8. q(v) 2 2 for all v E A#. I
9. Prove Lemma 23.6. I

10. Define the F-space D = Vc x V/Vc as in 23.10. For v E Vc, J E V,

1
define E~(v) = (vn J ( mod 2 as in Exercise 3.2. Define q : D + F by i
I

andr: D x D - t Fby

Prove
(1) q is a quadratic form on D with bilinear form 7.
 24. The groups Co3, Mc, and H S 125

24. The groups Co3, Mc, and H S

In this section we continue the hypothesis and notation of Chapter 8. In
addition let XI,x2 E X,

' Chapter 9

Subgroups of 0
Let 2, = A2(vl,2) n A2(v2,2), and define

In this chapter we use the machinery developed in Chapter 8 to estab-

lish the existence of various subgroups of S O and t o establish various
properties of these subgroups. Then vl,vq E A;, v2 E A;, and v3 E A:. Thus
For example, in Section 23 we defined the stabilizer of a nonsingular
G3 Cog
vector G of to be the Conway group Co3.In Section 24 we prove that
Co3 is 2-transitive on the 276 lines of through G generated by points
as G3is the stabilizer of a vector in A3. Also v2 E A2(vl, 1),so
in d2,with the stabilizer in Co3 of such a line isomorphic to ZzlMc.
Further we prove Mc is a primitive rank 3 group on the remaining 275
lines. Similarly we show HS is a primitive rank 3 group of degree 100
with point stabilizer Mzz. These representations allow us to prove that by 23.5. Similarly vq E A2(v3,2 ) , so
Co3, Mc, and HS are simple.
In Section 25 we prove that the groups Col and Co2 have large
extraspecial 2-subgroups. Similarly we find subgroups A of G = Col
of order 3,5, such that CG(A)/Ahas a large extraspecial 2-subgroup; by 23.6.
CG(A)/Ais Suz or J2, in the respective case. Our theory of large ex- Finally let G4 = C G ( ( v l , v 2 , v 4 )Then
). +
Gq fixes v l v4 = 8x1 and
traspecial subgroups developed in Section 9 then allows us to prove that vl - vq = 8x2, so G4 < N by 22.8. Therefore G4 = C N ( ( x lx2, , v3)) =
Col, Co2, SUZ,and J2 are simple. Mx,,z2Z M22. That is,
Finally in Section 26 we establish various facts about the local struc-
ture of Col which will be used later to construct various sporadic sub-
groups of the Monster. Chapters 16 and 17 contain much more informa- For w E A and x E X let w, be the coefficient of x in the expansion
tion about Col, Suz, and J2. w = CXEX
wxx.
<
Notice ( G I ,G2) G3 and Gq G2. <
We will discover in 24.6 that G2 r Mc acts as a rank 3 group on
B of degree 275 with stabilizer G7 = CG2(v5).Further by 24.7 and
Exercise 9.5, G7 E U4(3).
126 Chapter 9 Subgroups of - 0
Lemma 24.1: G4 has three orbits En, n = 2,3,4, on 8,where
(1) Z2 consists of those w E A; such that w,, = w,, = 2 and
w, = -2 for all x G S2(w)- { x l , x 2 ) . I E ~ ~ = 77.
(2) z3 consists of those w E ~g such that w,, = 3, w,, = 1, and
C ( W ) = { X E x : w, = 1) E C. 1531 = 176.
(3) z4 consists of those w E A%with w,, = 4, w,, = 0, and w, = -4
for X I # x E Sq(w). 1z4(= 22.
Proof: From the proof of Exercise 8.6, w E A2 is in A2(v1,2) if and only
if (wx,wy)= (2,2), (3,l) or (1,3), (4,O) or (0,4) for w in A:, A:, A;,
respectively. Then we find w E A2(v1,2) is in A2(v2,2) if and only if w
is described in (1)-(3).
. . . .
Further, in (1) w is determined by S2(w),and from the proof of 19.2
there are 77 octads through { x l , x 2 ) with G4 transitive on these octads.
So z2
is an orbit of length 77 under G4. We can complete the proofs of
(2) and (3) similarly.
Lemma 24.2: (1) A2(v3,3) is an orbit under G3 of length 2 276, with
a system of imprimitivity of order 276.
(2) ((63,G) : v E A2(V3,3)) is the set of lines of through 83 generated
by elements of A:!. There are 276 such lines and they fonn an orbit under
G3.
(3)~2(v3,3)=(vl,-V2,Vl-W1W-V2:WE~).
Proof: From 23.5, G is transitive on the set S of pairs ( u ,v ) with u E
A3, v E A2(2~,3).F'urther IS1 = 21A5l. So (Az(v3,3)1= 21A51/1A31 =
2 . 276. Thus (1) is established. By 23.7, (1) implies (2). Finally for
-
w E 2, (v3,w ) = (vl - v2, w) = 0. Thus (v3,vl w ) = (v3,vl) = 24 =
(v3,-v2) = (v3,w - 212). SOthe set R on the right in (3) is contained in
A2(V3,3). B Uby ~ 24.i11al= 275, so IRI= 2.276. T ~ U SIRI= I A Z ( V ~31,1
by ( I ) , so (3) holds.
Lemma 24.3: Let u E A2, v E A2(u,2 ) ) and w E A2(v,2) n A2(u,2).
Then
(1) IGil,,,l is not divisible by 25.
(2) IGu,v,wl is not divisible by 27.
ProoE By Exercise 8.6, Gu is transitive on A2(u,2) with Gu,v of order
24. The groups C03, Mc, and HS 127
So (1) holds. Similarly z = v - w E A2(u,0) and by 22.12 Gu,z E
Mz2/E21o,so IGulzI is not divisible by 27. But of c o ~ r s e ~ G ~5, ,GUlz.
,,~
Let x3 E X - {xl,xZ), vg = 4(x1 - x3), and Gg = CG4(x3)=
MxIlz, 2 L3(4). Let G7 = CG(v5)and notice G5 5 G7. That is,
G5 2 L3(4), and G5 < G7.
By 24.1, v5 E 9. Let Ri = E n A2(v5,i ) and 52r = En n A2(v5,i) for
i = 1,2, n = 2,3,4. Notice G5 5 Gq 5 G2 and G5 fixes v5.
Lemma 24.4: The orbits of G5 on Z - {v5) are Zr, i = 1,2, n = 2,3,4,
( n ,i ) # ( 4 , l ) . Moreover is empty and
(1) 52: consists of those w E E2 with x3 f S2(w),so 152:l = 56.
(2) 52; consists of those w E z3 with 23 E C(w), so 152al = 56.
(3) 52; consists of those w E s2with xg E S2(w),so I52;l = 21.
(4) consists of those w E E3 with 23 $ C(w), so 152; 1 = 120.
(5) 52; = E~ - {us) is of order 21.
Proof: These are easy calculations. Notice in (1) that the collection of
&sets of the form S ( w ) - {x1,x2),x3 $ S2(w),is one of the three Gg-
invariant collections of independent &sets of the projective plane on
X - { x l , x ~231,
, defined in 18.7. Thus this collection is of order 56 by
18.7.8, and therefore 52; is also of order 56. Similarly in (2),the collection
of &sets C(w)- (12,231, w E Qf, is an I; with j # i.
Lemma 24.5: (1) G2 is transitive on 3.
(2) G7 = CGa(v5) is of order 27 36 - 5 . 7 and is transitive on $21 of
order 112 and on 522 of order 162.
(3) If u, w E Q1 with u E A2(w,2), then the order of the stabilizer in
G7 of u and w is not divisible by 27.
Proof: Assume (1) is false. Then from 24.1, Zn is an orbit of G2 on 3
for some n. As the length of En is not divisible by 5, a Sylow 5-group
of Gz fixes some w E Zn. But then as 53 divides the order of G2 r Mc
(cf. 23.5.6), G,,,,, has order divisible by 53, contradicting 24.3.1.
-
Thus (1) holds, so IG71 = lG21/121= 27 36. 5 7. -
Suppose G7 is not transitive on 522. Then from 24.4, R$ is an orbit of
G7 on Q2 for some n. So as the length of 529 is not divisible by 9, the
<
stabilizer H in G7 of w E 52$ has order divisible by 35. But H Gva,v6,w,
contradicting 24.3.2. Indeed the same argument establishes (3);namely
the stabilizer in G7 of u and w also fixes vl and by 24.3.2, IGvl,u,wI is
not divisible by 27.
130 Chapter 9 Subgroups of .O
Thii shows R* = {l(T) : T E 13(r)) C_ St0 and if w E 1 E Ro -St* then
1 C_ R?. But then by an earlier remark, 111 5 2. Further the map T I+ 1(T)
of 13(r)onto R* has fibers of order 4, so IR*I = 113(r))/4= 280. Also the
set R*(w) of members of R* incident with w is of order (!)I2 = 10. As
each member of Q*(w) has a unique member of Cn(w), (9) shows each
member of Cn(w) is in a unique member of R*(w) and G6 is transitive
on R*(w). This together with previous remarks shows a* = $20 and
establishes (1)-(4).
Notice we have also shown IC(w)l = 30, which is the parameter X of
the McLaughlin graph of 24.6.
Next if u E I'(w), then by 24.5.3, 27 does not divide the order of the
stabilizer in G7 of w and u. But lC~,(w)l = (G71/112 = 23 36 . 5 =
(A61. 34, so as Ir(w)j = 27, H = CG7(w)is transitive on I'(w).
Similarly by (3) and Exercise 9.1, H = G6P, where P is the kernel of
the action of H on n*(w) and P is of order 81. Now as G6 is simple,
either [G6,P ] = 1 or an element g E G6 of order 5 is faithful on P. In
the latter case P E E8l and g is irreducible on P. So either [G6, P] = 1
or (7) holds, and we may assume the former. Then P acts on the orbits
of G6 on r(w) of length 10 and 20 and hence fixes each point of C(w).
But then 24.5.3 supplies a contradiction.
So (7) is established. Next P is transitive on 1 - {w) for 1 E R*(w). For
if not, P fixes each point of 1, and then by transitivity of G6 on R*(w),
P fixes each point of C(w). We observed that thii is not the case in the
preceding paragraph.
Now H is transitive on C(w) and r(w), so G7 is rank 3 on R with
k = IC(w)l = 30 and 1 = IJ?(w)l = 81. Further for u E C(w), C(u) n
C(w) = 1- {u, w), where 1 is the line through u and w. Therefore X = 2.
Then p = k(k - X - 1)/1 = 10 by 3.3.2. G is primitive on R by 3.3.3.
Thus (6) is established.
Finally suppose 1 # K a G7. Then as 112 is not a prime power,
1 # H n K by Exercise 1.4.1. But by (7), P is the unique minimal
<
normal subgroup of H , so P K . Further for v E C(w), P(u), $ P, so
<
as HIP is simple, H K. Thus G7 = K is simple.
Lemma 24.8: McLaughlinls group is simple.
Proof: By 24.6, G2 is primitive of rank 3 on B while by 24.7 the stabilizer
G7 in G2 of a point of is simple. So as 131= 275 is not a prime power,
G2 is simple by Exercise 1.4.2.
Lemma 24.9: The third Conway group Co3 is simple.
Proof: Let 1 # K <I G3. Let C be the set of lines described in 24.6.1. By
24. The groups Cog, Mc, and HS 131
24.6.1, GQis doubly transitive on C with G2 of index 2 in the stabilizer
H of some 1 E C.Indeed G2 is simple by 24.8 and on C - (1)
by 24.6.2, so G2 is the unique minimal normal subgroup of H. Thus as
It(= 276 is not a prime power, G2 5 K by 2.2.3. So JG3: KI 5 IG2 :
<
G2n Kl 2. Thus we may assume IG3 : KI = 2. Let P E Sy123(K). By a
Frattini argument, NG, (P)has even order. This contradicts Exercise 9.2.
Lemma 24.10: (1) Let 6 = A2(v3,3) nA2(v4,0). Then B = 8l uo2ue4,
~ h e r e e ~ = { v ~ ) , 8 ~ = { va ~n d- @ ~ =: {~ w~- ~v ~~ : )w,E ~ ) .
(2) L e t r = A2(~3,3)nA2(v4,-l).ThenI: = {vl-w, w-v2 :w E z3).
Proof: Thii is left as Exercise 9.4; use 23.6.
Lemma 24.11: G1 r HS is a primitive rank 3 group on 0 of degree
100 with parameters k = 22, 1 = 77, X = 0, p = 6. The stabilizer in G1
=
ofvl E e is G~ M ~ ~ .
Proof: By 24.1 and 24.10, Gq S Mz2 has orbits en, n = 1,2,4, on 8
of length 1, 77, 22, respectively. So if G1 is not transitive on 8 then G1
fixes vl or has an orbit of length 23 or 78 = 2 .3.13. But G1 HS
-
has order 'J9 . 32 - 53 7.11 by 23.6, which is not divisible by 23 or 13.
Further the stabilizer in G1 of vl is CG((~,V4,Vl))= G4 S M22. So
indeed G1 is a rank 3 group with k = 22 and 1 = 77. Now 84 E A2(vl, 1),
whereas (w, v) = 16 for distinct v, w E 84. Thus X = 0, and then p =
-
k(k - X 1)/1= 6.
Lemma 24.12: The Higrnan-Sims group is simple.
Proof: This follows from 24.11 and the simplicity of M22 via Exercise
1.4.2.
Lemma 24.13: G1 2 HS is doubly tmnsitive on the set S of 3-dimen-
sional subspaces (CQ,64, 5) of through (C3, G4) such that
Proof: Adopt the notation of 24.10. Let T be the set of pairs {v, v3 -v)
as v ranges over I:. Notice Irl = 2 - 176 by 24.10.2 and 24.1.2. Then T
is a GI-invariant partition of I: of order 176 and by 24.10 and 23.2 the
map {v, v3 - v) I-, (G3, G4,G) is a bijection of T with S. So it remains
to show G1 is Btransitive on T. By 24.1, Gq < GI is transitive on T ,
so it remains to show H = NG, (a) is transitive on T' = T - {a), for
a = {v, v3 - v).
Let v = vl - z, z E z3,and L = CG(z). By Exercise 9.3, L has two
orbits on T' of length 70 and 105. Thus if H is not transitive on T', these
 i
132 Chapter 9 Subgroups of - 0 1 25. The groups C o l , Co2, S u z , and J2 133
are also the orbits of H. In particular a subgroup P of index 5 in a Sylow
!
Lemma 25.2: A(B) = CA(z),Q = CG(A(B)),and Q = c&(B)).
$group of H fixes a point u E 'I with ( u ,v3 - u ) in the orbit of length : Thu~&gc~(~).
105. Then by Exercise 9.3, u E AZ(v,2). But IHI = IG11/176 = 25.32-53.7 Proof: Evidently A(B) = CA(z).Next as 4(x f y) E A(B) for x, y E
by 23.6.6, so IPI = 25, contradicting 24.3.1. B, CG(A(B))and cG(A(B)) are contained in N by 22.8 and 23.2.2.
+
Indeed C N ( A ( B ) )k e s 4(x y) for each x, y E B , so Q = C N ( A ( B ) =
)
i CG(A(B)).Similarly cG(K(B)) = Q(ex).
25. The groups C o l , Co2, S u z , and J2
In this section we continue the hypotheses and notation of Chapter 8, Lemma 25.3: NG(Q) $ N .
except we write E for (eU : U E Vc). Pick an octad B E C and let Proof: Let A be a sextet with B = T + S for some S,T E A. Define
+
B = X B. Let A(B) be the sublattice of A consisting of all elements . = tT as in 22.10. Then for x E B, xi$ = ( x - eT(%)/2)eT, where
of A whose support lies in B. Let QE be the subgroup of G generated x E T ( x ) E A. So T ( x ) = S or T. Therefore t acts on A(B) and hence
by all elements EA, A E CO(B),and QM the subgroup of M k i n g B on Q by 25.2.
pointwise. Let Q = QEQM and z = eg. Finally let G = G / ( e X ) .Thus
G 2 col. Lemma 25.4: Suppose 0 is a totally singular subspace of A. Then qu is
We will show that 0 2 Q S 21+8 is a large extraspecial 2-subgroup a quadratic form on 0 with bilinear form ( , ),y, where qu(ii) = q(u)/2
of G and indeed 6 satisfies ' ~ ( 4 , 0 : ( 2 ) )In
. Chapter 16 we prove that mod 2 and (6,.CI)u= (u,v)/16 mod 2.
Col is the unique group satisfying this hypothesis and use the existence Proof: As 0 is totally singular, q(u) is even and (u,v) is divisible by
of the extraspecial 2-subgroup to study the structure of Col. Similarly 16 for all u,v E U. So qu and ( , )u are well defined and visibly are a
we will show that Co2 satisfies X(4, Sp6(2)),Suz satisfies H(3,R<(2)), quadratic form and associated bilinear form.
and J2 satisfies X(2, Rq(2)). In Chapter 16 we characterize Suz and J2
by these hypotheses. On the other hand the existence of Suz and J2- Lemma 25.5: (1) A4(B) is of order 16 . 135 and NG(Q) is transitive
follows from work in this section. on A(B)4.
(2) Each coordinate frame containing a member o f A ( B ) contains ex-
Lemma 25.1: (1) QE Z E32, z E QE, and QE - ( z ) consists of all e ~ , actly sixteen members of A(B).
A E Co(B). (3) A(B)2 is of order 240.
(2) QM E16- (4) A(B)# =A 2 ( ~U)A l ( ~ ) .
(3) Q D: is extraspecial with Z(Q) = ( z ) . (5) dimz(A(B))= dimGFcz,(6(~))
= 8.
(4) N N ( Q )= N M ( B ) Eand N N ( & ) / Q ( C X )AalE64. (6) qg is an NG(Q)-invariant quadratic form on A(B) of sign +1,
Proof: Part (1) follows from 22.5.2 and 20.6.1. where qB(.CI)= q(v)/2 mod 2 for v E A(B).
Next (2) holds by 19.1.1. Of course N M ( B ) 5 N M ( Q E ) ,SO Q = (7) Q 2 Q = F*(Ce(Z)) with c ~ ( z ) /n8+(2).
Q
QMQE is a subgroup of G of order z9. For g E QM and A f Co(B), Proof: Using 22.13, we calculate that A4(B) consists of three orbits
~i = C A =~ e~ or ~ + =ge ~ e gby 22.5, so [Q,Q] 5 ( 2 ) . Also IQM : under CN(z):
NQM( A ) [= 2 by 19.2.6. Hence QM induces the group of all transvections
(a) A ~ ( Bof
) order 16.
of QE with center ( z ) ,so (3) holds.
Next NN(Q) 5 C N ( z )= E N M ( B ) .Further N M ( B )acts on QE and (b) A ~ ( Bof) order 16 26.
QM and hence also on Q. Finally for g E Q and A E C,[eA,g] = ~ A + EA ~ (c) A ~ ( Bof) order (): ~ 1 = .
6 70 16.
QE because g fixes B pointwise and hence the support of A Ag is + Next the element 6 E CG(z)= H , produced during the proof of 25.3,
contained in B. So E < NN(Q) and NN(Q) = N M ( B ) E .Finally by moves orbit (a) into orbit (c). As 71 does not divide the order of G, it
19.1, N M ( B ) / Q M2 A8, while by (1) and 22.5.2, E/QE(ex) 2 E64, so follows that (1)holds. h r t h e r orbit (a) is the intersection of a coordinate
( 4 ) holds. frame with A4(B),so (1) implies (2).
134 Chapter 9 Subgraups of 0 . 1
Similarly we find A 2 ( B ) falls into two C N ( z ) orbits: A;(B) of order
2' and A!~(B)of order 112. So (3) holds.
Now A ( B ) is a sublattice of the &dimensional lattice spanned by B ,
SO
d i m ~ ~ ( 2 , ( A ( B5)d) i m z ( A ( B ) ) 1 8.
On the other hand by (1)-(3) and 23.2, A2(B)u A ~ ( Bis) of order 28 1, -
so (4) and (5) hold. Then ( 6 ) follows from 25.4.
By 25.2 and (6), H / Q < o ( ~ ( B q)B, ) Osf(2). Indeed if v =
8x, x E B , then the stabilizer in H of 3 is CR(E) and C ~ ( E ) / Q = (2)
N M ( B ) E / Q ( e x ) E A8/Es4 by 25.1.4. So as A8/Es4 is the stabilizer of
5 in @(2), (1) and (6) say @/Q S ~ t ( 2 )In. particular H / Q is sim-
ple, so either Q = F*(H) or H = QC&(Q). The latter is impossible as
C H ~ N ( &=) ( Z , EX).
Lemma 25.6: All involutions in Q are fused to 2 i n G.
Proof: All involutions in QE are fused to E in N , while by 25.5.7, Ce(Z)
is transitive on noncentral involutions of Q.
Lemma 25.7: 6 2 Col is simple and Q is a large extraspecial subgroup
of G.
Proof: This follows from 8.12 with N in the role of "K."
Lemma 25.8: Let v E A2(B) and H = CG(v). Then
(1) CH( z ) I Q g Sp6(2).
(2) Q is a large extmspecial %subgroup of H .
(3) H r Co2 is simple.
Proof: CG(z) acts as Q(qB, A(B)) on L(B) with C H ( z ) the stabilizer
of the nonsingular vector fi of X(B). Hence (1) holds by 22.5 in [FGT].
In particular C H ( v ) / Qis simple with Q = F*(CH(v))by 25.5.7.
v = 4(x f y), u = 4(x - y), x , y E B , and let K = Nv,u.
By 22.12.4, ( z K ) is abelian with (zK) $ Q. By 25.6 and 8.7, for each
involution u E Q - 2, z E 02(CH(21)),SO (2) and (3) hold by 5.12.
Lemma 25.9: Let A be of order 3 i n CG(z) with R = CQ(A) Q:. Let
M = CG(A) and M* = MIA. Then
(1) R* is a large extraspecial subg~0upof M*.
(2) R* = Fr(CM.(z*)) vith CM*( z t ) / R * E Rg ( 2 ) .
(3) M* is simple.
(4) All involutions in R* are fused to z* i n M*.
26. Some local subgroups of Col 135
Proof;By Exercise 2.6, A exists and ce(A(z))= A x i l with fi = F*(Z)
and E/R r R i ( 2 ) simple. Thus (2) holds and by 25.6 and 8.13, ( 1 ) and
(4) hold. Finally (3) holds by Exercise 2.4.
The simple group M* of 25.9 is the sporadic Suzuki group Suz. The
same proof shows:
Lemma 25.10: Let A be of order 5 i n CG(z) with R = CQ(A)2 D8Qs.
Let M = Cc(A) and M* = MIA. Then
(1) R* is a large extraspecial subgroup of M*.
R* = F*(CM*( z * ) ) with CM-(z*)/R* E Qq (2) S A5.
(3) M* is simple.
(4) All involutions i n R* are fused to z* i n M*.
The simple group M* of 25.10 is the Hall-Janko gmup J2 or H J .
26. Some local subgroups of C o l
In this section we continue the hypotheses and notation of Section 25. We
determine the normalizers of certain subgroups of G of prime order. We
restrict attention to results needed to establish the existence of certain
sporadic groups as sections of the Monster in Chapter 11. Complete
results appear in Chapter 17.
Lemma 26.1: Let B S N be cyclic of odd order, v(2) = 2ec, v(3) = A,,
and v(4) = 4ezy, with C E C and x , y E X . Then
(1) dim(CA(B))= c, where c is the number of cycles of B on X .
(2) C j i ( B ) is a nondegenerate subspace of the orthogonal space k.
+
(3) ICA, ( B )U C L (B)I = ( 2 ~ -1e~) ( 2 ~ / ~e), where e is the sign of
the orthogonal space C A ( B ) .
(4) If B~ n GG =*'B for some zi E Ai, then N G ( B ) is transitive
0" C,ii(B>.
(5) If gN n N,(i) = BNw(;)for i = 2,3,4, then NN(B)is tran-
sitive on Ch:(B) for each i and ICA2(B)I = zL2 INN(B) :
N N (B)o(i)1
(6) MG(,),E'oii) aw isomorphic to N M ( C ) 2 A8/E16, E2s; MZ %
M23, 22; M ( { x ,y ) ) 2/M22, E211for i = 2; 3;4, respectively.
Proof: First c = dim(CV(B)) as V is the permutation module on X.
Then as V/VCis the dual of Vc,c = 2dim(CL2(B))= 2dim(CVIY,(B)),
so 23.10.5 completes the proof of (1).
Next A = [A,B] @ C A ( B ) as lBl is odd, so (2) follows from 22.1 in
[FGT].
136 Chapter 9 Subgmups of . O
Part (3) follows as CA2(B) U CA4(B)is the set of singular points in
Cii(B). Parts (4) and (5) follow from a standard argument (cf. 5.21 in
[FGT]). Part (6) is an easy calculation.
Remark. If B is of prime order p in a group H and K 5 H with
IK), 5 p, then by Sylow's Theorem, B~ n K = B ~In. particular if
IBI = 7 then /G5I7 = 7 for 6 E Ai, i = 2,4, by 22.15 and 23.1.2. So by
26.1.4, NG(B) is transitive on Cii,(B) for i = 2,4. Similarly if IBI = 5
then Ne(B) is transitive on CA4(B).Finally for p = 5,7, IGvo 1, = p by
26.1.6, so we can calculate ICA,(B)I via 26.1.5. To do so we obtain the
structure of NN(B) from Section 21, while NN(B),(~)is easily calculated
from 26.1.6.
Lemma 26.2: Let B be a subgmup of N of order 7. Then C@(B) 2
Z7 x L3(2) and ING(B) : CG(B)I = 6 with an involution-inverting B
inducing an outer automorphism on E(Ce(B)). Further Cji(B) is of
dimension 6 and sign +1 and ICA4(B)I= 14.
Proof: By 21.5.4, CNIE(B) 2 Z7xS3, CB(B) 2 E4 with B the kernel of
the action of CNIE(B) on CB(B), and INN (B) : CN(B)1 = 3. Therefore
C,+(B) S Z7 x S4.
Next by 26.1.1, W = CA(B) is of dimension 6 and by 26.1.2, W is
nondegenerate. From the structure of CN(B) described in the previous
paragraph and the Remark above, NG(B) is transitive on CAk(B)for
k = 2,4, and B fixes 3,12,6, points of for i = 2,3,4, respectively, and
hence ]CA2(B)I = 21. In particular an element of order 7 is induced on
W in CG(B), so the orthogonal space W has sign +l. Hence by 26.1.3,
-
ICA4(B)I = 14, so I NG(B)I = 14 I NR(B) I = 24 . 32 . 72. Thus the non-
trivial vectors in two irreducibles Wi, i = 1,2, for a Sylow 7-group of W
make up the fourteen vectors of w n h 4 , and these are the irreducibles for
E(CR(B)) Z L3(2). From 25.5.7, B is inverted in C$(z) for z E CB, (B)
by an involution t with dim(CA(B(t))) = 3. So IAutG(B)I = 6 and as
dim(Cji(B(t))) = 3, t induces an outer automorphism on E(CG(B)).
Lemma 26.3: Let D E Vc be a dodecad and t = ZD E E. Then CE(t) 5
N is the split extension of E E E211 by Z2/M12.
Proof: First CR(t) is the split extension of E by NM(D) e!Z2/Mlz by
22.5 and 19.9.3. Thus it remains to show CG(t) I
-
N. Now e = ED fixes
24 of the 48 members of A! and inverts the rest. Similarly if v E % is
fixed by e then the support S(v) of v has order at most 12 and hence
by 22.13, u has shape (44,020),(42,28,014), (6,27,~16),or ( 8 , 0 ~ ~But
).
26. Some local subgroups of Col 137
S2(v), S2(v) US6(v) are octads in the second and third cases, and hence
intersect D nontrivially by 19.6.1, a contradiction. Finally if u is in case
1then the coordinate frame A of u consists of those v in case 1such that
Sz(v) is in the same sextet as S2(u) and v has the same parity of signs
as u. In particular by 19.6.1, S2(u) is the unique member of A contained
in X + Dl so e fixes only eight members of the coordicate frame of u.
We have shown A! is the unique coordinate frame containing 24 fixed
vectors of e, so the lemma holds by 23.2.3.
Lemma 26.4: Let Y = (y) be a non-&central subgroup of N . Then
Ne(Y) E S3 x Ag, dim(CA(Y)) = 8, and Ne(Y) is transitive on the
135 singular vectors of Ci(Y), each of which is in K4.
Proof: By 21.4, Y has no fixed points on X , so the second statement
of the lemma follows from 26.1.1. Similarly by 21.4, Nfi(Y) S3 x
(L3(2)/E8), with O2(NR(Y)) = A = C&(Y). By 21.4.3, Y stabilizes no
octad, so each element in A# is of the form ED for some dodecad D.
Hence by 26.3, AY/Y is a TI-set in H = Ce (Y)/Y with K = Cfi(Y) =
NH(A), subject to the convention of identifying A with its image AY/Y
in H.
As Y has no fixed points on X, Y stabilizes no member of h2, so all
singular points in CA(Y) are in A4 and as Y ~ = yN, ~ H N is transitive
on these points. Thus by 26.1.3, there are 135 such points, as 17 does
not divide IGI. So IH( = 135 IKI = 26. 34. 5 7.
Represent H on W = C'(Y). Then W is an &dimensional orthogonal
space of sign fl and K is the stabilizer of a singular point v of W. Bom
23.10, N stabilizes a maximal totally singular subspace L(v) of A and
L(v)/v is the Todd module for NIE. By 21.4, dim(CL(,)lv(Y)) = 3, so
L(v) n W = W(v) is a maximal totally singular subspace of W. Further
by 23.10, E induces the group of transvections on L(v) with center v,
so by the Thompson A x B Lemma (cf. 24.2 in [FGT]) A induces the
group of transvections on W(v) with center v.
Next by Exercise 8.10.4, for a f A#, dim(CA(a)) = 12, so CA(a) =
[A, a]. Also as a induces a transvection on L(v), CL(,)(a) is a hyperp!ane
of L(v), so Cw(,)(a) is a hyperplane of Cw(a) = [W,a]. In particular
(*) W(v)/v = CwIv(B) for each hyperplane B of A.
Let v # w be a point of W(v) and h E H with vh = w . Then
B = CA(w) is a hyperplane of A. As A is a TI-set weakly closed in
K = NH(A), CAh(B) is a hyperplane of A ~ which
, we may take to
. z E B#. Then B~ I
be B ~ Let CK(z), and R = F*(CK(z)) Z 0 82

138 Chapter 9 Subgroups of .0
~ i t h C ~ ( z ) / R % S ~ . H e n c e ~ ~ n R # l . h r t h e r mI.( l~o~r n Ri )
else R = (CR(a) : a E n R#) 5 K ~and <
, then (z) = @(R) A ~ a, j
contradiction. So we may take (zh) = B h n and ~ similarly ~n R~ = (z).
By 8.15.7, R n R~ = D % E8. But c R ( t h ) Z2 x Dg has two
Es-subgroups, so as A n R~ = (z), D is uniquely determined as the
E8-subgroup distinct from cA(zh) and DA = R. Now a subgroup F of
order 3 in CK (z) acts faithfully on D and (R, R ~F), = KO < NH(D)
induces GL(D) L3(2) on D.
We claim zh induces a transvection on W(v). For if not, R = AAo =
DAo, where A. is the group of transvections of W(v) with axis CW(,)(z).
Thus CWtVI(D) = (z), so as CW(,,)(z) is a hyperplane of CW(z),
dim(Cw(D)) 5 2. Hence as Ko/D
CH(v) = K, a contradiction.
L3(2), KO I CH(Cw(D)) 6
So zh induces a transvection on W(v) with center w. Then as NK(B)
is transitive on B#, B induces transvections on W(v) with center w, so
by (*), W(v) = W(w). Thus L = (K, K ~ induces ) GL(W(v)) = L4(2)
on W(v) and as CH(W(v)) = CK(W(v)) = 1, L G L4(2). Then as
]HI = IAgl, IH : LI = 9, so we have a faithful permutation representation
of H on H/L of degree 9. Therefore as L % L4(2) G As, H % Ag. That
is, the lemma holds.
Lemma 26.5: Let B E Sy15(N). Then dim(CA(B)) = 8, C6(B)
Zg x (A5wrZ2), ICA4(B)I= 75, and 4 = IAut&(B)I.
Proof:The first statement of the lemma follows from 26.1.1.
Using the Remark above, we conclude NG(B) is transitive on CAa(B)
and check that B fixes 32, 64, 24 elements of A$ for i = 2,3,4, reipec-
tively. So by 26.1.5, lCA2(B)I= 60. Also as B E Sy15(N) but B is not
Sylow in Co2, tCA,(B)I r 0 mod 5, so the number of singular points
in CA(B) is divisible by 5, and hence by 26.1.3, that space has sign
f l and contains 135 singular points. Thus ICA4(B)I = 75. Therefore
ING(B)I = 75. INfi(B)I = 27 32 . 53 by 21.5.3.
Let H = Ce(B) and H* = H/B. By21.5.3, IAute(B)I = 4 and
c ~ ( B ) /B C (B)
~ 3 A4 is faithful on C - (B) % E8 and stabilizes a hy-
perplane Z of C3(B). Thus IH*I = 25 .3f- 52 by the previous paragraph.
Also a Sylow 2-group T of Cfi(B) is isomorphic to EqwrZ2. Moreover
elements in CB(B) - Z are conjugate to i: while those in Z# are of the
form ED, D a dodecad, so CH(s) < Ch(B) for each s E Z# by 26.3.
Therefore T E Sy12(H).
Let J = J ( T ) % El6. By the previous paragraph we may assume i E
T- J. Next CQ(B) = (z), so from 25.1, B is determined up to conjugacy
;
I
26. Some local subgroups of Gol 139
in CG(z) and CG(B(z)) Zlo x A5. In particular ICH(z')12 = 8, so
i gH n J = 0,and hence by Thompson transfer H has a subgroup K of
index 2 with i # K . As J = [J, R] for R E Sy13(CR(B)), J E Sy12(K).
'
Let I = NK(J) and recall that CK*(s) = J * for all s E z#. Further
by 7.7, I controls fusion in J, so by 7.3, s fixes a unique point of K/I.
i
Also I # K as CK(z) I. Hence by Exercise 2.10, there exists U 5 J
i
such that CI(U)/U is strongly embedded in CK(U)/U, U n Z = 1, and
CI(U) is transitive on (J/I)#. As 7 does not divide [HI, transitivity of
Cr(U) on (J/I)# implies IUI # 2, so as U n Z = 1, either IUI = 4 and
J = Z x U, or U = 1. But in the latter case I is transitive on J#, so
as CK.(s*) = J*, Exercise 16.6 in [FGT] says K* % L2(16). This is
, impossible as 17 does not divide I HI.
Thus J = U x Z, so by Exercise 16.6 in [FGT], CK(U)/BU % L2(4).
Let J1 = U and R1 E Sy13(CK(Jl) f l NK(J)) be z-invariant. Then
RRl E Sy12(K) by an order argument and (z)RR1 has two orbits on
, J# of length 6 and 9, with elements of J? in the orbit of length 6. In
'
particular J = J1 x J2, where J2= J f and Jl is RR1-invariant.
Now K1 = RCK(J1) is of index 5 in K , so we have a permutation
representation a : K* --+ S5.We conclude Kf = CK(J1)* is the kernel
of this representation, so K* = KT x K;, where K; = KT. That is,
% H* r A5wrZ2.
Lemma 26.6: Let Y be a 3-central subgroup of N of order 3. Then
dim(CA(Y)) = 12, IAutG(Y)I = 2, ICG(Y) : E(C,+(Y))I = 2, and
=
E(Ce(Y)) U4(3)lE9.
Proof: As usual 21.4 and 26.1.1 imply the first two remarks.
Next by 21.4, N has two classes of elements of order 3 and from 26.4
the dimensions of the fixed point spaces on A are different for the two
classes, so they are not fused in e. Thus we can apply 26.1.4. As in the
Remark above, we check that Y fixes 96, 30 vectors in A; for i = 3,4,
and NR(B) has two orbits of length 96 and 60 on A;. SO1CA2(Y)1= 378.
Next Y centralizes a subgroup Yl of order 3 such that CG(Yl)/Yl Sz
by 25.9. By 46.6, K = CG(YY1) is quasisimple with K / F 2~U4(3). ~ By
Exercise 9.6, Yl has no fixed points on A, so CA(Y)has sign fl, and then
by 26.1.3, ICA4(Y)]= 35.7 and ING(Y)I = 3 5 . 7 - I ~ R ( ~=) 29-38*5.7.
i SO
as IU4(3)1 = 2' -36.5.7 and l A ~ t ~ ( Y ) 3,
is of index 2 in CE(Y) and I NG(Y) : KI = 4.
l =we conclude K = E(NG(Y)
Remarks. Conway was the first to find Co2, Cog, Mc, and HS as sub-
Some of our arguments are roughly the Same as
groups of Col in [CO~].
 141
140 Chapter 9 Subgroups of .0 ! Exercises

his, although Conway felt free to use classification theorems in the liter-
ature t o identify various subgroups, whereas here we keep our treatment
self-contained. This will cause small problems later too.
The McLaughlin group Mc and the Higman-Sims group H S were dis-
covered as rank 3 permutation groups by McLaughlin [Mc] and D. Hig-
man and C. Sims [HS], respectively. Conway showed that these rank 3
representations could be reaIized on vectors in the Leech lattice as in
24.6 and 24.11. After Higman and Sims discovered HS, G. Higrnan hap-
pened upon H S as a 2-transitive group [HiG]. Sims proved the group
discovered by G. Higman was isomorphic to H S [Sill. Conway showed
this representation could be realized on the Leech lattice as in 24.13.
In [CO~], Conway attributes the calculation of various local subgroups
of Col to Thompson. This work was never published, but a fairly com-
plete description of the local structure of Col was derived using different
methods by Nick Patterson in his thesis [PI. In many cases we follow
Patterson's treatment, although again Patterson felt free to quote the
literature, whereas we do not. Also when possible, we use the theory
of large extraspecial subgroups in Chapter 2 t o replace Patterson's
arguments.
(4) The kernel &(I) of the action of GI on R(1) is of order 2 . 35 with
P(1) = Os(Q(l)) the unique normal 31+4 subgroup of GZll and
with W(1)= Z(P(1)).
(5) P n ~ ( y =) W (I).
( 6 ) For h E Gx and P E P1 G X , = ~ Gx1z,1(Pn P(1)); yh E A(Y)
if and only if h E G1 = G,,,,JP; and zp E A(y) if and only if
p E P f l P(1).
(7) For p E P#, zp E A(z) if and only if p E W(k) for some k E Ro(x).
(8) G U4(3).
(Hint: See the proof of 45.11 and use Exercise 15.3.)
6. Assume the hypothesis of Lemma 25.9. Prove CA(A) = 0.
I (Hint: Prove ha n CIAVzI(A) = 0,and use this to show A is fked
point free on [A, z] and hence also on h/cA(z). Conclude CA(A) 5
CA(CG(A)). Finally observe ICG(A)I2 does not divide ICo31, and
hence Cc(A) h e s no nonsingular point of h.)

Exercises
1. Let X be a set of order 10 and As r A 5 H 5 Sym(X) with A
transitive on X and IH I = IAl 3i. Prove H = A.
2. Let G = Col and P E Sy123(G). Prove ING(P)I = 23 - 11.
3. Adopt the notation of Section 24 and let v = vl - z for some z E z3.
Let L = CG,(z), rl = (vl - w : w Ez3), and y = I'l - (v). Prove L
has two orbits 7%and 72 on 7, where Ti = Az(v, i). F'urther lyll = 70
and 1721 = 105.
4. Prove Lemma 24.10. Use 23.6.
5. Let R = (R1,RO) be a rank 2 geometry satisfying the properties of
24.7 and G a group of automorphisrns of R satisfying the properties
of G7 in 24.7. Denote by A the collinearity graph of R. Let (x, 1) be
a flag of R, z E ~ ' ( x ) , (y) = A(z) fl R(Z), and P = P(x) the kernel
of the action of Gx on the set Ro(x) of lines through x. Prove
(1) Gx is faithful on A(x).
(2) P is regular on A2(x) and Gx,z is a complement to P in G,.
(3) Gx,, preserves an orthogonal space structure of sign -1 on P and
GXs,l is the stabilizer in G x , of a singular point W(1) of P.
 27. The subgroups C and N of the Monster

Table 4 List of symbols in Chapter 10

Symbol
V,F, U, P(v), C(u, v), 4 7 4 ,v, w)
A,E,E+, n,4 , ~ c , v oX11 r1ro,Q11Clil ziLslki1 Z1K
Chapter 10 ~,~+,~,~i,~ilfi~f(~),e~,&l,SlrS
~i ,Bj(Ai) 6 ( d ) 6: ( 4 , Lf(x) 1 Bi*
BL,B-,x@~~(~),C,P~,P~,Y
The Griess Algebra CltC2r ~ 2 Xz1
1 ex1 c01
Bs, XY, BR, Br;'% ~ ( r )
P

and the Monster B Z , B ~ B&,

In this chapter we construct the Griess algebra and its automorphiim
group, which is the largest sporadic group: the Monster. We begin in
Section 27 by specializing the construction of Section 14 to the Parker
loop L. The subgroup N = N/K supplied by this construction is the
normalizer of the Cgroup Z = (zl, zz) in the Monster.
We saw in Section 14 that N contains a large extraspecial 2-subgroup
Q 0i2. In Section 27 we construct a group C with F*(C) = Q
and C/Q E Col. The group C is the centralizer of the involution z~
in the Monster and Q is a large extraspecial subgroup of the Monster.
In Section 27 we construct a 196,884dimensional RC-module B for C
admitting a C-invariant bilinear form 7.
Next in Section 28, we define an algebra map T on B preserved by C.
The algebra (B,T) is the Griess algebra first constructed by Griess. From
Section 9, the algebra map T is equivalent to a C-invariant trilinear form
0. The construction follows Conway in [Co3)and uses the Parker loop L.
Next Nl = Cfijzl) is a subgroup of C. In Section 29 we extend the
representatio~lof % to N in such a way that N preserves y. Thus
- Go=(C,~)<O(B,7),withCnN=N1.
In Section 30 we prove that N preserves P. Thus Go 5 G = O(B, 7, P),
and from Section 9, G is a group of automorphisms of the Griess algebra.
Finally in Section 31 we prove that C = CG(zl) and that G is a finite
simple group. We define G to be the Monster.
, 73', uxurvxyrW&
B,T,T~~Ts~,P,Y~~T,*~TT~Ts-
Tr- I Pi
B;,$,R,BE
xi,B& BO
X
B;, BE
The Remarks at the end of this chapter contain a brief diicussion of
the approaches of Griess, Conway, and Tits to constructing the Monster,
and a comparison of those approaches to the treatment given here.
Since this chapter is replete with specialized notation, we close this
introduction with a list of notation used in Chapter 10. Column 1 of
Table 4 lists the symbol and column 2 the page where the symbol is
defined.
27. The subgroups C and N of the Monster
In this section we assume the hypotheses of Section 14 with V = V ,
the Golay code module for the Steiner system (X,C) and P(v) = lvl/4
mod 2 as discussed in Sections 18, 19, and 20. Write U for the power
set of X regarded as a vector space over the field F of order 2 under
symmetric difference; thus V 5 U.Notice this differs slightly from the
notational conventions of Sections 19 and 20.
Recall from Section 14 that L is a Moufang syrnplectic 2-loop with
parameters (P,C, A), where from 11.8 the commutator map C : V x V 4
F is given by
C(u, v) = IU n vl/2 mod 2
144 Chapter 10 The Griess Algebra and the Monster 27. The subgroups C and N of the Monster
and the associator map A : V x V x V -,F is given by ,fl : Q1 -,A with kernel ( z l , k l ) defined by

A(u, v , w ) = lu n v n wl mod 2. r-' f+(d)+t(b)~ f ( J )

t 1 :$l(d)'@2(b)$l(aJ) + + 2&
The loop L is the Parker loop. where t(b) = 0 , l for b = 1, n , respectively, which induces an isometry
Recall also from Section 14 that the center of L is (n)= (1, n ) and q5 : i:$il+A.
L -, V is a surjection of loops with kernel (n). Further the centralizer E Proof:Let D = V x U / V and regard D as an F-space as in 23.10 with
in Aut(L) of L / ( n ) consists of the maps a,, e E V * , with a,(d) = dnE@) quadratic form q defined in Exercise 8.10. Then 23.10 and Exercise 8.10
for d E L. For d E L and f = 0 or 1 in GF(2) we sometimes write d f + give us an isometry L : D -+ ii defined by
+
for d r f . So a,(d) = d ~ ( dunder
) this convention.
L :(v,V+ J) H fv + f ( J ) + 2A.
We choose the distinguished element vo of Section 14 to be vo = X and
<
take ro = M24. Recall E J? 5 Aut(L) with r / E = J?o. In particular Also Exercise 4.6 gives us a group homomorphism p : Q1 -+ D inducing
the natural map -,o'I gives us a permutation representation of I'on an isometry ,ii: $il --+ A defined by
X with kernel E and for a E I' we write x a for the image of x E X P : *l(d)$2(b)$l(aJ) ( 4 ( d )+ t(b)Xl V +J).
under a via this representation. Hence, for example, for each E E V * , a,
is in the kernel of the action of r on X. Then El = PL is our homomorphism inducing the isometry ( = f i b .
Recall from Section 14 that fl = L U ( 0 ) with 0 . d = d . 0 = 0 for all Exercises 4.6 and 8.10 apply in a general setting; we give a proof now
d E L, and to each d E L and a E there are associated permutations i
that p is a homomorphism and an isometry in this special case.
qi(d), $i(a), i = 1,2,3, of a3.See Section 14 for the definition of these First the map p is well defined by 14.4.4. By 14.2.7,
permutations and lemma 14.2 for an extensive list of properties of these $l(d)$l(e) = $1(de)$3(C(~id))$l(a(e,d))*
permutations and how they multiply.
Also for b E
By 27-1-27$ l ( a ( e , d ) ) = '@l(a+(d)n+(e)). (T)?
Recall N is the subgroup of ~ ~ r n ( i 'generated
3~) by these permuta-
tions. Further zj = Ilri(r),s E L with #(s) = X , ki = $ i - l ( ~ ) h + l ( ~ ~ ) , [$1 ( Q J ) ,$l(d)l =-- [$I ( Q J ) , $2(b)l =1 mod (4
Z = (21, z2), and K = ( k l ,k2). By 14.3, 1 = $ ~ ( d ) $ ~ ( d ) $ ~ for(d) by 14.2.4 and 14.2.5, since $2(b)$3(b) = $l(b). Therefore
each d E L, so in particular 212223 = klk2k3 = 1. Also by 14.2,
Z and K are normal in N . Further N+ = CN(Z)= C N ( K ) and
N/N+ S3 by 14.3. We write N = N I K . Recall Ni = C N ( q ) and
Qi = ($i(d),&(a) : d E L , a E E ) . By 14.4, Qi a Ni, ~ iki , E Z ( N i ) , Then as zl is in the center of Q1 and the kernel of p, the check that p
and Qi/(ki) g Qi S 0i2 is extraspecial of width 12. is a homomorphism is a straightforward calculation.
For J E U,define the elements f J and f ( J ) of the Leech lattice A as So : Q1 -, is an isomorphism of F-spaces. To check that ( is an
in Section 23; thus isometry, we first observe that a5. $1 ( E ) is elementary abelian, (1 ( E ) is
totally singular. Further by 23.10.2, i ( $ l (is~ totally
) ) singular. Thus
it suffices to show
By Exercise 3.2.1 we have a surjection J H E J of U onto V * with kernel
V , where E J ( v ) = I J n vl mod 2. Write a J for a,, E El and observe (a) g2 = 1 if and only if q ( t ( 3 ) )= 0 for g E $ i ( L ) , and
using Exercise 3.2 and Remark 14.1 that: (b) [g,h] = 1 if and only if (&), f(h)) = 0 for g E $1(L), h E $1(E).
But if d E L then $l(d)2 = $ i ( P ( d ) ) ,so (a) holds by 23.10.3. Similarly
Lemma 27.1: (1) The map J H a~ is an isomorphism of U / V with E.
(2) all d, e E L, a(d,e) = a+(d)n4(e). [$l(d),$l(aJ)]= $ l ( t J ( d ) + lJIP(d))= $l(IJndl + IJIld1/4)
by 14.2.8, so 23.10.3 also implies (b).
Lemma 27.2: Let = Q l / ( z l ,k l ) and regard Q I as an orthogo-
nal space over F . Then there exists a surjective group homomorphism We next construct several R-modules for Nl and N+.
146 Chapter 10 The Griess Algebra and the Monster
Recall from Section 14 that Ai consists of those members of 523 with
ith entry in L and 0 elsewhere. For d E L, write di(d) for the element of
hi determined by d. For i # j let Bj(Ai) be the R-space with basis the
orbit space Ai/(kj) subject to the convention that 6(d)l(rj(r) = -6(d),
where 6(d) = $(d) denotes the orbit under (kj) of 4(d). Observe that
by 27.3 and Exercise 4.3, B ~ ( A is
~ a) 211-dimensional monomial module
for N+ with respect to the basis 6(d), d E L, via g : 6(d) +-+ S(d)g.
Regard Bj(Ai) as an orthogonal space with orthonormal basis 6(d), d
varying over a suitable transversal. By Exercise 4.3, N+ preserves this
inner product. Also an easy calculation shows:
Lemma 27.3: For all b, d E L and a E I'
(1) Ill ( 4 : 62(b) 62(db).
(2) $2(d) : 62(b) 62(b + P(d) + C(b1d)).
+-+
(3) 1)2(a) : 62(b) 62(ba) if a is even.
(4) $2(4 : 62(b) 1-t 62(ba+P(b)) and $l(ff) : 62(b) 63(ba+P(b))
if a is odd.
(5) ($l(s),$2(7r), &(s)) is the kernel of the action of N+ on
B1(A2).
(6) ($l(s7r),$2(n), g2(s)) is the kernel of the action of N+ on
~ ~ ( ~ 2 1 .
Next for x E X , e. E {O,l), define
Lf (x) = {bi(d) : d E L and eZ(4(d))= e )
and using Exercise 4.3, define Bi4 to be the 24dimensional R-space
with basis Li(x), x E X , E E {0,1}, subject to the convention that
~ f '(x)
+ = -LZ(x). Make Bi4 into an orthogonal space by decreeing
that L:(X), x E X, be an orthonormal basis. By Exercise 4.3 and 27.4,
Bi4 is a monomial module for N, and Ni preserves the form on Bi4 as
Ni permutes the vectors Li(x) via right multiplication; indeed:
Lemma 27.4: For each x E X I d E L, a E I?, and e E {0,1):
for j # i.
(I) h(d) frzes L:(x) and Ilj (d) : Li (z) I-+ L~+'~('(~))(X)
(2) ?,bi(&): LZ(x) 1-t Li(xa).
(3) $ ~ ( a ): L:(x) ++ Ls(xa) if a is odd.
-- .-
(4) Qi is the kernel of the action of Ni on Bi4 and kj inverts Bi4
for j # i.
Proof: These are easy computations. For example, (a, 0,0)$2(d) =
(ad, 0,O) and €,(+(ad)) = ez(4(a) + +(dl) = ~ ~ ( 4 ( a+) )6~(4(d)),so
e+e= (4
L! (4$2(d) = L1 (a).
[ 27. The subgroups C and N of the Monster
B
Next by 27.3, B1(Ai), i = 2,3, are monomial N+-modules with re-
spect to the bases bi(d), d E L, with B ' ( A ~ ) $ ~ ( =
~ )B1(A3) for a odd,
so B: = B1(A2) @ B1(A3) is a monomial Nl-module. Indeed B; is the
Nl-module constructed in 14.6. Notice that by 14.6, zl acts as -1 on B?.
Let B- = Bi4 @ B,: regarded as an Nl-module. Also B- is an orthog-
onal space whose form is the tensor product of the forms on the factors.
We write x @J bi(d) for the basis vector L ~ ( x @ ) 6:(d) of B-. Observe
that a suitable subset of these vectors forms an orthonormal basis for the
form on B-. Notice also that -6: (d) = 6: (d)zl = 6;(d?r) = 6:(d + I),
+
so L'+€(x) @J $(d) = Le(x) @ 6: (d 1) = -(Le(x) @ 6:(d)).
1 Lemma 2'7.5: ( I ) B- is a monomial module for N1 of dimension 212.24
with respect to the basis x 8 bi(d), x E X, d E L, i = 2,3, and Nl
preserves the form on B-.
(2) zl acts as -1 on B-.
(3) K is the kernel of the action of N1 on B-.
(4) I12(s?r) is trivial on B: and inverts B;~.
Proof: We have observed that B- is a monomial Nl-module, so (1)
holds. As zl centralizes Bi4 and inverts B,: (2) holds. From 14.6,
($2(~7r),$3(~))is the kernel of the action'of Nl on B;. In particu-
lar together with 27.4.4 this means that kl is trivial on B; and Bi4 and
hence also on B-. Further k2 = $2(sn)z1 inverts B; and Bid,
so k2 is
trivial on B- and (4) holds. That is, K is contained in the kernel J of
the action of Nl on B-. By 27.4, [Q1, Bi4] = 0, so as (~h(s?r),$3(s)) is
the kernel of the action of Q1 on B!, Q1 n ($2(~7r),7,h3(s)) = (kl) is the
kernel of the action of Q1 on B1. Thus [Q1, J ] 5 Q1 n J = (kl). Then
J 5 CN,(Q~K/K= ) (21, K) by 14.4.2, so J = K.
!
We next construct the centralizer C of a 2-central involution in the
I1
Monster and an amalgam
C t Nl -t N.
Let p1 : Nl + SL(B?) be the representation of Nl on B1. Then by
14.6, Q1pl is extraspecial and irreducible on B;, so N1p1 5 Ml the
I
normaliier in SL(BI) of Qlpl. In particular by Exercise 4.4, MlIQlp1
is the isometry group of the quadratic form on Q1 = QIK/K(zl). We
use the isomorphism of 27.2 to give ~1 the structure of and let Cl be
the subgroup of MI preserving this structure with Cl/Qlpl Col. We
will see that Nlpl < Cl. Let 4 : Nlpl o ( Q ~ ) be the natural map
-+
with kernel Q1pl.
Similarly let p2 : Nl -+ S L ( B ~ ~be) the representation of Nl on Bi4.
148 Chapter 10 The Griess Algebra and the Monster
The map L: (x) I-+ fiex defines an isomorphism of ~i~ with R @zA in
which N1p2 Stabilizes the inverse image of A, so identifying this sublattice
with A via the isomorphism, we have N1p2 5 C2 the stabilizer in S L ( B ? ~ ~ )
of A. The map A --, A Z Q1 induces a surjection vz : C2 + Col.
We claim plvl = p2v2; this will show Nlpl < Cl as mentioned ear-
i
lier. Our claim amounts to the assertion that the map of 27.2 is Nl-
equivariant. By construction during the proof of 27.2, = DL, while by
23.10.4 and Exercise 4.6, the maps j2 and L are Nl-equivariant, establish-
ing the claim. This proof depends on the general Exercise 4.6; we prove
the equivariance directly in our special case now.
It suffices to show gplvl = gp2v2 for g = $l(P), P E M24, and
g = $72(e), $(e) E C, as these elements together with Q1 generate Nl.
Similarly as the elements ix, x E X, generate A S ~ 1it ,suffices to
check that gplvl and g p p 2 agree on Xx for each x E X.
If p E M24 then by 27.4, L:lx)llrl(P) = L~(XP),so as L;(X) ++ d e , ,
z Xxp. On the other hand <(qbl(crx)) = ix
we conclude ~ x $ 1 ( ~ ) p 2 v=
(cf. 27.8.3) and &(aX)$l(fl = $l(cxzo) by 14.2.4, so ~ x ~ l ( ~ ) p=l ivx lp
too. Next for $(e) E C, $ ~ ( c u , ) @ ~=( ~&(e.
) ~ ~ ~ ( ~ ) ) $ l ( (cf.
c r , 29.6.2)
) so
Xx$2(e)nu1 = -Az + ffmce,+C=(e),+ 2A. Finally by 27.4, ~ : ( y ) d d e )=
L:""('(~))(~), so &(e) changes the signs of the entries q, in -h for
y E $(e), and hence indeed XX$2(e)p2v2 = ~ x ~ ( e ) p l vestablishing
the claim.
l,
Finally form the fiber product Co = C1 x~,, C2 with respect to the
diagram
c1-% CO, 2-
c2
as in Section 6. As plvl = p2v2, 6.1 gives us a map p : Nl -+ Co with
ppi = pi for i = f,2, and 6.2 sayspl@pz : Co + O(B-), where pi : Co +
.Ci is the ith projection, and p(pl @pz)= p l @p2 : Nl + O(B-). Let C
denote the image of Co under p l @n, so that p1@pa : Nl C 5 O(B-).
-+
Lemma 27.6: (1) F*(C) = Q1(pl 8 p2) Z 0i2.
(2) C/F*(C) 2 Col.
(3) k - 4 4 €4 ~ 2 =) K .
A
(4) Qi = QiK/K(zl) is isomorphic to as a C/Fe(C)-module via
+
the isomorphism of 27.2. Further ((22) = 8ex 2A and Nl/QIK r
M24/E211 is the stabilizer in C/F*(C) of 22 with E+K/Kz isomorphic
to the 11-dimensional Todd module for Nl/O2(N1).
Proof: Part (3) is a restatement of 27.5.3. By (3) and 14.4, Q1(p1@p2)
Q1/K D.:'
27, The subgroups C and N of the Monster 149
Next by 27.5.4, $2(s7r) E ker(pl) with ($2(sn)p2) = ker(v2). Thus
by 6.1, ker(p1) = ($~(ST)P)I (Q1K)p. Then as (QiK)pi = F*(CI)
with C1/(QIK)pl E Coi, (Q1K)p = F*(Co) and CoI(Q1K)p 2 Coi.
Hence (3) implies (1) and (2).
=
By construction, Q1 A as a C/Q1-module via [, with ( ( i z=)fx +
2A = 8ex + 2A. Then as Nl stabilizes 32 and INl : QIKl = (M24/E2~a1
+
with M24/E211 the stabilizer of 8ex 2A in Colr all but the final reniark
in (4) hold. Finally by 14.2.4, $ ~ l ( a ~ ) @ l (=p ql(aJp)
) for J E U ,P E M,
so the map
$l(aj)KZ I+ J +V
is an N+-equivariant isomorphism of E+ K/KZ with the 11-dimensional
Todd module T.
Let N = N / K and for g E N set jj = gK. Then p1 @ p2 induces an
injection R1 -+ C and we identify fil with its image under this injection
and regard fil as a subgroup of C. In particular under this convention,
Q1 = F*(C) by 27.6.1, while by 27.6.2, C / Q ~ E Col.
Let B, = s 2 ( ~ i 4be
) the symmetric square of ~h~
regarded as a C-
module with quadratic form equal to the tensor product of the forms on
~ 1 ~ .
Thus B, has a basis {xy : x, y E X), where
+
xy = L;(z) 8 ~ : ( y ) ~:(y)@ L:(x) if x #y
' ) 0 if xy # x'y', while
and x2 = L:(x) 8 L:(x). In particular ( X ~ , X ' ~=
(x2,x2) = 1 and (xz, xz) = 2 for x # z. Further
Lemma 27.7: (1) Q1 is the kernel of the action of C on B,.
(2) B, is a monomial module for Nl with 0; jixing Rxy for all
~ , EyX .
(3) B, = B ~ I B & ,where BR = (x2 : x E X) and B; = (xy : x, y
x, x # Y).
Proof: Part (I) follows from 27.4.4 and the fact that 6 / Q 1 is simple.
Part (2) follows from 27.4.1 as ~zf= (q2(d) : d E L)E+. Part (3) follows
from the definition of the quadratic form on B.
Next identify Q1 = Q1/(zl) with k via the isometry (of 27.2. By con-
struction C1/(QIK)pl = <
Col preserves this structure, so as k e r ( ~ ~ )
(QIK)p, so does C. For g E Q1 or j j E Q1, write j for the image of g
" in Q1. Write R for the set of r E Q1 such that i E Az. Then C acts on
R via conjugation, inducing a monomial R-module B, with basis y(r),
150 Chapter 10 The Griess Algebra and the Monster 28. The Griess algebra 151
r E R, subject to y(rzl) = -y(r), via y(r)g = y(r9) for r E R and 28. The Griess algebra
g E C. Observe that C preserves the quadratic form on BT for which In this section we use the results of Section 9 to define an algebra struc-
our basis is orthonormal. ture on the C-module B defined at the end of Section 27. Let 7 = ( , )
Remark. In the next lemma we associate to each r E R an element be the bilinear form on B and recall
( ( r ) E A2 such that [ ( r )+ 2A = ((r).Recall from 23.2 that there are B =B-IBTIBs
exactly two A E Az with = [(r).We caution that for r E R2,( ( r )is
+
not well defined in that r(c,J 4(c))= r(c,J ) but ((r(c,J + $(c)))= is the orthogonal direct sum of three subspaces. We define maps ~i E
-((r(c, J)). However, we only encounter E(r) in the guise of some func- L(Bi,Bi;Bi) and rij E L(Bi,B j ;B j ) , which determine a symmetric
tion h(E(r))with the property that h(-t(r)) = h(((r)),so this abuse of algebra map r E L ~ ( BB;) by
notation causes no problems.
Lemma 27.8: (1) R = R2U R3U 7Z4, where Ri = {r E R : i ( r )E A;)
subject to the conventions of Section 9, and T and 7 in turn determine
+
and [(r)= [ ( r ) 2A, where ( ( r ) is defined below.
a symmetric trilinear form b7(r) = @ = ( , , ) by 9.4.
(2) R2 = {r(c,J ) : c E L, J C_ $(c)E C, 1 JI even), whem
Recall Bs = s2(~i4) is the symmetric square of B $ and
~ has basis
4%
J ) = 4l(c)dl(aJ)4l(s)'
J"2 xy, x, y E X . It will sometimes be convenient to view Bs as the space
and M c , J ) ) = f+(c) - 2f.J. of all 24-by-24 symmetric matrices by identifying Ex,yaxarx y with the
(3) R3 = {r(x,d ) : x E X, d E L), where matrix (asy).Subject to this identification we define 7,E L 2 ( ~ ,Bs)
; by

and < ( r ( ~ , d=) )fd+e.(d)~- AX- where AA' is the usual matrix product of the matrices A and A'.
(4) R4 =_ {ru(xy)Pq,rv(xy)~~-: x, y E X , x # y, E = 0,1), where Next BT has basis {y(r): r E R ) and we define TST E L(Bs,BT;Br)
rv(xy) = $l(aXy),T U ( X Y ) = $l(aZy)$l(s),E ( T ~ ( X Y ) ) = 2fxy, and by
t(rv(xy))= 2(fx - f y ) .
(5) BT = B ~ I B ~ I B & L ~ ,w h e ~Bz = (y(r) : r E R2), ~4 = (28.2) A * y(r) = (A,t ( r )8 <(r))y(r),
for A f Bs, T E R.
( ~ (: 4r E R3),B& = (wzy : X,Y E X ) , uxy = Y ( ~ , ( x Y ) ) , vxy = Here we need to recall that ~i~ R Q9z A via x = L:(x) H &ex
y(rv(xy)),w%,= vxy+ uxy, and w&, = vxy - uxy. and ( ( r )E A is defined in 27.8. Thus ( ( r )8 E(r) and A are members of
Proof: Part (1) is 22.6. Also 22.6 and its proof tell when X E A;; then B, and the inner product (A,<(r)8 J ( r ) )takes place in Bs. Indeed as
we use this description and 27.2 to calculate (2)-(4).Part ( 5 ) follows ex = x / d , we have:
from (2)-(4)and the definition of the quadratic form on Br.
Lemma 28.3: If ( ( r ) = Exaxex then the inner product (<(r),x)=
We close this section by defining B to be the F-space with quadratic ax/& in Bs.
form which is the orthogonal direct sum
Define T,. E L ~ ( BBr)
~ ;by
(28.4) For r, r' E R, y(r) * y(rl) = y(rr') if rr' E R and O otherwise.
T h u s C is a group of isometries of B.
Observe that zl centralizes Bs by 27.7.1. Also as 2.1 E Z(Q1) and Next B- = ~ ?@ jB f~ and we define TS- E L(Bs,B-; B-) by
C acts on R by conjugation, zl fixes y(r) for each r E R. Thus zl
centralizes BT.Finally by 27.5.2, zl inverts B-. Thus
(28.5) A * (a8 b) = aA Q9 b + (Tr(A)/8) (aQ9 b) for A E Bs, a E B&,
and b E ~ 1 ,
Lemma 27.9: B- = [B,zl] and Bs + BT = CB(zl). where aA is the product of the vector a = Ex asx with the matrix A.
152 Chapter 10 The Griess Algebra and the Monster 28. The Griess algebra
Finally we define T,- E L(B,, B-; B-) by Lemma 28.9: Tsr 6 commutative and fl,, has monomials
(28.6) y(r) *(a@b) = (a - 2(a, J(r))t(r)) @ (br)/8, for r E R, a E Bi4,
b E BL. forx,y€X, r € R .
Here br denotes the image of b under r. Proof: The list of monomials is immediate from 28.2 and the fact that
Next by 9.4, T, and the restriction Ti of 7 to Bi determine a trilinear y(r) is of norm 1. In particular from the list of monomials we see P,,
form b-,,(~~)= pi on Bi via is invariant under the permutation (2,3), so its algebra map T~~ is com-
mutative.
Lemma 28.10: r9- is commutative and PS.- has monomials
and ~ idetermines
j Pij E L(Bi, Bj, Bj; F) via
Pij(a, b, c) = (7ij(a, b), C ) .
In the next few lemmas we determine the monomials of these forms with
respect to our standard bases.

Lemma 28.7: PS is symmetric with monomials 4.x2~xy.xy,4-x2.x2.x2,

Proof: Let A be the matrix of ab and 6 = 6(d). Then
- -
and 4 xy yz zx for distinct x, y, z E X.
' A * ( ~ 8 6 =) x A @ S+ T T ( A ) / ~(X
. €36).
Proof: Let A, A' be the matrices corresponding to ab, arb', respectively,
where a, a', b, b' E X. Then unless {a, b) n (a', b') # 0 , AA' = A'A = Now TT(A) = 0 unless a = b, where Tr(A) = 1. Further XA = 0, b, a, for
0, so A * A' = 0 and hence there is no monomial AA'A*. So assume
x $ {a, b), x = a, x = b, respectively. So as (x @ 6, y @ 6) = (x, y) =
{a, b) n {a', b') # 0. the monomials are as claimed, and hence T ~ - is commutative.
'
If a = a' and b = b' then A2 = a2+b2, a2, for a # b, a = b, respectively. Lemma 28.11: 7,- is commutatzve and PT- has monomials
+
Hence A * A = 4(a2 b2), 4a2, respectively. So as a2 has norm 1,we get
. . . . .
monomials 4 ab ab a2, 4 a2 a2 a2,respectively.
If a' = b' = a # b then A * A' = 2ab, so as ab has norm 2 we get
monomials 4 . a2 ab ab. Finally if a' = b and 6' = c with a, b, c distinct,
f o r x , y ~ X , x # y , r ~ R , d ~wLh e, r e ~ ( r ) = C , a x e x .
then A*A1 = 2ca, contributing a monomial 4.ab.bc.ca. Thus the lemma
is established. Proof: Write 6 for 6(d). Then y ( ~ ) (*~ € 3 6=
) (~-2(x,t(r))<(r))@6r/8,
so
Lemma 28.8: PT is symmetric with monomials y(r)y(rt)y(rrl), for
r, r', TT' E 72, (y(r),x @ 6,y @ 5') = ( ( 2 , ~-
) 2(x,t(~))(~,tfr)))(6',6~)/8. (*)
In particular (*) is 0 unless 6' = fSr, in which case we may normalize
Proof: By definition, ~(r)*y(r')= 0 unless rr' E R, where y(r)* Y(T') = and take 6' = 6r. Then as 6' is of norm 1, appealing t o 28.3 we obtain:
y(rrr), and we may assume the latter. As y ( r ~ ' )is of norm 1, we get
monomials y(r)~ ( r ' ~) ( r r ' ) ,T, r', rr' E: R.
So it remains to show the form is symmetric. But as r, T', rr' E R and Thus the lemma holds.
6
@(c(s))= 0 for each s E R with an isometry by 27.2, we conclude that
s2 = 1 and 0 = (C(T),~(T'))= [r,~']. Further r TT' = T'. So the form is Lemma 28.12: The algebra map
indeed symmetric.
154 Chapter 10 The Griess Algebra and the Monster 29. The action of N on B 155
defined via the convention of Remark 9.6 is symmetric as is its trilinear we check that D centralizes B D for D = R, E l 2, we have Bo = [ B ,Z ]
form 0 = b7(r) defined via 9.4. Moreover and (4) holds.
As z2 <
E C ( Z ) ,B z C B ( Z ) .On the other hand
and T and 0 have the same stabilizer i n the isometry group of B . Lemma 29.3: CE+(r(c,J)) = Z ( & ( a K ) : eK(c) = o),

Proof: The first remark follows from Remark 9.6, since from the lemmas since [ql(aK),r(c,J ) ] = [?j1(ffK),ql(c)]
= 2;"'') by 27.8 and 14.2.8.
above each of the summands T; are symmetric and the summands Tij Thus Bz = [BZ, E+], so (3) holds once we show [D,BD] = 0 for D =
are commutative. The second follows from 9.4.3. R, E.
Lemma 28.13: C stabilizes T and P.
+
Next by 27.7.1, B R B& = BS 6 C(Q1).Also Q$ acts on Ra: 6 B:,
x E X , by 27.4.1, so Q$ centralizes z 2 and hence R 6 C(BR). <
Proof: By 28.12 it suffices to show C stabilizes T , and for this it suffices Further by 27.4.1, B k = [B;,Q.~],SO B& = [B&,R]. Then 29.4 below
to show C stabilizes each ri and rij. But this is almost immediate from completes the proof of 29.2.
the definitions.
Lemma 29.4: (1) $l(d) :w:, H (-l)c-u(d)w:y for k = 2,3.
29. The action of N on B (2) $2 ( d ) : wz, r (- l ) e = u w?, and f i e s wz, .
We have seen in 27.7 and 27.8 that: (3) $l(a) : w:, I+ w : ~ for k = 2,3 and a even.
, ~
(4) E+ centralizes B; for k = 2,3, and $q(az)has cycle (w&,,w&)
Lemma 29.1: As an N+-module for z E X .
Proof: By 14.2.8, [$i(d),$l(axar)] = $i(%ar(d)) and by 14.2.9 and
where 14.2.10, qi(d) centralizes q l ( s ) for all d E L. Hence (1) holds and as
(1) B R = ( x 2 : ~ € X ) S B s . $2(e) = (Ql(s)kl)' r $l(s)' mod K by 14.3, we also have (2). Part (3)
(2) B E = B & L B $ I B ~ , where B& = ( x y : x , y E X , x # y) 5 B , is easy. Finally & ( E ) is abelian and E S centralizes $ l ( s ) , so E f cen-
and BL
= (wig : x , y E X ) 5 Br for i = 2,3 are described in tralizes B; for k = 2,3. Also [ $ ~ ~ ($l(aZ)]
s), = z1 by 14.2.8, so +l(az)
27.8.5. centralizes vxU and inverts uw, and hence has cycle (w&, w&).
(3) Bz = ( ~ ( r: r) E z2) < BT. We wish to extend the representation of Nl on B to a representation
(4) Bo = B&LB&~.B~, where B; = ( y ( r ) : r E z3)
5 B , and of N that preserves our bilinear and trilinear forms, and hence also the
B- = Bo2-l~; with B ~ = ( X @ ~ ~ ( ~ ) : X EL)Xfori=2,3., ~ E
Griess algebra. We see in general from 29.1 and 29.2 how this must
Actually this is the first time we have defined B: and B:. These be done. Namely B D must be an N-submodule for D = R, E l Z , 0
subspaces are N+-invariant by 27.3. (as each such D is normal. in N ) , and N / N + must induce S3 on the
Recall from 14.5 that R = (Q1n N2)(Q2n N l ) is a normal subgroup three summands of B E and Bo. More precisely we have a permutation
of N with R of class at most 3 , Z = Z ( R ) , and Z 2 ( R ) 2 E+ = Ql n Q 2 . representation of N on {1,2,3) with kernel N+ such that for g E N,
= zig, k: = kigl (Ai)g = A,, etc. In particular, $(dlg = 6ii(dt) and
Lemma 29.2: (1) B R = C B ( R ) 5 CB(Q1).
(2) B E = [CB(E+),R] and B& = cB,(Q:) with [B;, Q1]= 0. LP(x)g = L$(x') for some d L , xt E X , and 6'.
(3) B Z = [CB(Z),E+]., One extension is easy. If B R is to be an N-submodule then as Q1
(4) Bo = [ B ,Z ] with Bh = CB, (Zi). centralizes BR, so must (Q1,Q2). But by 14.5.2, N / R = (Q1,Q2)/Rx
N + / R , so:
Proof: As we have already observed in 27.9, B- = [ B ,zl]. By 27.3 and
27.4, B; = CB-(z2), so B; = CB- (z3) as zlz2z3 = 1. For r E 7Z3, Lemma 29.5: BR extends uniquely to an N-module with [(Q1,
y(r) E Q1 - C ( z 2 ) ,so z2 inverts BA, and hence B; = [B;,Z ] . Then once Q2),BR] = 0. Further N preserves the restriction of our forms to BR.
 29. T h e action of N on B
156 C h a p t e r 10 The Griess Algebra a n d the Monster

Lemma 29.6: Let x EX, ', and r ( x , b) E 7Z3.T h e n

b, e , d E L, a E I and by 29.7 the map

(1) [ r ( x ,b), &(d)l = q i ( ~ x ( d+) P ( d ) + C ( d , b)). x : B; + B;,

+
(2) r ( x , b)*z(") = r ( x , eb e,(e)). x @ 6; (b) = L: ( x ) @ 6; (b) H L; ( x ) @ 64 (b) = x @ 6; (b);
(3) r ( x , b ) + ~ (= , rtza, ba+%(b) + P ( b ) ) for a even, odd,
~ ~) ( X Qba),
respectively. x : ~ : + ~ ; ,
ProoE Straightforward calculations using 14.2 and the definition of
T ( X , b) in 27.8. For example, by 14.2, [$l(d),$l(a,)] = $q(P(d)+e,(d)),
X @ 6; (b) = L: ( x ) @ 6; ( b ) I--+ L; ( x ) @ 6;(b + ex@)) = x @ 6; (b)
induces an N+-isomorphism B; -, Bi for i = 2,3, and of course this
[$l(d),Ilrl(s)l = 1, and [$l(d),$l(b)l = $l(C(d,b)), so ( 1 ) holds. In ( 2 )
use the fact that extends uniquely to an Nl-isomorphism. Next
Lemma 29.8: The map
Lemma 29.7: (1) The map Y(.(., b)) I--+ L i ( x ) @ 6!(b)
Xi :Lidl ( x ) 6:-I (b) H Lt+l ( x )@ 6:" (b + ex (b)) extends x to a n Nl-isomorphism of B; with B;.
i s an isomorphism of Biz1 @ B i - l ( a i ) with B;$' @ B i + l ( ~ i ) . Proof: We check first that the map is a well-defined bijection; that is,
(2) The stabilizer in N+ of x @ ~ 5 ~ ( consists
1) of the elements , if and only if x = xt and b' = b or bs if and only
r ( x ,b) = ~ ( x 'b')
if L;(x) @ 6t(b) = L;(x') @ 6!(bt) by 14.4.4. Then we observe that if
~ ( a )a even then using 29.6,
g = $ ~ ~ ( d ) $ ~ ( e ) $ with
such that x a = x and e,(e) + P ( e ) +j = 0 mod 2.
Proof: Applying 14.2.1, we may assume i = 2. Observe first that the
+
g : L;(x) Q9 6 f ( b ) ++ ~ i ( x a@) 6t((eb)a e,(ed) + P ( d ) + C ( b ,d ) ) ,
map is well defined. That is, 6b(b) = 6!j(bt) if and only if b' = b or ~ ( xb)g
, = ~ ( x a(eb)a
, + e,(ed) + P ( d ) + C(d,b))
bs, since 6z(b)kl = 62(bs). Similarly @(b) = 6$(bt) if and only if b' = so x is N+-equivariant. Similarly using 29.6.3, we check that the map
+
b or bsx, since 6z(b)k3 = dz(bs?r). But bs ex(bs) = bsn e,(b), so + commutes with $1(az) for z E X with qhl(az) : x @ 6;(b) = L;(x) 8
+ + +
@(bs eZ(bs)) = 6 : ( b s ~ ex (b)) = 623 (b eX(b)),as desired. So ( 1 ) is + + +
6: (b) +-+ L; ( x ) @ 6 f ( b P(b) exz(b)) L: ( x ) @ (b P(b) ex, (b)) = +
established. + +
x @ S?(b P ( b ) exz(b)).
Next by 14.4 each member of N+ is of the form g = $l(d)$2(e)$l(a)
By 29.8, our Nl-isomorphism x : BA
-+ B;,i = 2,3, extends to an

g : L:(x)@6;(b) -
for some d , e E L and even a E J?. Then we calculate
L~(xcu)@6~((db)a+e,(e)+~(e)+~(db,e)), (29.7.3)
+
g : L: ( x )@ @(b) H L; ( x a ) @ 6$((db)a e,(ed) + P ( e ) + C(db,e ) ) .
Nl-isomorphism x : Bo -+ Bo. We pull back the representation of N
on Bo via x to obtain a representation of N on Bo which makes x an
equivalence. This is our action of N on Bo.
Our standard basis for B;, i = 2,3, consists of the elements x @ Ji(d),
(29.7.4)
x E X , d E L, while the standard basis elements for B; are y ( r ( x , b)),
This shows the map xz is N+-equivariant and establishes (2).
x E X , b E L. We write x@Sl (b) for y ( r ( x , b)). This gives us a symmetric
We write x @ 6: (b) for L: (2)@ 6; (b) and identify B;i1 @ Bi-l ( a i ) notation for the standard basis elements of Bo and the notation makes
with Bit1?B'+'(A~) via the map Xi of 29.7 which identifies x @ 6 f 1 ( b ) sense thanks to 29.8.
with x @ q+l +
( b Q (6)). We denote this space by B: and let
Lemma 29.9: N preserves the restriction of our forms to Bo.
BO = B ~ I B ; ~=@ (B&@B~(A~))~(B~~@B~(A~))~.(B~~@B~(A~)).
Proof: First N preserves 7 as it permutes our standard basis up to sign,
Then N is naturally represented on Bo via and that basis is orthonormal. To show N preserves P we appeal to 9.8,
g : L;+,(X) 63 b;+l(b) I--+ L ~ + ~ ( @
X ~) :~+ l ( b ) ~ , (29.7.5) so we need information about monomials.
 t
Chapter 10 T h e Griess Algebra and the Monster 29. T h e action of N o n 3
By 9.3 applied to Z in the role of the G of 9.3, and using 29.2.4, if (2) $1 has cycle ( ( ~ ~ 1( 2~, ~ 1and3 )fie8 ( x Y ) while
~ $ 3 ( 4 &es
m = amlm2m3 is a nonzero monomial in @ on Bo then we may take ( ~ ~ and
1 3 has cycle ( ( x Y ) ~( x, Y ) ~ ) .
mi E B;. Hence by 28.11, m is one of (3) The map x y I+ ( x y ) l , w&, H ( x Y ) ~i ,= 2,3, is an Nl-isomor-
phism of BE with B E .
Proof:We use 27.4 to calculate the action of g on B& and 29.4 to make
-azayl32 . y(r) - ( x 8 62(d)) . (Y @ Sz(d)r)1 the calculation on BLfor i = 2,3. This gives ( I ) , and (2) is obtained
with r E 'R3 and with x # y in the second case. We seek to determine similarly. Then ( 1 ) and (2) and 29.4.4 imply (3).
m up to conjugation under N f , so as N f is transitive on 'R3we may We use the isomorphism of 29.10 to pull back the action of N on BE
take ml = y(r), where r = T ( Z , 1) = &(az). SO by our notational to an action on BE. Having defined our representation on BE we prove:
convention, ml = z 8 & ( I ) . Next by 29.7.3, Q: is transitive on basis
vectors x 8 b2(d),so as Q: = (Z3)C*:(&(a,)) and z3 inverts Bi, each Lemma 29.11: N przsemes the restriction of our forms to BE.
monomial is conjugate under N+ to either Proof: The argument is similar to 29.9. Again it is clear the bilinear
form is preserved and we appeal t o 9.8 to handle the trilinear form.
So let m = amlm2mg be a monomial in our basis ( x Y ) ~with , a # 0.
We apply 9.3 to R / E f , recalling from 29.2 that BE <
C ( E + ) and
.
-axaar132. ( z 8 6 1 ( 1 ) ) ( x 8 & ( I ) ) (Y 8 6 2 ( l ) r ) BL = c B E ( Q + ) ,and recalling also that R/E+ is of exponent 2 by 14.5.
Thus by 9.3 we may assume either
with x # y in the second case. But x @ b2(l)r = x 8 b3(l) by 27.3.4,
and E(r) = -Az by 27.8.3, so by 28.11, a% = 3, -1, for x = z , x # z , (a) mi E ~b for i = 1,2,3, or
respectively. Therefore m is conjugate to (b) mi E EL for some j and all i.
Let Qi(xy) = (E', &(d) : %y(d)) = 0. Then C R ( ( X Y ) I = ) Q~QZ(XY)
and CR((uz)2)= Q$ Q I ( u z ) . Thus in case (a) if ml = ( x y ) l and ma =
where a = -1/32,3/32, -5132 for x , y, z all distinct, two of x , y, z equal, ~ C R ( ( ~ mz))
( u z )then I , = Q I ( ~ Z ) Q Z ( X YBut
) . C B ~ ( Q ~ ( U ~ ) Q Z (=X Y ) )
x = y = z , respectively. R ( x y ) 3 fl R ( u z ) 3 , so by 9.3, uz = XY and mi = ( ~ 9 ) ~ .
Let Mo be this set of monomials and M the set of all nonzero monomi- Similarly in case (b) if ml = ( x y ) l and m2 = ( u z ) l then
als of /3 on Bo.By 9.8.2, it remains to show (&(aw), $2(a,)) permutes
M o But &(a,) fixes z 8 6 1 ( l ) and interchanges x @ & ( l ) and x @ & ( l ) ,
while $2 ( a w ) fixes x @ & ( I ) and interchanges z 8 b1( 1 ) and z 8 63 ( I ) , whose centralizer on B& is (ml,ma)unless y = u and x # z , where we
completing the proof. get (ml,ma, ( Z X ) ~ ) Hence
. by 9.3 either m3 = ml, or m2 or ml = ( X Y ) ~ ,
mz = ( y z ) l ,and m3 = ( Z X ) ~ But
. thereexists e E L with Q2(e)inverting
Write Bk for the subspace ( ( x Y ) ~: x , y E X , x # y) of s ~ ( B ; ~ ) , ml (and centralizing m2 if { x , y) n{u,z } = 0 )so 9.3.2 says ml = ( x y ) l ,
where ( x Y ) ~= L ~ ( x 8 +
) L: ( y ) Li ( y ) @ L:(x). Observe that the map m2 = (yz)2, and mg = ( Z X ) ~ .
g : Lf ( x ) o L: ( x ) g induces a representation of N on Now in case ( a ) by 28.2 we have monomials

-- BE = B&IB&IB&. (xY,J(~V(,)(XY))
@ E ( r v ( e ) ( ~ ~. )v)()~ ) x .v(e)xy,
y
Of course B; 2 B; as an Nl-module. Indeed where v(1) = v and v(-1) = u. By 27.8, ((rv(,)(xy)) = 2 ( f x - e f y ) so
by 28.3,
Lemma 29.10: Let g = $l(d)$2(e)$l(a) E N+. Then
(1) 9 : ( x Y ) I~
+ ( - ~ ) ' ( ~ ) ( X C N Y C X and
)~ g : wig ++ (-1)'(9)w&,, for
i = 2,3, where ~ ( g=) exy(d) icxy(e).+
160 Chapter 10 The Griess Algebra and the Monster
Therefore (xy, wZy, w&) = -8, so we have monomials
in case (a).
Next in case (b) with i = 1 by 28.7 we have monomials
in BL, while if i = 2 , 3 the relevant monomials in BT are Y(T)Y(T')~(TT')
for r,rl,rr' E z4.
Further in our case r = rv(,)(xy) and r' = r,,(6)(y~).
Now r21(C)(ZY)T,,(~)(YZ) = rv(,6) (zx), SO we get monomials
Finally by 29.10.2, ($l(a,), $J~(cY,))permutes the monomials in (k*),
k = 1,2,3, so 9.8 completes the proof.
Lemma 29.12: Let c E L with 4(c) E C, J Z: 4(c), e,d
a E I?+. nLen
(1) r(c, ~ ) * l ( =~ )r ( m , J a ) .
(2) r(c, J)*'(~) = r ( c + ~ ~ ( d ) + C ( c , d ) , J ) .
(3) r ( c , ~ ) * ~ ( ~ ) = r ( c + C ( e , c ) , J + ( c n e ) ) .
Proof: Calculate using 14.2 and the definition of T(C,J) in 27.8. In
making the calculation in (3), recall $2 ( T ) = $1 (s) and $3 (T) = $1 (ST).
+
This reduces us to a yerification that I J (4(c) n 4(e))1/2 = 15112
+
C(c, e) I J n 4(e)l mod 2, which follows as C(c, e) = I4(c) n 4(e)l/2
mod 2 and I$(c) n 4(e) n.JI = I J n 4(e)l since J S $(c).
Lemma 29.13: (1) B z = eCEc
B Z , ~where
, y(rzl) = -y(r). Now for r E
B z , ~= (y(r(cl, J)) : J G c = +(cl)).
(2) B z , ~= CBZ(E:), where E$ = (2, &(a J) : c~ ( c =
) 0).
(3) Cr(Bz,c) = Cr(c) and Nr+(c)lCr(c) 2 4 3 .
(4) cR(BZ,c) =E$ ($1 ( 4 4 2 (e) :enc, dncE (0, c)) andR/CR(Bz,c)
2'+12 is irreducible on Bz,,.
(5) Bz extends to an N-module in which Q~ acts on Bz,, for each
CEC.
Proof: Part (1) is trivial while 29.12 implies (2) and the first statement
of (3) and (4). Then 19.1 implies the second statement in (3). Similarly
by 14.5 and the first part of (4), R/CR(Bzc) is of order 213 and the
product of the elementary abelian groups Q~CR(BZ,~)/CR(BZ,~) is of
order 2', while by 14.2.10, Z(R/CR(BZ,c)) = E+CR(BZ,~)/CR(BZ,~),
29. The action of N on B 161
so R/CR(BzVc) r 21+12. As dim(Bz,,) = 26 is the minimal dimension
of a faithful module for 2'+12, (4) holds.
Finally by (1)-(4), Bz is an induced module xN1, where x is the
representation of N1,, whose kernel K = Cr(~)CR(BZ,c)is Nc-invariant
and such that N1,,/K E ~ ~ / with 2 x~the +unique
~ faithful
~ irreducible
representation for F*(Nl,,/K) = 21+12. Then x is Nc-invariant, so it
extends to X N ~and then X N l extends to X{c. Thus (5) is established.
We use 29.13.5 to define the action of N on BZ.Thus we have defined
N on each of the summands of B of 29.1, and hence have embedded N
in GL(B). We close this section by proving:
Lemma 29.14: N preserves the restriction of our forms to BZ. Hence
Proof: As B is the orthogonal direct sum of the four summands of 29.1
E L, and and we have shown N preserves the restriction of 7 to the summands
BD,D = R, E, 0, it follows that N preserves +y on B if it preserves its
restriction to BZ. We prove N preserves this restriction by proving N+
is irreducible on Bz and hence, up to a scalar multiple, 7 is the unique
bilinear form on Bz preserved by N+. Hence N preserves +y up to a
scalar, so as N = (N?') and Nl preserves 7, so does N. We use the
same argument to show N preserves p on Bz; that is, we show that, up
to a scalar, p is the unique N+-invariant trilinear form with a certain
+ property and the image of fi under each g E N has that property. So it
remains to establish these claims.
Let Y = {y(r) : r E 7Z2) so that Y is a signed basis for B z with
z2, Z(Cq; (r)) = (r, 2) and from 27.2,
i((?, 2))nii; = {r'), so the weight spaces of Qf on Bz are 1-dimensional
and are ? = {Ry : y E Y). Thus as N+ is transitive on z2, and hence
also on ?, N+ is irreducible on Bz as claimed.
Next let q # 0 be an N+-invariant trilinear form on BZ and m =
amlm2mg be a nonzero monomial of q in the basis Y. Let mi = y(ri).
Then mi E BztCi for some ci E C, and by 29.13.2 and 9.3, ci # c j for
i # j. Further by 9.3, ra E Z(CQ: ((rl, r2))) = g(rl, r2), so since we
just showed that 7Z2 n Z(ri) =- {_ri,TiE1) and c3 # cl or c2, it follows
that r3 E Zrlr2. Then C(f3) E J(ZflP2) n i ; , which implies cl +c2 = c3
and either
(i) {cl, c2, c3) is a trio and r'lr'2 = ?3S, or
(ii) lcl n c21 = 4 and FlF2 = Y3.
By 28.8, ,LIZ = PB, has no monomials of type (i). Further N+ is
162 Chapter 10 T h e Griess Algebra and the Monster
transitive on triples (rl,r2,r3) with rlr2 = ~ 3 so, up to a scalar PZ
is the unique N+-invariant trilinear form such that if xi E B z I G with
/3z(xl,x2, x3) # 0 then cl + c2 = c3 and lcl n c21 = 4. But by 29.13.5,
N permutes the subspaces Bz,,, c E C , so N permutes such forms,
completing the proof.
30. N preserves the Griess algebra
In the last section we constructed a representation of N on B preserving
the decomposition of 29.1 and the bilinear form y on B. In this section
we prove N preserves the trilinear form p and hence also the Griess
algebra.
Now by Remark 9.2,
JeI3/S3
where I = {R, ElZ,0) and I ~ /isssome ~ set of representatives for the
orbits of S3 on = I x I x I . Further N preserves 3 / if and only if
it preserves PJ for each J E 1 ~ 1 ~ 3We . have shown that N preserves
the restriction of p to BD for each D E I; that is, N preserves pJ for
J = (DlDl D ) . I t remains to treat the other projections PJ.
Ram the discussion in Section 29, we have a standard basis for B
with respect to N. Namely the basis for B R consists of the vectors x2,
x E X , the basis for B; consists of the vectors ( x Y ) ~x,, y E X distinct,
the basis for B z consists of the vectors y(r), T E 'R2, and the basis for
B; consists of the vectors x @I bi(d), x E X , d E L. Our subbases are
monomial basis for N+ and, except for B z , even monomial bases for N.
We form the monomials for /3 from the standard basis.
Lemma 30.1: For c E L with $(c) E C, J $(c) of even order, and
XEX:
) 1 / 8 -CKGc
(1) y ( r ( ~J ,) ) * ' ( ~ = = tK(J)y('(c, K ) ) with t K ( J ) = f1
and the sum over any set K of 64 representatives for the even
subsets K of $(c) modulo the elation K K + 4(c). N
(2) t K ( 0 ) = ( 1 ) ~ (for~ )each K E K .
Proof: Let y ( J ) = y(r(c, J ) ) , g = &(a,), and x ( J ) = y(J)g. BY
29.13.5, g acts on Bq4(,), so as { R y ( J ) : J E K} is the set of weight
spaces of Q: on BZ,@(,) and ( 9 ? ) 9 = Qzf, { x ( J ) : J E K ) is the set of
weight spaces for Q$ on BZ,+(~).
Next x ( J ) = CKEK a K y ( K ) and as Q; is transitive on the Q: weight
spaces and permutes (fy ( J ) : J E K ) , we conclude aK = fa ~ for l all
30. N preseives the Griess algebra 163
K, K'. As g preserves 7 and { y ( K ) : K E K ) is orthonormal of order 64,
it follows that aK = f118 for all K E EC. That is, (1) is established.
Next by 29.12, R Y ( Q ) = c~~,+(,)(Qi(@)),
where
so &;(a) = ( ~ t ) g= ~ , f ( + ~ (:eC)( c ,e ) = 0 ) by 14.2.5, and &(a) =
c ~ ~ , + ~ ~ ) ( Q 2But ~ ($('I n
( 0 )by) .29.12, Y ( K ) $ ~ ( ' )= ( - 1 ) C ( e ' C ) 3 (+
# ( e ) ) ) ,so t K ( 0 ) = tK+(+(c)n4(e))(0)for e E L with C(c,e) = 0,
since we just showed $2(e) fixes x ( 0 ) for each such e. Now C ( c ,e ) =
I$(c) n d(e)1/2,so we conclude that the subgroup ($(c)n $(e) :C ( e ,c ) =
0 ) = { K : K c q5(c),(KI even), and hence that t = tK( 0 )is independent
of K .
Let h = and y = y ( 0 ) . Then by 14.2 and the definition of
T ( C , K ) in 27.8, y ( K ) h = (-1)IK1/2+'z(c)y(~).Therefore yh = by, where
b = (-l)'*(~ -
) ygh = t / 8 CKy ( K ) h = t b / 8 . C Kt K y ( K ) , where
and
tK = ( - 1 ) 1 ~ 1 / ~Therefore
. ( y ,yg) = t / 8 while
as there are 36, 28 choices for K with IKI = 0 , 2 mod 4, respectively.
Finally h9 = gh = qh2(aX),so b/8 = (yg,ygh) = ( y ,yhg) = ( y ,ygh) =
(yh,yhg) = ( y ,yg) = t / 8 as yh = by. That is, t = b.
Lemma 30.2: N preserves PJ for any J E I ~ / containing
s ~ an entry R.
Proof: Assume m = amlm2mg is a nonzero monomial in PJ in our
standard basis with ml E BR. Then ml = x2 for some x E X. As
[R,BR] = 0 we conclude from 9.3 that C R ( m 2 ) = CR(m3) and then
conclude from 29.2 that J = (R, Dl D ) for some D. As N preserves the
restriction of p to R, we may assume y = ma $ BR.
Assume y E BZ.Then y = y ( r ) for some r = r(c, J ) E 'R2, and
by 28.9 and 28.3, y = m3 and a = ( x , ~ ( r )=) ~a 3 8 = ~,(c)/2. Let
g = $3(a,). Then x2g = x2 and by 30.1, yg = 118. '&t K ( J ) y ( K ) ,so
(x2g,yg, yg) = 1 / 6 4 . C K ( X Y (~K,)Y, ( K ) )= 4 4 1 2 = (x2,Y , Y ) . That
is, N = (9,N l ) preserves P j , as desired.
Assume next that y E ~ k . If i = 1 then y = bc for distinct b, c E X
and by 28.7, y = m 3 and a = 4eZ(bc). On the other hand if i # 1 then
Y = ( b ~=) w~i,and by 28.9 and 28.3, P ( x ~ , v ~ = ~ a218
, v ~=~2)~ z ( b c=
)
P ( x ~ , u ~ , , u ~ , )SO, a = 4ez(bc). Hence as g permutes ( b ~by ) ~29.10.2, N
preserves PJ in this case too.
This leaves the case y E B;. Then y = u @ 4 ( d ) for some u E X,
164 Chapter 10 The Griess Algebra and the Monster 30. N preserves the Griess algebra
d f L. If i = 1 then from 29.8, y = y(r), where r = r(u,d) € 7Z3 and
by 28.3 and 28.9, y = ma and a = ag/8 = 918, 118 for x = u, x # u,
respectively. On the other hand if i # 1then we obtain the same answer
from 28.10. This time using 27.3 and 27.4, we calculate the action of g on
Bo and using the N-equivariant isomorphism x :Bo -+ Bo of Section 29, completing the proof in this case.
So take D = 0. By 9.3, CZ(m2) = Cz(rn3), so m2,m3 E ~ g for k the
we see that g permutes our monomials, completing the proof.
Lemma 30.3: N preserves PJ for any J E I ~ /containing
s ~ an entry E. same k. Hence S, = el <!
+ -$+ where is the restriction of p to
82 x B; x B;. Therefore it suffices to show cig (23'= for j = 1,2, and
Proof: Again take m = a m l m ~ m gto be a nonzero monomial, this time
with m l E Bb. We have handled the case where each mi is in BE,
(tg (i.
= Similarly we get maps E L(B' ,B;,B;: F) associated to p.
Suppose j = 1. Then ni = y(ri), ri E,'R and Cq:(n2) = Cq:(n3),
so we may assume m2 4 BE. As m l E BE, [ml, E+] = 0, so by 9.3,
so f 2 = Y3 and hence we may take n2 = n3. Fhrther by 29.6, N N + ( k y )
CE+ (m2) = CE+(m3). In particular if m2 E BE then so is m3, contrary
has two orbits on the weight spaces of Q: on B: with representatives
to the choice of m3. Thus neither m2 nor m3 is in BE. Similarly if
q QD S1(l) = y(r(q, I)), where g = x or q # x, y, respectively. Now as
ma E BZ so is m3. That is, m2,m3 E BD for D = Z or D = 0. So it
r = r(q, 1), c(r) = -Aq by 27.8. Then by 28.9 and 28.3, b = -314,
remains to show N+ preserves the restriction fl of 0 to BE x BD x BD.
Next N = (Nl,g), where g = q3(az) for some z f X, so as Nl
114, for q = x, q # x, y, respectively. Thus <ig = @ if (w;~,(q 8
S1(l))g, (q @ Sl (1))g) = -314, 114, for the respective q. Now using 27.3
ci
preserves p, it remains to show g preserves p. Write for the restriction
and 27.4 we calculate the action of g on Bo and use the N-equivariant
of p to B$ x BD x BD.It sufficesto show g preserves C3 and C = + C2,
isomorphism x : Bo -+ Bo to check that (q 8 S1(l))9 = q QD &(I). Also
+
as p = 6 C. We save the proof that g preserves C3 till the end.
by 28.11, (vxy(e),q €3 &(I), q @ &(I)) = (1 - ai/4)/8 = -318, 1/8, for
Notice Clg E L(B& BD, Bo; F) is N+-invariant and to show g pre-
the respective q, and hence (wzy,n29, nzg) = -314, 114, as desired.
serves C we must show Clg = (2. In particular we may take ml E B;.
So take j = 2 or 3. By 27.4.1, +j(e) inverts xy if exy(e) = 1. Then
Thus ml = xy for some choice of distinct x, y E X, and by 29.10.2,
from 29.7.3, there exists e E L such that +j(e) inverts xy and centralizes
m19 = ( x Y ) = ~ w;~. q @ 6j(d) and q' @ Sj(dl) unless {q,q') = {x, y). Thus each nonzero
Let p E L ( B ~BD, , BD; F) be N+-invariant and bmln2n3 be a non-
zero monomial in p. Suppose D = Z. Then ni = y(ri) with ri = monomial of 8, - -
is conjugate under NN+(Rzy) to bxy xy (X @ Sj(1)) .
r ( q , J i ) E 7Z2, and as CE+(n2) = CE+(n3), 4(c2) = 4(c3) by 29.13.2.
(y @ dj(l)), so to show ~ 1 2 ~ ~2 1
= and <;g =6 it remains to show
So replacing n3 by -n3 if necessary, we may assume c2 = c3 = c. ( x ~ , x @ b j ( l~QD6j(l))
), = (wZy1~ @ 6 k ( ~ ) (Y1@6k(j)(l))1
)1 where k(2) = 1
Also xy E CCB(~:), so CQ:(n2) = CQ:(n3) and hence by 29.12.2, and k(3) = 3.
Now by 28.10, (xy, x 8 Sj(l), y @ Sj (1)) = 1. Further x @ 62(l) =
n2 = ng = y(r), where r = r(c, J). If {x, y) is not contained in 4(c) we
can pick e E L with +(e) n $(c) = 0 and #(e) containing exactly one y(r(x, 1))and r(x, l)r(y, 1) = r,(xy), so 28.8 gives the desired equality
of x, y. Then by 27.4, $JZ(e)inverts xy while by 29.12.3, q2(e) fixes n2, when j = 2. So take j = 3. Now from 27.3, S3(l)r,(4(xy) = a3(s1-'),
contradicting 9.3. Thus x, y E #(c). We saw during the proof of 30.1 that so y @ 63(l)rv(4(xy) = (-l)Lfl(y @ 63(1)). Then by 28.11, (vxy(e),x 8
Q$ is transitive on the Q: weight spaces in Bz,,(,), so as Q: fixes x and &(I), y 69 b3(1)) = 112, so (w?,, x 8 ~ ~ ( 1y@b3(1))
), = 1,completing the
Y, we may take J = 0 and p is determined up to a scalar. In particular proof that Clg = <2.
Clg E R42, so it remains to show a = (xy, n2, n2) = (wzy,nag, n2g). Finally we show g preserves c3. Set h = q2(crz) and k = gl(aZ). Then
As ri =T(c,D), f(ri) = fd(,) by 27.8. So by28.9and 28.3, a = 1. By h = gk. As 61 is Nl-invariant and N! = N3, it suffices to show Clh = b.
30.1.2, n2g = -1/8.CK r(c, K). Further if we set v(1) = v, vxy(l) = vxy el
But h = clgk = Clgk = c21c = C3, completing the proof.
and v(0) = u, vxy(0) = uxyr then using the definitions in 27.8, we Lemma 30.4: N preserves the Griess algebra.
calculate
Proof: As we observed earlier, to show N preserves the Griess algebra,
it suffices to show N preserves p j for each J E I ~ / s
We~may
. assume
166 Chapter 10 The Griess Algebra and the Monster
J # (DlDl D), so by 30.2 and 30.3, it remains to consider the cases
J = (Z,Z, 0) or (Z,0, 0). In particular we need only consider nonzero
monomials m = amlm~mgwith ml E Bz. Then by 9.3, Cz(m2) =
Cz(m3), so J = (Z,0,0) and mp, m3 E B& for some i. If we argue
as in the proof of 30.3, it suffices to show Cig = 52 and C3g = (3,
where Ci is the restriction of p to Bz x B: x B: and g = 1+h3(a,). Let
pi E L(Bz, B;, B:; F) be N+-invariant and n = bmln2n3 a nonzero
monomial in pi. Conjugating in NS we may take ml = y(r) for r =
T(C,0 ) and z 4 #(c). Then mlg = 1/8 CKy(r(c, K)) by 30.1.2.
Suppose i = 1. Then n j = y(rj) for some r j = T ( x ~bj)
, E R~ for j =
2,3. Now unless r E Z(r2,r3), there exists h E CQ: ((r2,r3))- Cg:(r).
But then h fixes n2 and n3 and inverts ml, contrary to 9.3. Therefore
r E Z(r2,rg), which forces r E Zrlr2. Recall that if p = C then by 28.8,
T = T2T3.
Now by Exercise 10.1.6, CNt (ml) has two orbits on pairs (r2,r3) such
that rr2 = r3 E 7Z3,with representatives (r(x, l),r(x,c)), x 4 $J(c),and
(r(x,d),~(y,Cd)),d E C with I$(c) n $J(d)l = 2 and xy = $(c) n 4(d). By
28.8, (ml, n2,n3) = 1 when rr2 = r3. Similarly if r2r3 = rZ2 then by
Exercise 10.1.7, up to conjugation in N + , r2 = T(X,1) and r3 = r(x, cs)
with x E #(c).
Now Clg is an N f -invariant form so by the previous paragraphs to
show 51g = Z2, it sufficesto show p2(mlg,n2g,n3g) = 1, 1, 0 for the
three choices of n2,n3 above. Now using 27.3 and 27.4, y(r(x, d))g =
+ +
(x 8 6f(d))g = x @ 6; (d P(d) ezx (d)). Thus if r2, r3 = r (x, I), r (2, c)
with x 4 #(c), then
+
and as 6;(b)r(c, K) = 6;(cb eK(cb)) by 27.3, it follows from 28.11 that
as x 4 4(c), each term in this sum is 118, so the sum is indeed 1 as
desired.
Next take r2, r g = r(x, d), r(y, cd). Then this time we get a sum of 64
terms
and as xy = #(c) C!#(d) such a term is equal to ( - 1 ) ~ ( ~ ) / 6by
4 28.11,
+ + +
where s(K) = 1 ezz(c) ~ ~ ( c d eK(xy).
) Further s(K) = 0, since
x f $J(c), z 4 $J(c), and e~(Cd)= eK(xy). SOagain we get 1 as desired.
$1. The automorphism group of the Griess algebra 167
Finally take r2, r3 = r(x, 1), r(x, cs) with x E $J(c). This time our
terms are of the form
-1/8 - (y(r(c, K)), x 8 6(l),a: 8 6(c))
since S2(cs) = b2(c). Now as x E $(c) each such term is 0 by 28.11.
Thus we have shown that clg = C2, so it remains only to show g
preserves 53. Set h = qp(aZ) and k = $ J ~ ( ( Y ~ ) . h = gk. So as 51
Then
is Nl-invariant and N: = N3, it suffice to show Clh = 53. But Clh =
clgk = Clgk = C2k = 53, completing the proof.
31. The automorphism group
of the Griess algebra
In this section G = O(B, 0, y) denotes the group of isometries of the
bilinear form y and the trilinear form P. In particular G is also a group
of automorphiims of the Griess algebra.
Using the convention of Section 28 for regarding elements of BS as
symmetric matrices indexed by X, we write I for the element of BS
corresponding to the identity matrix. Observe first from the definition
of 7 in Section 28 that:
Lemma 31.1: The element id = 1/4 of B, is the identity for the Griess
algebra. In particular G f i e s id and acts on the subspace B = idL
orthogonal to id.
Observe that B = B- LB,IB,, where
B ~ = ( X ~ , X ~ - ~ ~ : xZ# y, )~. E X ,
Lemma 31.2: CG(zl) acts on Bi for each i E (r, s, -).
Proof: Let H = CG(zl). Certainly H acts on B- = [B, zl] and B+ =
CB(zl) = BslBT (cf. 27.9). Then H acts on B+ = B f l B+ and as C
is absolutely irreducible on BT and B ~with
, each space the orthogonal
complement in B+ of the other, we may assume H is absolutely irre-
ducible on B+. In particular, up to a scalar multiple, the restriction .j.+
of y to B+ is the unique quadratic form on B+ preserved by H. - - -
Next by 9.9.4, H acts on End(B-) via conjugation; that is, for g E H
and p E End(B-), g : p H p9, where 4(b) = p(bg-l)g for b E B-.
Further for a E B+, it follows from 9.9.5 that A, E End(B-), where
A, : b I+ b * a, and the map a H Xa is in Hom(B+, End(B-)). Also by
9.9.4, Ag, = A,,.
168 Chapter 10 The Griess Algebra and the Monster
Define T E L ~ ( B + )by T(a, c) = TT(X,A,). Then
so H preserves T. Hence by the uniqueness of ?+, T = pS.+ for some
p E R.
Let xi, i = 1,2, be distinct elements of X and p = A,,,. Then by
28.10, p(y @ 6) = x3-i 8 6 if y = xi and 0 otherwise. Hence
so as 7(x1x2, xlx2) = 2, we conclude p = 212.
On the other hand let T E R and p = Xy(,). Then by 28.6:
Further by 28.3, (X,<(T))= a , / d and (<(r),t(r)) = C x a $ / 8 = 4,
.
so the second term in (*) has projection 3/2 az/64 on x @ 6. Hence
~ ) (*) over our standard basis
summing the contributions to T T ( ~ from
for B- we get
= 212 x ( l + 312 . az)/64 = 26(24 + 48) = 9 - 2'.
x
So as y(x 8 6, x 8 6) = 1, p = 9 2', a contradiction.
L e m m a 31.3: C = CG(zl).
-
Proof: Let H = CG(z~).For (j,i) E {(T,-), (s,-), (s,r)), and b E Bjl
let A; = Ab.€ End(Bi) be defined by Ab : a b* a as in 9.9.5, and recall
Ai : b o A; is in End(Bj, End(Bi)). Further by 9.9, H acts on X i ( ~ j )
via conjugation by ( ~ k ) g= A& for g E H.
Now for x, y E X, T E R , 28.9 and 28.3 say
&Y(Y(T))= (XY,E(T)@ t ( r ) ) ~ ( = -
~ )a z a y y ( ~ ) / 42'=(~).
In particular we conclude that {Ry(r) : T E R ) is the set of weight
spaces for Xr(Bs), and hence as H acts on XT(Bs), H permutes these
weight spaces. Moreover we see that CH(Bs) fixes each weight space.
Next we saw during the proof of the previous lemma that for distinct
x, y E X , X i V interchanges x @ 6 and y @ 6 and annihilates u @ 6 for all
u E X-{x, y). So as CH(Bs) commutes with all these maps, we conclude
91. The a u t o m o ~ h i s mgmup of the Griess algebra 169
that CH(Bs) acts on B- via (x @ 6)g = x @ 6g for some representation
g : 6 H 69 of CH(Bs) on B;. Similarly by 28.6, for r E R:
But for g E CH(Bs), we have observed that y(r)g = G(g)y(r) for some
~ ( g E) R, so Ay(T)(x@6)g= ((x@~)*Y(~))s = (X@~)S*Y(T)S = (x@6g)*
c,.(g)y(r) = +(g)Xy(,)(x €4 69). Pick x with v = x - 2(x, t(r))t(T) # 0.
Then by (*), (u@Erg)/8 = (v@Sr)g/8 = @6)g= ~ r ( g ) A ~ ( ~ ) ( x @
6g) = q.(y)(v @ 6gr)/8. As u # 0 we conclude [T,g] induces a scalar on
B? and then conclude the image P(CH(Bs)) of CH(Bs) in PGL(B?)
commutes with the image P ( r ) of r. So as Q1 is generated by R ,
P(CH(Bs)) 5 c ~ ~ ~ ( ~ ~ ) ( P=(p(Q1) Q ~ ) since
) Q1 is irreducible on
~ 1Therefore
. CH(Bs) I Q ~ D ,where D is the subgroup inducing
scalars on B-. Finally as D preserves y, D = (zl)CH(B-).
< +
Thus we have shown CH(Bs) Q I C H ( ~ - B,). Then as CH (Bs)
<
acts on Ry(r) for each T E R,[ c ~ ( B ~ ) , Q ~CH(B+),
] so CH(BS) =
gl. In particular Q1 9 H. Further as Cal(r) = CQ, (y(r)), and H per-
mutes {RY(T) : r E R), H permutes R by conjugation. So as Col is the
subgroup of Out(Q1) permuting R , our proof is complete.
Lemma 31.4: G is finite.
Proof: Consider the stabilizer of the forms P and 7 on B = B @R C.
It suffices to show is finite. The proof of the previous lemma applies
equally well to to show C = CG(zl). As the stabilizer of the forms
/3 and 7, is an algebraic group. As C is irreducible on B, G is re-
ductive. Thus if the connected component GO # 1 then by a standard
result from the theory of reductive algebraic groups, CG(zl) is infinite,
a contradiction. Thus Go = 1; that is, G is finite.
Lemma 31.5: G is simple.
Proof: By 31.3 and 27.6, Q1 = F*(C) is extraspecial. Further zl is
fused to 22 in N and into C - Q1 under (C, N), so the result follows
from Exercise 2.4.
Remarks. We define the simple group G constructed in this section
to be the Monster. By construction it satisfies Hypothesis H(Col,l2),
and indeed is even of Monster type in the sense of the next chapter.
Griess constructed a 196,883-dimensional algebra and the Monster in
1980; see [Grl]. Then in [Gr2], Griess adjoined an identity to obtain
the 196,884dimensional Griess algebra. Later Conway [Co3] and Tits
[T2] supplied simplifications of some of Griess' arguments, which we
170 Chapter 10 The Griess Algebra and the Monster
have incorporated in our treatment. In the remainder of this subsection
we briefly summarize the approaches of Griess, Conway, and Tits, and
compare them with the approach adopted here.
Early in the study of the Monster it was determined that the smallest
possible dimension for a nontrivial irreducible C-module for the Monster
is 196,883. Moreover a calculation by Norton showed that such a module
would admit an algebra structure invariant under the Monster. To obtain
an identity for this algebra, we add an extra dimension.
Let C be the centralizer of an involution z in a potential Monster.
Griess determined the 196,884dimensional RC-module B which has a
chance of extending to the Monster, and the algebra structures on B
preserved by C. From these structures he picked one which can extend
to the Monster and guessed the action of an extra automorphism u of
the algebra not contained in C. This treatment is a tour de force, but
very long and complicated.
Let G = (C, u ) . To identify G as the Monster, Griess observes that G
preserves a Z[1/6] lattice in B closed under the algebra multiplication.
He then reduces modulo p for each prime p > 3 to obtain a GF(p)-
algebra B(p) and a representation ~ ( p :) G -+ G(p) 5 O(B(p)). He
proves C C?r(p) is the centralizer of z?r(p) in G(p), so G(p) satisfies
Hypothesis 31(12,Col) of the introduction. Then Griess appeals to a
theorem of S. Smith [Sm] which determines the order of a group sat-
isfying H(12, Col), to conclude g = IG(p)l is independent of p. Hence
IGl = g, so G is finite and satisfies H(12, Col).
Conway had the tremendous advantage of knowing the facts about
B that Griess generated. This knowledge led Conway to a wonderful,
inspired construction. He begins with the Parker loop L and uses L to
construct the group N and its factor group N discussed here in Sec-
tions 14 and 27. He then extends N~ = N n C to C and uses lVl to
construct an RC-module B and an algebra structure on B which is vis-
ibly preserved by C. Next he restricts this algebra to Nl, chooses an
Nl-monomial basis XI, for B, and writes down bases X2 and X3 of B
and bijections x i I+ 2 2 I+ 23 among the three bases. Conway refers to
thiis set up as a dictionary. Then he sketches a proof that the bijections
define isometries of B induced in N. Therefore N also preserves B.
Finally Conway exhibits a vector t E B whose orbit under O(B)
is finite. Hence O(B) is finite and Conway concludes by proving C =
c~(~)(z)*
Tits begins with C and the CC-module C @R B of Griess, which we
also denote by B. He writes down algebra structures on B preserved by
Exercises 171
C and proves that for certain of these algebras, CO(B)(~)= C. He then
proves O ( B ) is reductive as an algebraic group, and hence as CO(B)(~)
is finite, O(B) is finite. He does not prove C is proper in O(B).
Our argument follows that of Conway initially, in that we use L to
construct N, we use Nl to construct C and the action of C on B, and
we take Conway's definition of the algebra structure T on B.
At thiis point (in Section 28) we transfer emphasis to the trilinear form
p determined by T and the bilinear form 7, and calculate the monomials
of /3 on our standard basis. Then in Section 29 we calculate the action
of Nl on our basis and extend the Nl-module B to an N-module in
such a way that N preserves 7. Further in Section 30 we check that
N preserves 0 and hence also T . Finally in Section 31 we use Tits's
approach to prove C = CG(zl) and G = O(B,P, 7)is finite. Our theory
of large extraspecial subgroups then immediately says G is simple.
Exercises
1. Let GJ E L with 4(cg) = c E C, r = r(cg,@) E 7Z2, u = f, E A,
w = fX - v, and u E A.: Prove
+
(1) ii G E A2 if and only if u E Az(v, *2). .
(2) Ni, has two orbits on {ii E +
:ii C E A:), with representatives
u = -XI, x $ C, and u = -Ax + fd+Xl x E c n dl d E C2(c).
(3) w E A4 with coordinate frame fx+, - 2fd, d E V , d f7 c = 0, and
+(fx+c 7 2Xd1 x E c.
+
(4) ii 271 E A2 if and only if (u,w) = 0 or f32, and (u, wo) = -32
for some wo in the coordinate frame of w.
+
(5) N* is transitive on {ii E A$ : 2ij ii E A)! with representative
u = --Ax, x E c.
(6) CN+(T) has two orbits on pairs (rZ,rg) E 7Z3 x 7Z3 such that T T =
~
, T(x,Q)), x $ c, and (r(x,d),
rg, with representatives ( ~ ( x1),
~(YlGJd))14(d)E C2(c)1 {x, Y) = c n 4@).
(7) CN+(T) is transitive on pairs (r2,r3) such that ~ 2 =~rZ2, 3 with
representatives (~(x,I), r(x, cgs)), x E C.

Chapter 11
Subgroups of Groups
of Monster Type
In Chapter 10 we constructed a finite simple group G possessing an
involution z such that F*(CG(z)) = Q is extraspecial of order 21+24,
CG(z)/Q Col, Q/(z) is isomorphic to the Leech lattice modulo 2 as
a CG(z)/Q-module, and z is not weakly closed in Q with respect to G.
We say that a group G satisfying these hypotheses is of Monster type.
In this short chapter we investigate groups of Monster type. In par-
ticular we see that such a group contains simple subgroups of type Fp,
for p = 2, 3, 5, 7, and 24. See Section 32 for the definition of groups of
type Fp.
Now from Chapter 5, there are twenty-six sporadic groups. In C h a p
ter 6 we constructed the five Mathieu groups. In Chapters 8 and 9
we constructed the three Conway groups plus Suz, J2, HS, and Mc.
Hence each of these twelve sporadic groups is a section of the Monster.
Similarly the sporadic groups Fl, Fz, F3, and F5 are of type Fp, and
hence sections of the Monster. Held's group H e is of type F7 and the
largest Fischer group Fz4 = M(24)' is of type F24, so these groups are
sections of the Monster. Finally the Fischer groups M(22) = Fz2and
M(23) = F23 are sections of F24, and hence also of the Monster. This
is best seen by viewing Aut(Fz4) = M(24) as a 3-transposition group.
Thus we have existence proofs for twenty of the twenty-six sporadic
groups.
32. Subgroups of groups of Monster type 173
32. Subgroups of groups of Monster type
Define a finite group G to be of Monster type if G possesses an involu-
tion z such that Q = F*(CG(z)) E 21+24, CG(z)/Q Col, Q/(z) is
isomorphic to the Leech lattice modulo 2 as a CG(z)/Q-module, and z
is not weakly closed in Q with respect to G.
Similarly define a finite group G to be of type Fp if G possesses an
involution z such that F*(G) = Q is extraspecial, z is not weakly closed
in Q with respect to G, and
(a) p = 2, CG(z)/Q S Coal Q 21+22, and Q/(z) is isomorphic
to the subspace vL/(v) of A/(v) as a CG(z)/Q-module, where
vE x2 and CG(z)/Q Coz is the stabilizer in Col of v .
(b) p = 3, CG(z)/Q Z As, and Q 2 21+8.
(c) p = 5, CG(z)/Q S A5wrZ2, and Q 2 2'+'.
(d) p = 7, CG(z)/Q E L3(2), Q Z21+6, and IzGnQ1 = 29.
(e) p = 24, CG(z)/Q Z2/U4(3)/Z3, and & 2'+12.
Throughout this section we assume G is of Monster type. We let H =
CG(z), H = H / ( z ) , Q = F*(H), and H* = HI&. By hypothesis we
may identify Q with as a GF(2)H*-module. We adopt the notation
and terminology of Chapter 8 in discussing this module. Let B(z) = zG n
Q - (2). By hypothesis there is zg E 8(z). Let s = zg and U = Q n Q g .
Lemma 32.1: (1) H is transitive on B(z) and g(z) = x 4 .
(2) CH(s)* is the split extension of E211 by M24, dim(0) = 12, (Qgn
H)*= 02(CH*(5)) induces the group of transvections on 0 with center
(S), Q Z LIi2, and o/(S) is isomorphic to the 11-dimensional Todd
module for CH(s)*/O2(CH(s)*).
Proof: By 23.2 and 8.3.4, H has two orbits on involutions in Q-(z) with
representatives ti, i = 2,4, where fi E &. Now the stabilizer in H* of
ii is isomorphic to Co2, M 2 4 / E 2 ~for~ i = 2,4, respectively, by 23.1 and
23.2. By 25.8, Co2 is simple, so 02(CH. (i2)) = 1. Thus 8.15.8 and 8.15.7
imply that (1) holds, dim@) = 12, Oz(CH(s))* = (Qg n H)* induces
the full group of transvections on 0 with center (g), and Q Z 0i2. The
final remark in (2) follows from 23.10.5.
Lemma 32.2: (1) H is transitive on involutions in Q - zG.
(2) Let t E Q - zG be an involution. Then CG(t)/(t) is of type 8'2.
Proof: We saw during the proof of the previous lemma that (1) holds
and that CH(t) 2 Co2/(Z2 x 21+22). Further as the Monster is of
Monster type with (using 27.2 and its notation) &(s) in the role of
s and E+ in the role of U, and as ~l(+l(s)~l(cu,,)) = 2 L Y E i2with
174 Chapter 11 Subgroups of Groups of Monster Q p e
~ ) we may choose t E U. Hence 8.14 completes the
~ ) ~ ( s ) @ ~ ( Ea , E+,
proof of (2).
Lemma 32.3: Let B E Syl5(CH(s)) Then CG(B)/B is of type F5.
Proof:We appeal to 8.13 and 26.5.
Lemma 32.4: Let Z3 Y < CH(s). Then
(I) If Y is not 3-central in CH(s) then CG(Y)/Y is of type F3.
(2) I f Y is 3-centralinCH(s) thenCG(Y)/Y is of typeF24.
Proof: Use 8.13, 26.4, and 26.6.
Lemma 32.5: Let B E Sy17(CH(s)). Then
(1) CG(B)/B is of type F7.
(2) CG(B)/B E He.
(3) AutG(B) E+ Z6 and some element of order 2 inverting B induces
an outer automorphism on E(CG(B)).
Proof: Use 8.13 and 26.2 to prove (1). Further by 26.2, AutH(B) r
Z6 2 Aut(B), so AutG(B) E Z6. Also by 26.2, an involution t E H
inverting B induces an outer automorphism on CH(B)/B02(CH(B))
and hence also on CG(B).
Next by Exercise 14.5 and by 44.4, CG(B)/B % L5(2), M24, or He.
As t induces an outer automorphism on CG(B)/B and Out(M24) = 1
(cf. Exercise 7.5), the second case is out. So to prove that (3) holds, we
may assume CG(B)/B G L5(2). Next there is an element y E H of order
3 faithful on B centralizing CH(B)/B. Then as L5(2) contains no such el-
ement of order 3, y centralizes E(CG(B)), so 31 divides ICG(y)I.However,
CQ(9) = CQ(B)*[CQ(y) ,B] with CQ(B) 2 21+6 and [CQ(y),B] 2 21+6k
as [CQ(y),B] is extraspecial (or. (2)) by Exercise 2.2, and as each faith-
ful irreducible GF(2)B-module is of dimension 3. Therefore by 32.4,
CG(y)/(y) is of type F24, and hence has order prime to 31.
Remarks. The general structure of the local subgroups of the Mon-
ster considered in this chapter was first studied in 1973 by the group at
Cambridge, particularly Conway, Harada, Norton, and Thompson, and
independently by Griess; see the discussion in Chapter 5. While I don't
know the specific approach used by the Cambridge mathematicians or
Griess (as most of that work remains unpublished), it must have been
local group theoretic as no other techniques existed which could make a
dent in the problem. Of course our analysis depends upon the theory of
large extraspecial subgroups. That theory had not been systematically
developed in 1973.
PART I11
Chapter 12
Coverings of Graphs and
Simplicia1 Complexes
A covering of a graph or simplicial complex K is a surjective morphism
d : k + K that is a local isomorphism. A precise definition appears
in Section 35. The graph or complex is simply connected if it admits
no proper connected coverings. In this chapter we establiish basic re-
sults on coverings including criteria for deciding when a graph is simply
connected. Then in Chapter 13 we generate machinery for reducing the
question of the uniqueness of a group G, subject to suitable hypothe-
ses, to the question of whether certain graphs associated t o the group
are simply connected. This machinery is the basis for our uniqueness
treatment of the sporadic groups.
In Section 33 we consider certain equivalence relations on the set P
of all paths in a graph A. We find in Section 35 that these invariant
relations correspond to certain fiberings of the graph A; that is, surjec-
tive locally bijective morphisms onto A. Among these fiberings are the
coverings of A and of the simplicial complexes K with A as the graph
or 1-skeleton of K. We also find in Section 35 that each covering cor-
responds to a local system on the graph or complex. This discussion is
broader than is strictly necessary for our purposes, but it has the advan-
tage of putting the concepts in a larger context which hopefully makes
them easier to understand. Further the expanded discussion is useful
in the study of various simplicial complexes associated to finite groups,
such as the Brown and Quillen complexes.
176 Chapter 12 Coverings of Graphs and Simplicia1 Complexes 33. The fundamental gmupoid
Finally in Section 34, we investigate criteria for proving that a graph (Cl) rr-l E S for all r E P.
or complex is simply connected. For example, in Section 35 we see that (C2) If p E S then p-l E S.
the graph is simply connected if and only if each cycle is a product in (C3) If p, q E S and org(p) = org(q), then pq E S.
the fundamental groupoid of conjugates of triangles. We term a graph (C4) If p E S then r-Ipr E S for each r E P with org(r) = end(p).
with this property to be triangulable. In Section 35 we record various (C5) If p is a cycle and r E P with org(p) = end(r) and r-lrp E S,
results useful for proving that a graph is triangulable. then p E S.
(C6) xx E S for all x E A.
33. The fundamental groupoid
Lemma 33.2: A set S of cycles of A is closed if and only if NS is a
In this section A is a graph. We direct the reader to Section 3 for our P-invariant equivalence relation on P.
notational conventions and terminology for graphs. In addition let P =
P(A) be the set of paths in A. For each p = xo..-xr E P we write Proof:Write for NS. Observe that N is reflexive if and only if (Cl)
N

org(p), end(p) for the origin xo and end xr of p, respectively. Write holds and is symmetric if and only if (C2) holds.
N

p - q or simply pq for the concatenation of paths p and q such that Assume S is closed. We must show N is transitive and satisfies (PI1)-
end(p) = org(q). Thus if q = yo y, with yo = x, then pq is the path (PI4). Notice (PI1) is satisfied by definition of while (Cl) implies (PI2)
N

+ <
pq = zo . - - z , + ~of length r s such that zi = xi for 0 i 5 r and and (C6) implies (PI4). Also
Zi = yi-,. for T 5 i 5 T 3.
Write for the path x, . .xo. A path p = x0 - .- x, is a cycle or (i) If a, b E P with ab E S then ba E S.
circuit if xr = 20. For as ab E S , a-laba E S by (C4), and then by (C5), ba E S. Next
Define an equivalence relation N on P to be P-invariant if the follow-
ing four conditions are satisfied: (ii) I f a , b , c ~ P w i t h a b E S a n d c ~ S t h e n a c b € S .

(PI2) rr-l -
(PI1) If p N q then org(p) = org(q) and end(p) = end(q).
org(r) for all r E P.
(PI3) Whenever p N pt and q qt with end(p) = org(q), then also
N
Namely by (i), ba E S, so by (C3), bac E S, and then acb f S by another
application of (i). Similarly

Pq ~'9'. (iii) If a, b,r E P with arr-lb E S then ab E S.

(PI4) x xx for all x E A.
-
N
For by (i), rr-lba E S , so by (C5), ba E S, and then ab E S by (i).
Define the kernel of an equivalence relation N on P to be the set Now if p pl and q q1 then ppll,
N q q l l E S, and then if end(p) =
ker(-) of all cycles s such that s org(s). Given a set S of cycles of -1 -1
org(q), (pq)(plqi)-l = pqq1 pl E S by (ii), so pq plql. That is,
A, define a relationN~ on P by p -s q if p and q have the same origin (PI3) holds.
and end and pq-l E S.
Lemma 33.1: Let
Nker(w).
N be a P-invariant equivalence relation. Then - =
Finally if p q T then pq-l,qr-l E S, so by (C3), pq-lqr-l € S
N N

and hence pr-l E S by (iii). That is, p N r , so is transitive and

we have completed the proof that if S is closed then is an invariant
N

equivalence relation.
Proof:Let p, q E P , org(p) = x, and S = ker(-). If p q then x =
N
Conversely assume is an invariant equivalence relation. We have
N

org(q) and end(p) = end(q), so pq-l is defined and pq-I qq-l N x.

-
N
seen that (Cl) and (C2) hold. Let p, q E P with end@) = org(q) = X.
Thus pq-l E S and hence p NS q.

end(q). Now p = p end(p) pq-lq x . q = q.

N -
Conversely suppose p -S q. Then pq-l E S, x = org(q), and end(p) =
Then if p, q E S,we have p x q, so by (PI3), pq x.x = x, and hence
N

pq E S. That is, (C3) holds. Also wheng E S then q-lpq -

q-l.x-q x,
so (C4) holds. Notice (PI4) implies (C6), so it remains to establish (C5).
Define a subset S of P to be closed if S is a set of cycles satisfying But if q-lqp E S then x q-lqp N p by (PI2) and (PI3), so p E S,
N

the following six properties: completing the proof.

178 Chapter 12 Coverings of Graphs and Simplicia1 Complexes
The closure ( T ) of a set T of cycles is the intersection of all closed
subsets containing T. It is easy to check that the intersection of closed
sets is closed using the axioms (C1)-(C6). Thus
Lemma 33.3: The closure ( T ) of any set T of cycles is a closed set.
Define the basic relation to be the relation - B ~ ~where
, B a s is the
smallest closed subset of P. Write = for - B ~ ~Thus
. = is the P-invariant
equivalence relation generated by the paths of length 0. Notice
Lemma 33.4: = is characterized by the property that if
anda-b thena-b.
- is P-invariant
Given a set S of cycles of A and p = xo .- - xr E P , write Is(p) for the
paths obtained by replacing xi with s or s-I for some i and s E S with
origin xi. Write DS(p) for the paths obtained by replacing a subpath t
of p such that t or t-' is in S by org(t).
Let Basl denote the set of all paths x x and x y x with x E A and
y E A ( x ) . For p = 2 0 . X , let I ( p ) = I B ~@)~ and
, D(p) = DBasl ( p ) .
The processes I and D are called insertion and deletion, respectively.
Notice D ( p ) is empty if and only if p has no subpaths in Basl. For
0 5 li, ki E Z , define -..
~ ' l lkn ~ ' n ( precursively
) in the obvious
manner.
Regard P as a graph by decreeing that p is adjacent to q if q E I ( p ) U
D(p). Write b]for the connected component of p in P. The following
observation gives a characterization of the basic relation.
Lemma 33.5: p = q if and only i f ; f ] = [q].
-
Proof: Let be the relation p ,., q if and only if M = [q]. Then is -
an equivalence relation satisfying ( P I l ) , (PI2), and (PI4). If p q there
N
.
exists a path p = po,.. ,pn = q in P. Then for a, b E P with end(a) =
org(p) and org(b) = end(p), we see that ap = a p ~. ,.. ,apn = aq and
-
pb = pob,. .. ,pnb = qb are paths in P , so is P-invariant.
To complete the proof we prove that if p q then p zz q, and appeal to
33.4. Proceeding by induction on the distance of p from q in PIit suffices
to show that if q E I ( p ) u D(p) then p = q. So as r is P-invariant it
suffices to show x v x r x for all x , v E A with v E A(x), which follo-nrs
from (C4).
Write @(A)for the set of equivalence classes [p] of the basic relation F.
Given a set S of cycles of A, defineI S ( ; f ] )to consist of the classes [a]such
that a E Is(b) and b E [p]. Define Ds([p]) analogously. Let Ps be the
33. T h e fundamental groupoid 179
graph on @(A)with [p] adjacent to [q]if and only if [q]E IS([p])uDS(b]).
Write bIS for the connected component of b] in PS. For p E (S),define
the S-degree degs(p) to be the distance from b]to [erg@)] in PS.
Arguing as in the proof of 33.5 we obtain:
Lemma 33.6: Let S be a set of cycles of A. Then p -(s) q if and only
if Ms = [qls.
Lemma 33.7: Let S be a set of cycles and p E ( S ) . Then
.
(1) If degS(p) = 0 then p r org@)
(2) If degs(p) = 1 then p E r-ltr for some t E S U S-l and T E P.
(3) If degS(p) > 1 then p = cd for some c, d E (S) with degS(c) <
degs(p) > degs(d).
Proof:Part ( 1 ) is trivial, so assume n = degs(p) > 0.Then there exists
q E (S)of degree n-1 such that either q = ab and p = asb or q = asb and
p zz ab for some s E SUS-I. In the first casep r asb abb-Isb = qb-lsb
and in the second p qb-ls-lb. But degS(b-lsb) = 1 and if n = 1then
q = org(q), so the lemma holds.
Define an inve~sionon a category C to be a contravariant functor
I n v : C + C such that I n v ( x ) = x for each object x in C and ~ n =vid. ~
Thus for each morphism f : x + y, I n v ( f ) : y -+ x and ~ n v ~ (=f f ).
Define a pregroupoid to be a category C together with an inversion
I n v on C . The composition map on C will be termed the pregroupoid
product. A morphism of pregroupoids a! : ( C ,I n v ) -+ (C', Inv') is a
covariant functor a! : C -+ C' preserving inversion; that is, a ! ( I n v ( f ) )=
I n v f ( a ( f ) ) for each morphism f in C. The kernel of the morphism a!
consists of those morphiims f : x -+x such that a!(f) = idz for some
object x .
A groupoid is a category in which each morphism is an isomorphism.
Notice a groupoid is a pregroupoid with the natural inversion map Inv :
f H f-l. A morphisrn of g~oupoidsis just a covariant functor a : C -+
C',since each such functor preserves the natural inversion.
We can make P into a category as follows. The objects of the category
P are the vertices of A, the morphisms from a vertex x to a vertex y are
the paths from x to y, and the composition of suitable paths p and q is
the product p .q. Further we have an inversion I n v : p 4 p-l on P, so
P is a pregroupoid.
Similarly given any invariant relation on P, write 13 for the equiva-
N
lence class of p E P under and write for the set of equivalence classes
N
of -. Given 3 E define m g @ ) = org(p) and end@) = end@). This is
180 Chapter 12 Coverings of Graphs and Simplicial Complexes
well defined by (PI1). Further if p', 4 E with end(@)= org(6) define fi-4
- -
to be the equivalence class of p .q. This is well defined by (PI3). Define
to be the equivalence class of p-l. If p q then pq-l E k e r ( ~ so
by (C4) and (C5), q-lp E k e r ( ~ and ) hence q-l p-l. Thus
)
is
well defined. Finally observe p is a groupoid. Namely the objects of
are again the vertices of A, the morphisms from x to x are the equiva-
lence classes fi, for p a path from x to y, and composition is the product
in p. Each morphism in p is an isomorphism by (P12). Thus we have
essentially shown:
Lemma 33.8: Let Nbe an invariant equivalence relation on A and
P = P(A). Then
(1) P is a pregmupoid.
(2) is a groupoid; in particular @(A) is a groupoid called the fun-
damental gmupoid.
(3) The map p ++fi of P onto is a surjective morphism of pre-
groupoids which is the identity on the set A of objects and with
kernel ker (w) .
(4) The map [p] -t @ of @(A) onto @ is a surjective morphism of
groupoids which is the identity on the set A of objects.
(5) If C is a groupoid with object set A and a : P -r C is a morphism
of pregroupoids with kernel S which is the identity on A, then S
is a closed subset of P and p NS q if and only if a @ ) = a(q).
Given an invariant relation N on A and x E A, denote by ji(A,x) the
subgroupoid of consisting of all fi such that p is a cycle with origin
x. Observe that ii(A,x) is a group under the groupoid product. Write
rl(A, x) for iil(A,x) when is the basic relation =. Then rl(A, x) is
the fundamental group of the graph A at x.
The last three lemmas in this section are not used elsewhere in Spo-
mdic Groups, so they can be skipped if the reader chooses. However,
they give a solution to the word problem in the fundamental groupoid,
and hence seem worth including.
Lemma 33.9: If p EP with D(p) # 0 then D(I(p)) = I(D(p)).
Proof: Let p = xo ...xr and for s E Basl with xi = org(s), write
D(p, i, s) for the path obtained by replacing the subpath s of p beginning
at X i by xi, and write I(p, i, s) for the path obtained by replacing xi by
s. Observe that if s, s' E Basl with org(s) = xi and org(sl) = xt, then
+
(a) D(I(p, i, s), t, sl) = I(D(p, t, s'), i - l(sl), s) for t l(sl) < i.
+
(b) D(I(p, i, v ) , t l(s), s') = I(D@, t, s'), i, s) for t 2 i.
33. The fundamental groupoid 181
F'urther if d = D(p, t, s') and q = I(d, j,s), then either j 5 t and by
+
(b), q = D(I(p, j, s), t E(s), s') E D(I(p)), or j > t, in which case the
+ +
jth entry d j of d is xi, where i = j l(8') 2 t l(sl), and thus by (a),
q = D(l(p,i, s), t ,s') E D(I(p)). So in any event, I(D(p)) C_ D(I(p)), so
to complete the proof we must show D(I(p)) E I(D(p)).
Let q = I(p,i,s) and suppose d = D(q, j,sl) E D(q). If j 5 i -
1(s1) then by (a), d = I(D(p,j, s'), i - l(sl), s) E I(D(p)). Similarly if
+
j 2 i Z(s) then qj = xi, where t = j - l(s) 2 i, so by (b), d =
I(D(p,t,sl),i,s) E I(D(p)). Thus we may assume i-l(sl) < j < if l(s).
+ +
Observe first that if j 5 i and i l(s) 5 j 1(s1) then s is a subpath
of s'. So as s and s' are of the form xx or xyx, we conclude s = st and
then that d = p E I(D(p)). So we may assume this is not the case.
Next s, s' have length 1 or 2. Suppose first l(s) = 1. Then s = xx and
asj<i+l(s)=i+l,j<i.Similarlyi-l(s')<j,soi+l(s)=i+l~
+
j 1(s1), contrary to our reduction of the previous paragraph.
So l(s) = 2 and s = xyx. Then j < + +
i 1 and i l(s) = i 2 5 +
j+l(si)+l, and by our reduction, one of these inequalities is an equality.
In either case 1(s1) = 2 and d = p E I(D(p)), completing the proof.
Define the basic degree bas(p) of p E ker(=) to be the distance of p
from org(p) in the graph P.
Lemma 33.10: For p E Bas, p E I~~S(P)(~~~(~)).
Proof: Let x = org(p). The proof is by induction on n = bas(p). If
n = 0, then p = x and the lemma is clear, so take n > 0. Then the
set & of paths q E Bas with bas(q) = n - 1 and p E D(q) U I(q) is
nonempty. Let q E Q. By induction on n, q E Pel(%). Thus if p E I(q),
then p E P ( q ) , so we may assume
(*) If q E Q then P 4 I(q) SO P E D(q).
Then D(q) # 0,so q # x and n > 1. If n = 2 then q E Bas1 so as
p E D(q), p = x, contradicting n = 2. Hence n > 2.
) as n > 2, D(r) # 0.Then
Now q E I(r) for some r E I ~ - ~ ( xand
p E D(q) C D(I(r)) = I(D(r)) by 33.9. Thus p E I(s) for some s E D(r)
< +
and bas(s) bas(r) 1 = n - 1. That is, s E Q, contradicting (*).
Lemma 33.11: For p = xo . - xr E Bas,
Proof: This follows from 33.10 by induction on bas(p).
184 Chapter 12 Coverings of Graphs and Simplicial Complexes 35. Coverings of gmphs and simplicia1 complexes 185

an %-l-~ath X I = YO,- - .,Yk = X 3 in A(xo,xz).As Yi+l E Rm-l(yi), simplices of K such that each subset of a simplex is a simplex. The
Pi = X O ~ ~ X ~ E Y S~ =+C3(A)
~ X Oby induction on m. Thus as p is in the morphisms of simplicial complexes are the simplicial maps; that is, a
closure of the paths pi, 0 < i < k (cf. 34.3), also p E S. simplicial map f : K 4 Kt is a map f : X --r X' of vertices such that
f ( s )is a simplex of Kt for each simplex s of K .
.
Lemma 34.8: Let p = xo -. x5 be a pentagon in A such that xi: nx i n
xk # 0. Then p E C4 ( A ) . Example The clique complex K ( A ) of our graph A is the simplicial
Proof: Let x E x& n x f n xk. Then p is in the closure of the triangle complex whose vertices are the vertices of A and whose simplices are
~ ~ 2 and
x the
3 ~squares X O X ~ X ~ Xand
X ~X O X X ~ X ~ X O . the finite cliques of A. Recall a clique of A is a set Y of vertices such
that y E x L for each x, y E Y . Conversely if K is a simplicial complex
Lemma 34.9: Let p = xo - - xs be a hexagon in A with x i nxk n x i #
then the graph of K is the graph A ( K ) whose vertices are the vertices
0. Thenp E Cq(A).
of K and with x * y if ( x ,y) is a simplex of K. Observe that K is a
Proof:Let x E x& n x i n s f . Then p is in the closure of the squares subcomplex of K ( A ( K ) ) . \

XXiXi+lXi+2X, i = 0,2,4.
- -
Lemma 34.10: Let = --s, where S = C4(A).Let 3 denote the set of
paths p of A of length 4 such that p q for some path q of length 3. Let
Given a simplicial complex K and a simplex s of K , define the star of s
to be the subcomplex stK(s)consisting of the simplices t of K such that
+
p = xo . x, E P be such that p q for any q E P of length less than
s U t is a simplex of K . Define the link LinkK(s)to be the subcomplex
of stK(s) consisting of the simplices t of stK(s)such that t n s = 0.
n. Then
The dimension of a simplex s is Is1 - 1 and the dimension dim(K)
(1) xi+2 E A ~ ( xfor <
~ )each i n - 2. of K is the maximum of the dimensions of the simplices of K if those
(2) If n 2 4 then d(A(xo,xz), A(x2,x4)) > 1. dimensions are bounded, with dim(K) = oo otherwise. An n-simplex is
(3) p contains no subpath in F.
-
(4) If x E A(xo,2 2 ) then p ~ 0 2 x 2..xn.
Proof: If (1) fails then p q, where q is the path obtained by deleting
N
an n-dimensional simplex.
Define a morphism d : A + A of graphs to be a local bijection if for
all a E ,'I
xi+l from p, contrary to the choice of p. Thus ( 1 ) is established. If
x1 # x E A(xo,x2)then x o x ~ x ~ x xEoS, so X O X X ~ ~0x122and hence
N

(4) holds. is a bijection. Define d to be a fibering if d is a surjective local bijection.

If p contains a subpath in 3 then without loss of generality it is
q = X O - . - X ~ .Thus t h e r e i s r = yo...y3 w q . N o w p = q.x4...xn
N a covering if d , : a L -+ d ( a ) l is an isomorphism for dl a E I?. We
r xq .- .xn which is of length less than n , contrary to the choice of p.
So (3) holds.
Finally assume n 1 4, x E A(xo,xz), y E A(x2,x4), and y E xL. By
(4) we may take x = X I and y = 23. But then (1) supplies a contradic-
tion.
35. Coverings of graphs and
simplicial complexes
We continue the hypotheses and notation of Section 33, In particular A
is a graph and P = P(A) is the set of paths of A.
Recall that a simplicial complex K consists of a set X of vertices
together with a distinguished set of nonempty subsets of X called the
The fibering is connected if its domain f is connected. The fibering is
say A is simply connected if A is connected and A possesses no proper
connected coverings.
Similarly define a simplicial map q5 : L --+ D of simplicial complexes
to be a covering if q5 is surjective on vertices and a local isomorphism;
that is, for each vertex x of L, the map dz : stL(x) --r stD(d(x))is an
isomorphism.
Recall that the n-skeleton Ln of a simplicial complex L is the subcom-
plex consisting of all simplices of dimension at most n. Notice that the
1-skeleton LI of L and its graph A ( L ) are essentially the same, modulo
the identification of the edges of A ( L ) with the 1-simplices of L.
Lemma 35.1: (1) If 4 : L -, D is a simpEcial map then the induced
map : A ( L ) -t A(D) of vertices is a morphism of graphs.
#J
186 Chapter 12 Coverings of Graphs and Simplicia1 Complexes
(2) If d : A -t A is a morphism of graphs then the induced map
d : K ( A ) -+ K ( A ) of vertices is a morphism of simplicial complexes.
Lemma 35.2: If q5 : L -+ K is a covering of simplicial complexes then
(1) q5 is surjective on simplices.
(2) For each simplex s of L, q5 : stL(s) -+ stD(q5(s))is an isomor-
phism.
Lemma 35.3: Let d : A -+ A be a morphisrn of graphs. Then
~, K ( A ) ~
(1) d is a fibering if and only i f d : K ( A ) - is a covering
of simplicial complexes.
(2) d is a covering of graphs if and only i f d : K(A) -+ K ( A ) is a
covering of simplicial complexes.
Given a P-invariant equivalence relation N, recall from Section 33 that
P/N = P is the set of equivalence classes $ of N . Each member of 15 has
the same origin and end, so we set end($) = end@). Thus we have a
map
end : P -,A.
Make P into a graph by decreeing that @ is adjacent to 4 if p q-(yx),
where y = end(q) and x = end(p) E A(y). Notice that if p N q (xy)
then q p . (yx),SO our graph is undirected.
N
Denote by C ( A , x ) the set of paths with origin x. Write %(A,x)=
C(A,X ) / N for the set of classes 3 with p E C ( A ,x). Recall that % ( Ax, )
denotes the group of 13 E 2 ( ~ x ) ,with p a cycle and n l ( A ,x ) = % ( Ax, )
for as the basic relation r;n l ( A , x ) is the fundamental group of the
N
graph A.
If D is a simplicial complex with graph A and an invariant rela-
tion, define D to be the subcomplex of K(P) with simplices s such that
end(s) is a simplex of D. Let %(Dlx ) be the corresponding subcomplex
of %(A,x ) and %(Dlx ) the correspondinggroup. Let nl (D,x ) = f (D,x ),
where N = N S for S the closure of the set of all 2-simplices of D. Then
nl(D,x ) is the findamental group of D.
Lemma 35.4: Assume A is connected and N is a P-invariant equiva-
lence- relation on P. Then
(1) The connected components off' are the sets ~ ( A , x )x ,E A.
(2) The map end : $ H end(p) is a fibering of A and induces a
connected fibering of g ( ~x ), onto A.
(3) The fibering end is a covering if and only if k e r ( ~contains
) all
triangles of A.
35. Coverings of graphs and simplicial complexes 187
(4) Let D be a simplicial complex with graph A. Then end : D -t
D is a covering of simplicial complexes if and only if ker(-)
contains all &simplices of D.
(5) The fibering end : g ( ~x), -, A is an isomorphism i f and only
i f ker(-) is the set of all cycles in A.
(6) a! : f l ( A , x ) -t A U ~ ( ~ ( A , X ) ) is- a faithful wpresentation of
f l ( A , x ) such that iil(A,x ) acts regularly on each fiber of the
fibering of end : ~ ( A , X ) -, A , where for 4 E %l(A,x),a(J):
$ H 8-1 .$.
Proof: The proofs of parts (I), (2), and (6) are straightforward. Our
fibering end is a covering if and only if whenever { x ,y, z ) is a triangle
in A and p E P with end(p) = x, then the equivalence classes of p,
p . (xy),and p. ( x z )form a triangle in p. i3ut the latter holds if and only
N . . . .
if p . ( x z ) p (xy) (yz) if and only if p (xzyx) p-l E S = k e r ( ~ )
if and only if each triangle xyzx is in S. That is, (3) holds. Similarly
by definition, end : fi -, D is simplicial, while the map is a covering if
and only if for each simplex s = { x ,y, z ) of D, the unique preimage of
s under end containing j3 is a simplex of D if and only if xyzx is in S,
so (4) holds.
As end : ~ ( A , x-+) A is a morphiim of graphs surjective on vertices
and edges, end is an isomorphism if and only if end is an injection. Now if
end is injective and p is a cycle with origin x then end@) = end(Z) = x,
so p x E S, and hence S contains all cycles. Conversely if S contains
N
all cycles and end@) = end(@ then pq-l is a cycle so pq-l E S and
hence p q. Thus (5) holds.
N
Define a local system on the graph A to be an assignment F : x I+
F(x), ( x ,y ) H Fxa,of each x E A to a set F ( x ) and each edge ( x ,y) to
a bijection Fzy : F(x) -,F(y),such that
(LS1) FVz o Fzy = idF(x) for each edge ( x ,y) of A.
Example 35.5 If d : A -, A is a fibering we obtain a local system F~
on A defined by Fd ( x )= d-I ( 2 )and F&, ( a )= d ~ ' ( ~ ) .
Recall from 33.8 that P is a pregroupoid; that is, P is a category
possessing the inversion Inv :p H p-l. Given a local system F on A, we
can extend F to a pregroupoid homomorphiim from the pregroupoid P
.
to the groupoid of sets and bijections. Namely if p = xo - . xn P ( A ) is
a path, define Fp : F(org(p))-,F(end(p))recursively by F,, = idF(,,)
. ..
and Fp = Fx,-lx, o Fq, where q = xo %,,-I. We say paths p and q are
F-homotopic if Fp = Fq and write p N F q.
188 Chapter 12 Coverings of Graphs and Simplicia1 Complexes
L e m m a 35.6: (1) If p,q are paths with end(p) = org(q) then Fpq =
Fq o F,.
(2) FP O Fp-' = idF(org(p))-
(3) F-homotopy is a P(A)-invariant equivalence relation.
(4) F is a pregroupoid homomorphism from the path pregmupoid P ( A )
of A to the groupoid of sets and bijections.
Proof: Part (1) is immediate from the definitions while (2) follows from
(LS1). Then (1) and (2) imply (4),while (4) and 33.8.5 imply (3).
Let D be a simplicial complex with graph A. A local system on D is
a local system on A such that:
(LS2) FxZ = FyZ0 Fxy for each 2-simplex ( x ,y, z ) of D.
Example 35.7 If d : L + D is a covering of simplicial complexes
then by 35.3.1, d induces a fibering d : A 4 A of the graphs of L , D
and hence a local system F~ on A by Example 35.5. Then Fd is a local
system on D.
We can view D as a category whose objects are the simplices of D
and morphisms are inclusions of simplices.
Lemma 35.8: If F is a local system on D then F induces a functor F
from D to sets via F ( s ) = F(x,) for some xs E s and Fs,t = Fp for
some path p from xs to xt in t.
Notice the definition in 35.8 is independent of p as t is simply con-
nected.
Lemmas 35.6.4 and 35.8 show that a local system on A or D is a local
system in the sense of Section 7 of [Q].
Given a local system F on A, define AF to be the disjoint union of
the sets F ( x ) , x E A, and define dF : AF -+ A to be the map with
d i l ( x ) = F ( x ) for each x E A. Make AF into a graph by decreeing
that u is adjacent to v if there is an edge ( x ,y) of A with u E F ( x ) and
Fxar(u)= v. Notice (LS1) says this relation is symmetric, so AF is an
undirected graph.
Similarly if F is a local system on D let DF be the subcomplex of
K ( A F ) with simplices s such that d F ( s )is a simplex of D.
Lemma 35.9: Let F be a local system on D. Then
(1) dF : DF -+ D is a covering of D.
(2) F = F ~ Fis the local system of dp.
(3) If q5 : L -+ D is a covering then DF* = L and q5 = dF+.
35. Coverings of graphs and simplicial complexes 189
Proof: Let d = d F , x E A, and u E F ( x ) . Then u1 = {Fxy(u): y E x L )
and the map Fxy(u)I+ y is the restriction d, of d to uL. In particular
d, : u1 4 x L is a bijection so d is a fibering. Further if t = { x ,y, z ) is
a Zsimplex in D, then FXz(u)= Fyz(Fxy( u ) ) = Fxyz(u),so Fxe(u) is
adjacent t o F,,,(u) in AF and hence d;l(xyzx) is a triangle in AF. So
d;l(t) is a 2-simplex of DF and (1) holds. Parts (2) and (3) follow from
the definitions.
Lemma 35.10: The map F H dF is a bijection of local systems on D
with coverings of D. The inverse of this bijection is d I+ F ~ .
Proof: This follows from 35.9. Indeed by Exercise 12.4, this bijection
induces an equivalence of categories.
L e m m a 35.11: Let d : L -,D be a connected covering of complexes, A
the graph of D, F = F ~ and , N the relation on P = P ( A ) defined by
p q i f Fp = Fq. Then
N
(1) is a P-invariant relation such that u uvwu for each 2-
N
simplex {u,v , w) of D.
(2) For a a vertex of L and x = d ( a ) , the map
defined by +(@)= Fp(a) is a covering with d o .II, = end.
(3) For p E P with org(p) = x , there exists a unique path q in L
with org(q) = a and d(q) = p. Further Fp(a)= end(q).
For p a cycle of A, p E ker(--) if and only i f Fp = id.
(4)
Proof: The first statement of (1) is just 35.6.3, while (LS2) implies the
second.
By definition of --,$ is well defined with d o $ = end, and as L is
connected, Il, is a surjection. By (1) and 35.4.4, end : % ( D , x )+ D is a
covering. Thus d and end are local isomorphisms of simplicia1 complexes
+
so locally = d-l o end is an isomorphism, and hence II,is a covering.
Thus (2) holds. Part (3) follows by induction on the length of p. In
( 4 ) ,Fp = Fz if and only if p x if and only if p E k e r ( ~by
N ) definition
of N. SO as Fx = id, (4) holds.
Lemma 35.12: Let S be the closure of the tsimplzces of the con-
nected simplicial complex D, = --s, and x a vertex of S. Then end :
E(D, x ) -+ D is the universal covering of D.
Proof: By 35.4.4, e = end : %(D,x ) -+ D is a connected covering.
Conversely suppose d : L --, D is a connected covering, and let be --
 190 Chapter 12 Coverings of Graphs and Simplicia1 Complexes
the relation induced by d as in 35.11, 11, : C(D,x)/= -t L the map of
35.11, and f = end : C ( D , x ) -+ D. Then by 35.7, Fd is a local system,
so (LS2) implies F: = id for each triangle p determined by a Zsimplex
c
of D. Thus S k e r ( z ) by 35.11.4. Hence g : ~ ( D , x--+) C ( D , x ) / z is a
covering, where g(p) is the =-equivalence class of p, and f o g = e. Then
by 35.11, h = $ o g is acovering with d o h = e.
Lemma 35.13: For a connected simplicia1 complex D, the following are
equivalent:
(1) D possesses no nontrivial connected coverings,
(2) P ( A ) is generated by the &-simplicesof D.
(3) Fp = id for each local system F on D and each cycb p of A.
(4) ?rl(D,x)= 1 f o r x a vertex of D.
Proof: Parts (1) and (2) are equivalent by 35.12. Finally (3) and (4) are
equivalent by 35.11.4.
Lemma 35.14: A is simply connected i f and only if A is triangulable.
ProoE This is a restatement of the equivalence of parts (1) and (2) of
35.13 when D = K ( A ) .
Lemma 35.15: Let d : I? -t A be a fibering of graphs with A connected
and the invariant relation induced by d as in 35.1 1. Then
N
(1) d is a covering if and only if k e r ( ~ contains
) all triangles of A.
(2) d is an isomorphism if and only i f ker(.v) contains all cycles
of A.
Proof: By 35.11 we have a fibering II,: ~ ( A , X ) --+ L with d o 11, = end.
Thus for each a E A, d z l = II,o endzl. Therefore if end is a covering
then endzl is a morphism so d z 1 is the composition of morphiims and
hence a morphiim. That is, d is a covering. But by 35.4.3, if k e r ( ~ )
contains all triangles then end is a covering, so d is a covering.
Conversely if d is a covering then F$ = id for each triangle p of A,
so k e r ( ~contains
) all triangles by 35.11.4. Thus (1) holds. The proof of
(2) is similar, using 35.4.5 in place of 35.4.3.
Lemma 35.16: Assume d : I' -+ A is a jibering of gmphs such that A
-
-
-is connected and (ri: i E I ) and (Ai :i E I ) are families of gmphs such
that for all i E I , ri C I?, Ai A, d ( r i ) = A i , the inclusions I'i --+F ,
Ai -t A are morphisms, and d : ri -+ Ai is an isomorphism. Assume
&&her that X : G -+ Aut(I') and Y : G -+ A u t ( A ) are representations
of a group G such that for all a E I' and g E G, d(a(gX)j = d(&)(gY)
and ker(Y) is transitive on the fibers of d. Then
35. Coverings of graphs and simplicia1 complexes 191
(1) If p is a cycle G-conjugate to a path of Ai then F: = id.
(2) If each triangle of A is G-conjugate to a triangle of A. then d
is a covering.
(3) If I' is connected and the closure of the set of G-conjugates of
cycles of Ai, i E I , is the set of cycles of A then d is an isomor-
phism.
Proof: Let F = Fd. Given an edge ( x ,y) of A, a E d-l(x), and P =
Fx,y(a),we have d(ag) = d ( a ( g X ) )= d ( a ) ( g Y )= xg and d(Pg) = ~ g ,
so F,,,,(ag) = pg. That is, FXglyg(ag)= F,,,(a)g. Proceeding by
induction on the length of a path p with origin x and using 35.6.1, we
conclude Fpg(ag)= Fp(a)g.
Next if Fp(a) = a and @ E d P 1 ( x )then by transitivity of k e r ( Y ) on
dA1(x),there is g E ker(Y) with P = ag. Then Fp(P) = Fpg(ag) =
Fp(a)g = ag = f l , so Fp = id.
Let p be a closed path with origin x which is G-conjugate t o a path
of Ai for some i E I. We claim Fp = id, so by the previous paragraph
it remains to show Fp(a) = a for some a E d-l(x). By hypothesis pg is
a path in Ai for some g E G. Then if Fpg(6)= 6 for some 6 E d-'(xg)
then 6 = Fpg(6)= ~ ~ ( 6 ~SO -Fp(a) , a = bg-l.
~ ) =~a for
Hence we may take p to be a path in Ai. But for each path q = xg xr - ..
in Ail since the restriction e of d to ri is an isomorphism of ri with Ail
e-l(q) = e-l(xo). .e-l(x,) is a path in ri with Fp(e-l(zO))= e-l(xr)
so in particular if q is a cycle then so is e-l(q), and therefore Fq = id.
Therefore Fp = id, completing the proof of the claim. Therefore (1) is
established.
Next by 35.11 the relation p q if and only if Fp = Fq is an invariant
relation and by ( I ) , k e r ( ~contains
) all cycles G-conjugate t o a member
of hi. Thus under the hypothesis of (3), k e r ( ~ contains
) all cycles of
A and hence d is an isomorphism by 35.15.2. Similarly (1) and 35.15.1
imply (2).
Remarks. The fundamental groupoid of a simplicial complex K is a
standard construction in combinatorial topology; for example, the edge
path groupoid of Chapter 3, Section 6 of [Sp] is essentially the fund*
mental groupoid. Similarly the fundamental group of K is essentially
the edge path group of K as defined in [Sp]. Of course the fundamental
group of K is isomorphic t o the fundamental group of the topological
space of K; compare Theorem 3.6.16 in [Sp].
- -
Our notion of a covering of a graph or simplicia1 complex is suggested
by the standard notion of a covering of topological spaces or by Tits's
192 Chapter 12 Coverings of Gmphs and Simplicia1 Complexes Exercises 193
i

definition of a covering of geometries in [TI]. The reader is cautioned, 5. Given a local system F on D let limXEA(F(X))be the disjoint union
however, that in the combinatorial group theoretic literature, the term of the F(x) modulo the equivalence relation ct generated by the iden-
"graph covering" is sometimes used as we use the term "fibering." The
concept of a covering of a graph or simplicial complex was introduced
I tifications FZy: F ( x ) -+ F(y), (x, y) an edge of A. Prove
(1) For u, v E U x E A ( F ( ~ )u) ,N v in limXeA(F(x))if and only if there
in [ASl] and [AS3], and our treatment of these topics comes from those
references.
!
!
exists a path p from x = dF(u) to y = dF(v) with Fp(u) = v.
(2) If D is simply connected then the map u I-+ ii is an isomorphism
i of F(x) with limXEA(F(x)).

Exercises
1. Let d : L --i K be a universal covering of connected simplicial com-
plexes, let x E L be a vertex, and let Aut(L, d) be the subgroup of
Aut(L) permuting the fibers of d. Prove
(1) The map $ :Aut(L, d) -+ Aut(K) defined by +(g) : d(x) +-+ d(xg)
for x e L and g E Aut(L, d) is a surjective group homomorphism
with kernel sl(L, x) .
(2) If s is a simplex of L then the map : Aut(L, d)t -, A U ~ ( K ) ~ ( ~ )
$J

is an isomorphism for each t C s.

2. Let p = xo . . .sf be an r-gon in a graph A. Prove
(I) If r is even and A ( ~ - ~ ) / ~ ( X
fl O
A(xfI2)
) is connected then p E
CT-l(A).
(2) If r is odd and A(X(,-~)p,x(,+~) n A('-~)/~(XO) # 0 then
P E Cr-l(A).
3. Define a path p in a graph A to be reduced if D(p) = 0. Prove
(1) The equivalence class Ip] of p under the basic relation contains a
unique reduced path rp.
(2) rp E Dn(p) for some nonnegative integer n.
4. Let D be a simplicial complex. Define a morphism f : F -t E of local
systems on D to be a family of maps f, : F(x) + E(x), x E A(D) =
A, such that for each x and y E A(x), fy o FXy = Exy of,. Define a
morphism 4 : (L, d) -+ (E, d) of coverings of D to be a simplicial map
4 : L - t L with 204 = d. Prove
(I) If : (L, d) -+ (5,d) is a morphism of coverings then f d : Fd -+
F~is a morphism of local systems, where f$ = q51Fq(..
(2) Iff : F -+ E is a morphism of local systems then q5f : (D*, dF) -+
of coverings, where 4&,) = j,.
(3)
( ~ ~ , isda morphism
~ )
(F f E) rt ( ( D ~dF)
, - )
. .
4J' ( ~ ~ , dis~an) isomorphism of the
category of local systems on D with the category of coverings of
D. The inverse of this isomorphism is d I-+ Fd, 4 I-+ f4.
 36. Amalgams 195
a residue in our geometry. We term such 4tuples satisfying a few more
axioms uniqueness systems and we study these objects in Section 37.
We are usually able to choose our uniqueness system so that each tri-
angle of A is fused into AH under G. Thus it remains to show that
A is triangulable in the sense of Chapter 12 in order to implement the
procedure described above. So in the process of proving the uniqueness
Chapter 13 of a sporadic, we usually show some graph A associated t o the sporadic
is simply connected via the results in Section 34.
Finally in Section 38 we see how to obtain well-behaved uniqueness
The Geometry of Amalgams systems from a flag transitive group of automorphiims of a suitable rank 3
string geometry. In Chapter 14 we apply this point of view t o the Zlocal
geometry of M24and a truncation of the projective geometry of L5(2)
to obtain uniqueness proofs for those groups. Similarly in Chapter 16 we
use the approach to prove the uniqueness of J2,Sua, and Col.

In this chapter we put in place the machinery we will use to establish the 36. Amalgams
uniqueness of most of the sporadic groups. The general approach is as fol- Let I = (1,. .. ,n ) be a set of finite order n. An amalgam of mnk n is
lows. Let 7.1 be some group theoretic hypothesis and G a group satisfy- a family
ing 7.1. We associate t o each such group a coset graph A on a coset space
A = ( a , , : P j - t PK:J C K C I )
G/G1 defined by some self-paired orbital of G on GIG1, as in 3.2. We
pick some family 3 = (Gi : i E I ) of subgroups of G and show that the of group homomorphisms such that for all J C K C L, cYj,KaK,L =
amalgam A ( 3 ) of this family is determined up to isomorphism by 7.1 inde- aJ,L.
pendently of G. The family 3determines a coset geometry I' = r(G, 3) Example 36.1 Let 3 = (Gi : i E I ) be a family of subgroups of a
and a geometric complex C(G,3)as in Section 4, and indeed any com- group G. For J c I let J' = I - J be the complement to J in I and a s
pletion p : A ( 3 ) 3 G of A(3) determines a corresponding geometry and
complex. The family 3is chosen so that A is isomorphic to a collinearity
in Section 4, define G = njE Gj. Define PJ = GJr. Thus PJ n PK =
Gj t n GK, = GJ#UKt = G(jnK)# = PJnK. Also for J C K c I, define
graph of I' and so that the closure of the cycles in the collinearity graphs aJK : Pj -+ PKto be inclusion. Then
of proper residues of I? is the set of all cycles of A. Further if L :A ( 3 ) -+ G
is the universal completion of A(3) then we obtain a fibering d : A 3 A
from the collinearity graph o f f onto A, and as the cycles in residues is an amalgam.
of I'lift to cycles in residues in f , the fibering d is even an isomorphism.
Hence G G E G for any pair of groups G, (? satisfying 7.1, giving us our A morphism q5 : A 3 A of rank n amalgams is a family
uniqueness. This is a broad outline of the approach. q5 = (q5j : Pj 3 Fj : J c I)
In Section 36 we develop the theory of amalgams and geometries nec-
essary for this procedure. Then in Section 37 we specialize to a particular of group homomorphisms such that for all J C K C I the obvious
class of rank 3 amalgams and geometries which will be sufficient to es- diagram commutes:
aJ K
tablish the uniqueness of most of the sporadic groups. Our starting point Pj ---",PK
is a &tuple U = (G, H, A, A H ) consisting of our group G and graph A
together with a suitable subgroup H of G and a graph AH, which will be 4.1
Pj -
&J,K
1.4
PK
196 Chapter 13 T h e Geometry of Amalgams
A completion P : A -,G for A is a family P = ( P j : Pj -+ Gj t i :roup
homomorphims such that G = ( P j P j : J c I ) and for all J C K c I
the obvious diagram commutes:
G is said to be faithfil if each PJ is an injection.
The completion : A --+
Example 36.2 Let 3 = (Gi : i f I ) be a family of subgroups of
a group G with G = (3). Form the amalgam A(3) of Example 36.1.
Then the identity maps idJ : Pj -+ Pj form a faithful completion
id = (idJ :J c I ) with id : A(3) -+ G.
The free product F(A) of the groups Pj, J C I, in an amalgam A
is the free group on the disjoint union of the sets Pj modulo defining
relations for the groups Pj. We have the following universal property:
Lemma 36.3: If (cpJ : Pj --+ G) is a family of group homomorphisms
then there exists a unique group homomorphism cp : F(A) -+ G with
gcp = gcpJ for all g f P j and all J c I.
Define the free amalgamated product G(A) of the amalgam A to be
the free product F(A) of the groups Pj, J c I , modulo the relations
g - l ( g ~ j , K )= 1 for 'J c K c I and g E Pj. Write i j for the image of
g f F(A) in G(A) and let L = ( ~: Pj j -+ G(A)) be defined by g~J = i j
for g E Pj. Then
Lemma 36.4: L : A G(A) is a universal completion for A. That is,
--+
if p : A --+ G is a completion of A then there exists a unique group
homomorphism $ : G(A) + G such that ~ j $ = PJ for all J C I .
Proof: By construction L :A 4 G(A) is a completion of A. Suppose
p : A -t G is a completion. By the universal property of the free product
recorded in 36.3, there exists a group homomorphism cp : F(A) + G
defined by gcp = gPJ for g E Pj. As 0 is a completion of A, ga jKPK =
gPJ for all J C K C I , so g - l ( g ~ j K ) E ker(cp). for each g E Pj.
Thus cp induces a group homomorphism $J : G(A) --+ G defined by
fi$ = g v = g P j for g E Pj. This is the map of 36.4.
Lemma 36.5: If A possesses a faithfil completion then the universal
completion L : A -+ G(A) is faithful.
36. Amalgams 197
!
Proof: Suppose /3 : A --+ G is a faithful completion. Then P j = L j$ is
I injective, so Lj is injective.
Lemma 36.6: Isomorphic amalgams have isomorphic universal comple-
tions.
Proof: If 4 :A + A is an isomorphism of amalgams and L : A --P G(A)
and : A --+ G(A) are universal completions, then $b : A -+ G(A) is a
I
completion, so there exists $J : G(A) -+ G(A) with Lj$ = +i;j for each J.
Similarly we have 4 : G(A) -+ G(A) with 4
= 4-I/, j. Then = $-I.
Given a completion P : A 4 G of A let F(P) = (Gi : i E I ) , where
Gi = P , I / ~ ~I?(@
, , = r(G, 3(P)), and C(P) = C(G,3(P)) be the geometry
and geometric complex of P, as defined in Examples 4 and 9 of Section 4.
Further for i E I , define the collinearity graph A(P, i ) of C(P) at i to be
the graph on the set GIGi of objects of r ( P ) of type i with x adjacent
to y if there exist chambers C, of C(P) for u = x, y with u E Cu and
C, n C, a flag of type it.
Lemma 36.7: Let /3 : A -+ G be a faithful wmpletion of an amalgam
A and L : A -+ G(A) the universal completion of A. Let cp : G(A) --+ G
be the surjection of 36.4. Then
(1) cp : G(A)i --+ Gi is an isomorphism with cp(G(A)j ) = G j for
each i E J E I .
(2) cp induces a morphism cp : C(L)+ C(P) of geometric complexes
which is a covering of simplicia1 complexes, via cp : G(A)ig I--+
Gi~(g).
(3) Assume for some &ed i E I that:
(*) Gi, = GrtGr and Gi n Gi = (Gij n qj : j E it)for some
t E Gil - GI.
Then the covering cp of (2) restricts to a fibering cp : A(L,i ) --+ A(P, i )
of collinearity graphs.
(4) Assume (*) and
(**) The closure of the set of cycles of A(P,i) conjugate under G
to a cycle of the wllinearity graph at i of Linkqp) ( G j ) ,as j
ranges over i', is the set of all cycles of A(P,i).
Then cp : G(A) + G is an isomorphism.
Proof: Let H = G(A). By 36.5, L is faithful. Thus cp : Hi Gi is the
-+
composition cp = L;'/~~Iof isomorphisms, so (1) holds.
As cp(H,) = Gi, the map cp : Hig I--+ Giq(g) of (2) is well defined and
as cp : H -+ G is surjective, cp : C(L)--, C(P) is surjective on vertices.
198 Chapter 13 The Geometry of Amalgams
From the definition of C ( L ) in Example 9 of Section 4, the chambers of
C(L) are of the form SI,, = {His : i E I ) , x E H , and P ( S ~ ,=~Sz,rp(x) ) Gx, Pi3 = G ( { x , Y ) ) ,Per = HztZI1Pi = H ( { X ~ Y )J'2) , = HZ, and
is a chamber of C ( P ) , so cp : C ( L ) -+ C ( P ) is a morphism of geometric com-
plexes. By 4.5, Link(Hi) C(HilJ ( L )and ~ ) Link(Gi) C(Gil3 ( P ) i ) 1
while by ( I ) , cp : C ( H i 1 3 ( ~ ) * ) C(Gi13(P)i)is an isomorphism, SO
-+
cp : Link(Hi) -+ Link(Gi) is an isomorphism and hence cp : C ( L ) C ( P ) -+
is a covering of simplicia1 complexes. That is, (2) is established.
Let A = A ( L , ~and) A = A(P,i).By (2), cp restricts to a surjective
morphim of graphs cp : A -+ A. Further as G is transitive on chambers
of C ( P ) , each chamber through Gi is conjugate under Gi to 3 ( P ) . Also
Gi, is the stabilizer of the wall W = 3 ( P ) - {Gi) of type i' and GI is
the stabilizer of F(P).
Assume (*). Then Gr = GztGz,so Git is 2-transitive on the chambers
through W and GI is transitive on Link(W)- {G;). Hence Gi is transi-
tive on A(Gi).Then by (1)and (2),HI is transitive on Link(U)- {Hi),
where U = 3 ( ~ - {Hi),
) so Hi is transitive on A(Hi).
Next Git E A(Gi) and by (*), Gi n G: = (Gij n qj : j E i f )is the
stabilizer in Gi of Git. Let s E Hi, with cp(s) = t. By ( I ) , cp : Hi -+ Gi
is an isomorphism with v(Hij n Hfj) = Gij n GIj SO (p(Hijn Hfj) : j E
<
it)= Gi nGi. Of course q(Hi nH,S) Gi nGf,SO p(Hi n Hf ) = Gi nGi.
Thus by ( I ) , cp :Hi/(Hi n H f ) -+ Gi/(Gi nGI) is a bijection and hence
cp : A(Hi) -+ A(Gi) is a bijection and (3) is established.
Finally by (2),cp : LinkC(')(Hj)-+ L ~ n k ~ ( ~ ) is( G anjisomorphism
) of
simplicia1 complexes and hence induces an isomorphism of the collinear-
ity graphs at i of these links. Hence by 35.16.3, under the hypotheses
of (4),cp : A -+ A is an isomorphism. That is, the map cp : Hi + Gi is
an isomorphism and the map cp : H/Hi -+ G/Gi is a bijection. Hence
cp : H -+ G is an isomorphism and (4) is established.
37. Uniqueness systems
Define a uniqueness system to be a Ctuple U = (G, H, A , A H ) such that
A is a graph, G is an edge and vertex transitive group of automorphisms
<
of A , H G, AH is a graph with vertex set xH and edge set ( x ,y)H
for-some x E A and y E A(%)nxH, and:
.
(U) G = (H1Gx),Gx = (Gx,y,Hx),and H = (H({x,Y)),HX).
In this section we assume U = (G,H, A , A H ) is a uniqueness system
and (3,y) an edge in AH. Notice by definition y E A ( x ) , so x # y.
) , = H , and J = J ( U ) = (Gi :
Let G1 = Gx, G2 = G ( { x , ~ ) GQ
i E I ) , where I = {1,2,3). The amalgam of U is the rank 3 amalgam
37. Uniqueness systems 199
A(U) = A ( 3 ( U ) )as defined in Example 36.1. Notice P12 = H , P23 =
P3 = G q .
We say that a rank 3 amalgam A is residually connected if Pij =
(Pi,Pj) for all distinct i,j E I . Now:
Lemma 37.1: Assume A is a residually connected rank 3 amalgam and
@ : A 4 M is a completion of A. Then
(1) I'(/3) is a residually connected geometry.
(2) If P13 = PIP3 then r(P)has a string diagram and M is flag
transitive on I?@).
Proof:Part (1)is 4.5.3. If P13 = Pl P3 then by 4.2, the diagram of C(P)
is a string (in the sense of Section 4) so (2) follows from 4.11.1.
Lemma 37.2: (1) There is t E H with cycle ( x ,y).
(2) The amalgam A(U) is residually connected with P13 = PIP3.
Proof: As x # y, ( U ) says H({x,y)) # Hz, so (1) holds. Now
G({x,y)) = Gx,y(t).Thus Pi3 = PIP3. This observation together with
condition (U) in the definition of uniqueness system shows the amalgam
is residually connected.
Observe that the inclusion map P : A(U) -+ G is a faithful completion
of the amalgam A(U) by Example 36.2. Form the geometry I' = r(P)
and its collinearity graph A(@,1) as in Section 36. We call the objects
of I' of type 1 points and the objects of type 2 lines. By 37.1 ar~d37.2, I'
has a string diagram, so by Exercise 1.5, two points a, b of I? are incident
in A@, 1) if and only if a and b are incident in I? with a common line of
r. Hence the term collinearity graph. Moreover as in 3.2:
Lemma 37.3: The map Glg H xg is an isomorphism of A(P, 1) with
A. Further the line G2g of J? is identified with the edge {xg,yg) of A
via this isomorphism.
Thus we identify A with A(@,1) via the isomorphism of 37.3 and write
A for both.
Define a similarity of uniqueness systems ~,a to be a pair of iso-
morphisms a : Gx -+ G~ and 5 : H -+ B such that a = 5 on Hz,
HxC = H ~ Gx,ya , = GI,s, and H({x,y))C = ~ ( { ,$)) f for some edges
( x ,y), ( I , # ) of A H ,AB, respectively. We say the similarity is with re-
spect to ( x ,y), ( I ,g ) if we wish to emphasize the role of those edges. The
similarity is an equivalence if there exists t E H with cycle (x,y) such
that (bt)a= ( b c ~ ) ~for C all b E Gxs.
200 Chapter 13 The Geometry of Amalgams
Define a m o r p h i s ~of uniqueness systems U,U to be a group ho-
momorphism d : G -+ G such that the restrictions d : H -+ H and
d : Gx -+ Gz are isomorphisms defining a similarity of U with U.
Lemma 37.4: (1) The geometry of points and edges of AH is isomorphic
to the residue of H in I?.
(2) If d : G -+ G is a morphism of uniqueness systems U,U, then
A(U) 2 A(U) and d induces a covering d : f -t r of geometries and a
fibering d : A -+ A of graphs defined by d : Gig I-+ Gi(gd) and (5g)d =
x(gd), respectively. The restriction d : Afi AH is an isomorphism
-+
and ker(d) is transitive on each fiber of d on A.
Proof: Part (1) is a consequence of 37.1, 37.2, and 4.11.2.
Assume the hypotheses of (2) and pick t as in 37.2.1. As G({x, y)) =
(t)Gx,y, as d : GZ,li -+ Gx,y is an isomorphism, and as Ed = t for some
E E with cycle (2,8), d : (?((2,5)) -+ G({x, 9)) is an isomorphism.
Thus as d is a similarity, d induces an isomorphism A(0) % A(U) of
amalgams.
As c i d = Gi and cijd = Gij for each i,j, d is a well-defined surjective
morphism of geometries and graphs. Now Gi is incident with Gjh in I?
when h E Gi. But as d : Gi -+ Gi is an isomorphism, d : Gi/Gij -+
Gi/Gij is a bijection and hence d : i=' -+ I" is a local bijection. Also
A(x) = yGz and A(Z) = gG5 with G q j d = Gx,yrso d : Zg +-+ x(gd)
is a bijection of A(x) with A(%) and hence d : A -+ A is a fibering
of collinearity graphs. By 37.1 and 37.2, G and G are flag transitive
on their respective geometries, so the same argument shows d is a local
isomorphism of geometries.
Notice Gig E d-I ( G ~ if) and only if g E k e r ( d ) ~ so
~ , ker(d) is tran-
sitive on the fiber d - l ( ~ ~ As
) . d is a covering of geometries, (1) says
d : AR -+ AH is an isomorphism.
Let L : A(U) 4 G(A(U)) be the universal completion of A(U). Write
6 for G(A(U)), H for HL, Gz for G X ~etc. , Let L\ = A(', 1) be the
collinearity graph of G. Then G? is indeed the stabilizer of some f E A.
Let A$ be the collinearity graph of the residue of fi in f' and u =
(G, H, A, Ah).
We say AH is a base for U if the closure of the G-conjugates of all
cycles of AH is the set of all cycles of A.
Lemma 37.5: (1) u is a uniqueness system equivalent to U.
(2) There exists a morphism d : U -+ U of uniqueness systems.
37. Uniqueness systems 201
(3) If each triangle of A is G-conjugate to a triangle of AH then
d : A -+ A is a covering.
(4) If AH is a base for A then U E U and & Z G.
Proof: Let d : e -+ G be the homomorphism supplied by the universal
property of e. By construction G = ( a , & ) . By 36.5, the universal
completion is faithful, and by 37.1, G is flag transitive on f'. Then arguing
as in the proof of 37.3 using Exercise 1.5, we have a natural e-equivariant
bijection between the lines of f and the edges of A, so as is flag
transitive on f', G is also edge transitive on L\.
Next as p is faithful, d : H -+ H and d : Gz -,Gx are isomorphisms.
If K is the kernel of the action of G on A then K 5 G~ and K a C.
Therefore Kd < Gx is normal in G so as G is faithful on A, Kd = 1.
Then as d : G%-+ Gx is an isomorphism, K = 1. That is, G is faithful
on A. The other conditions in the definition of uniqueness system are
properties of the amalgam A(U) and hence are shared by U . Thus 0 is
a uniqueness system. Remarks above show d : fi -+ U is a morphism
of uniqueness systems. By construction, d defines an equivalence of 6
with U.
We have established (1) and (2). Notice that if d : L\ -+ A is an
isomorphism then d : G -+ G defines an equivalence of the actions of G
on A and G on A, so d : G -+ G is an isomorphism and hence d : -,U
is an isomorphism. Thus to prove (4), it suffices to assume AH is a base
for A and prove d : A 4 A is an isomorphism. But 37.4.2 supplies
the hypotheses of 35.16.3, so that lemma completes the proof of (4).
Similarly 35.16.2 implies (3).
Lemma 37.6: If U and a are equivalent uniqueness systems then
A(U) r A@).
<
Proof: Assume a : Gx G5 and : H -+ H define an equivalence of
-)
our systems and let t be the element of H supplied in the definition of
equivalence. Define /I : G({z, 9 ) ) -+ G({z, Q)) via p : btn H (bc~)(tC)~
for b E Gx,y and n E Z. The map is well defined as a and C agree on
Hz. The map is a homomorphism as (bt)a = ( b ~ ) for ~ c all b E GXlv.As
a is injective on Gx the map is an isomorphism.
<
Now by construction : H -+ H, (Y : Gx -t Gz, and /I : G({x, y)) -+
G({z, g)) define our isomorphism of A(U) with A(u).
We are now in a position to state one of the principal results of this
section:
Theorem 37.7: Assume U,U are equivalent uniqueness systems such
202 Chapter 13 The Geometr~lof Amalgams
! 37. Uniqueness systems
that A H ,AB are bases for A , A , respectively. Then U is isomorphic
to 0.
ProoE By 37.6, A(U) G A@). Then by 36.6, G is also the universal
completion of A(u). Then by 37.5.4, U 2 u Z U.
Corollary 37.8: Assume U and U are equivalent uniqueness systems,
A is triangulable, each triangle of A is G-conjugate to a triangle of AH,
and U also satisfies these hypotheses. Then U U.
In order to apply Theorem 37.7 and its corollary, we need effective
means for verifying the equivalence of uniqueness systems. Theorems
37.9 through 37.12 supply such means.
Theorem 37.9: Assume U and are similar uniqueness systems and
for some edge (2,y) of A H , Aut(GX,*)nC(Hx,y)= 1. Then U is equiv-
alent to U .
Theorem 37.10: Assume a : Gx -t G3 and i : H -+ H define a simi-
larity of uniqueness systems U and a with respect to edges ( x ,y ) , (1,f j ) ,
and there exist K 5 Gx and t , h E N H ( K ) such that:
(1) CA,~(K)(K n H ) = A ~ ~ z (( H
K )).
(2) t has cycle (x,y), th E Gx, and he E N*(Ka).
(3) G x , = (K,,Hx,y).
Then a , c, define an equivalence of U and U.
Hypothesis V: The uniqueness system U = (G,H, A , A H ) satisfies the
following four conditions for some edge ( x ,y) of A H :
Theorem 37.11: Assume U,U are uniqueness systems satisfying Hy-
pothesis V with respect to edges ( x ,y ) , (3,f j ) and a : Gx -+ GZ and C :
H -t H are isomorphisms such that GXlya= G*,B, HxC = Hz = Hxa,
and H ( ( x , y))( = a ( { %g)).
, Then U and U are similar.
- Theorem 37.12: Assume U and U are uniqueness systems, ( x ,y),(%, g)
are edges in A H , A k , and a : Gx -+ GZ and : H -+ H are isomor-
phisms such that Hxa = HZ and:
(1) Them exists Z ( X )char G, with Z ( x ) 5 Hy, and either
(a) Gx = N G ( ~ ( z ) 07-
),
(b) Hx = NH ( Z ( X ) and
) Gx,, = NG, ( Z ( y ) ) ,
203
where for h E H , Z(xh) is defined by Z(xh) = ~ ( x )Further
~ . the same
conditions hold for 0.
(2) Z ( x ) a = Z(x)( = Z(1) and Z(y)C = Z($).
(3) A u t ( H ~ )N ( Z ( x ) )= Aut~ut(~)n~(Z(x))(H~)Aut~ut(~,)(H~).
(4) N ~ u t ( ~ ) n ~ ( z ( x 5 ) )N ( H x H ( { Y))Hx)C(HX).
~,
Then U and u are similar.
We next prove Theorems 37.9 and 37.10. We are supplied with a simi-
larity a,6 :U 4 21 with respect to ( x ,y), (2,g). In Theorem 37.10 we also
have a subgroup K of G,; in Theorem 37.9 let K = Gx,y.By 37.2 there
exists t E H with cycle ( x ,y). Let K = K a and 4 : N ~ ( K-t ) Aut(K) be
the conjugation map, and define a* : Aut(K) -t A u ~ ( Kby ) a* : 0 I+ Oa.
For g E NG(K)write ga* for g$a*, where 11, : NG(K)-+ Aut(K) is the
conjugation map. Thus (ka)ga*= (kg)a for each k E K. Therefore for
g E NG, ( K ) ,ga* = ga4 as (kg)a = (ka)gff= (ka)gU'#'.
Now for k E K n H and h E NH ( K ) , ( ~ o ) ~=Q(kh)a * = (kh)c =
(kc)" = jka)hc, so ha* = hcq5 on I? n B,and hence hi$ h-'a E .
C A U t ( ~ ) (nHK). But in Theorem 37.9, CA,t(K)(Kn H ) = 1, so ha* =
hi4. In particular this holds for h = t , so (kt)a = (ka)ta' = ( k a ) g for
all k E K = GX,,, completing the proof of Theorem 37.9.
Similarly in Theorem 37.10, hypothesis (1) of Theorem 37.10 says
Then picking h as in hypothesis (2) of Theorem 37.10, th E Hz by hy-
pothesis, so (th)a*= (th)a4by an earlier remark, and hence ( t c ~ * = )~~*
(th)a*= (th)ac$= ( t h ) ~= 4 (t@)hC'#',so ta* = (t<$b)hS'+h-'a*= tC4.
We have shown (kt)a = ( k c ~ ) for ~ c all k E K. Also for b E
(bt)a= (bt)c= ( b ~ )=~ (ba)Y,
c so by hypothesis (3) of Theorem 37.10,
(at)a = for all a E G,,y. This establishes Theorem 37.10.
Next the proof of Theorem 37.11. So assume U and U are uniqueness
systems satisfying Hypothesis V and that a : Gx 4 0% and z : H -+
H are isomorphisms satisfying the hypotheses of Theorem 37.11. Then
IH=
NAut(G,)( H z ) with az-I -
az-I E Aut(H,), so by ( V l ) ,there exist 6 E NAut(H)(Hx)and C E
€6 on Hz. Let a = €-la and i = Sz; then
a = ( on li,.Further by (V2), we may pick c E N ( G ~ )Therefore .
G~,,C-' = G&, for some g E Hx and hence GX,,a = ( ~ $ , , ) a= Geg=
G ~ , ~with ( ~g(ga)
~ )E A@).
Similarly by 37.2 there is t E H with cycle ( x ,y) and by (V3) we
may pick 6 E N(HxtH:,). Then st6 = yh for some h E Hz, so t6
has cycle (x,yh) and HXtu6= (Hz n H$)6 = Hz r l Ht,6 = ~2,~.
Thus
204 Chapter 13 The Geometry of Amalgams
HXd<= Hz,ytSz = H:,~Z = H;J = Hz,ghzrwhile
= R({z, jihz}) - ri,,vh,,
so H((x,y))< = H({l,ji(hz))). Finally H3,ghz- = = Hx,Ya I
G3,g(ga), so ji(hz) and ji(ga) are fixed points of Hz,g(hz)on AB(%). But
as Hji.is transitive on AB(f), NHz(Hz,?jhz)is transitive on the fixed
points of HZ,ghzon An(%), and then by (V4). G3,gh, = G Z , for ~ each
<
such fixed point f . In particular G'3,gga = G2,ghz,SO a and define a
similarity of our systems. This completes the proof of Theorem 37.11.
Finally we prove Theorem 37.12. Assume the hypotheses of that the-
orem and let t E H have cycle (x, y). Observe that hypothesis (a) of
Theorem 37.12 implies hypothesis (b), so we may assume (b) holds.
Notice that Hz< = NH(Z(x))C = NR(Z(5)) = H,. Then arguing as
in the proof of Theorem 37.11, using hypotheses (3) and (4) of The-
orem 37.12 in place of (Vl) and (V3), respectively, we may adjust a
< <
and so that a = on Hz while still retaining hypotheses (1) and (2).
For example, for 6 E Aut(H) n N(Hx) n N(Z(x)), st6 = yh for some
h E Hz, so Z(y)S = Z(x)% = Z ( X ) = ~ Z(xtS) = Z(yh) = z ( ~ ) So~.
<
for = Sz with Z(y)z = Z(jj), we have Z(y)C = ~ ( ~= )Z(jjhz) ~ z with
jiha E AR(3).
Next by hypothesis (I), Z(x) < <
Hy, so Z(y) = Z(xt) = z ( x ) ~
(H,)~ = Hyt = Hz. Thus as a = C on Hz, Z(y)a = Z(y)c = Z(jj).
Further Z(z(tC)) = z(z)~C = (Z(X)C)~C= (Z(X)~)[= Z(y)c = Z(ji).
Also Z(ft6) = Z(g) = Z(ZQ for some F E H, so tC E Nfi(Z(f))F = HeF
and hence 3 5 = 5f = ji. That is, tc has cycle (2,ji).
Next Gx,ya = (NcE(Z(y)))a = Ncf(Z(jj)) = G'zlg. Finally HXly=
NH(Z(X)) n N H ( ~ ( Y )so ) = NR(Z(f)) nNp(Z(%)) = Hji.,~.
Therefore H({x, y})C = (Hx,y(t))C = H2,g(tC) = H({%,g)). Therefore
a and C define a similarity of our systems, and the proof of Theorem
37.12 is complete.
38. The uniqueness system
of a string geometry
In this section we assume:
(r0) G is a flag transitive group of automorphisms of a residually
connected rank 3 string geometry I' and (x, I, a ) is a flag in I'
such that the residues of x and a are not generalized digons.
38. The uniqueness system of a string geometry
See Section 4 for definitions and terminology. We recall that by 4.2 and
4.5, group theoretically these hypotheses are equivalent to the assertions
that G = (Gx, G1, Gn), Gx = (GX,l,Gx,,), GT = (Gs,zlGx,l), and
, , Gx # Gx,~Gx,nand G,
GZ= G I , ~ G ~but # G,,XG,,z. (*)
The three classes of objects of type 1, 2, and 3 will as usual be called
points, lines, and planes; respectively. Given an object a E F, write
r ( a ) for the residue of a, ri(a) for the objects of type i in I'(a), and
&(a) for the kernel of the action of Ga on I'(a). Let p be a prime and
P(a) = Op(Q(a)).
Define the collinearity graph of I' to be the graph whose vertices are
the points of I' and with points adjacent if and only if they are incident
with a common line of I?. Notice that by 38.1, this agrees with the notion
of "collinearity graph" in Section 36. Let A be the collinearity graph of J?.
Lemma 38.1: rl(1) C r l ( a ) and r3(1) r3(~)+
Proof: This is Exercise 1.5.
Lemma 38.2: A is connected.
Proof: This follows from 4.6.
Consider the following hypotheses:
( r l ) Each pair of distinct collinear points x, y is on a unique line
+
x y.
+
(I'2) If x, y E Fl(a) are collinear then x y E r2(n).
(r3) Each triangle of A is incident with a plane.
(r4) G,,l is 2-transitive on rl(l).
(I'5) Gx,l = (Gx,y,llGx,l,,) for x # Y E rl(l).
Theorem 38.3: Assume (G, ,'I x, 1, n) satisfies hypotheses (Pi) for i =
0,4,5. Define A to be the collinearity graph of I', H = G,, and AH Me
collinearity graph of the residue of a. Then
(1) U = (G, H, A, AH) i s a uniqueness system.
(2) If hypotheses (I'i), 0 2 i <
5, hold then each triangle of A is
G-conjugate to a triangle of AH.
Proof: Let y E rl(l) - {x}. By flag transitivity and (r4),G is edge
transitive on A. By (r4) there exist t E Hl with cycle (x, y) and H1 =
t). By (r5), Gx,l = (Gx,y,l, These observations together
with (PO) show that 2.4 satisfies condition (U) for uniqueness systems.
Therefore (1) is established.
206 Chapter 13 The Geometry of Amalgams
! 38. The uniqueness system of a string geometq
< <
Next assume hypotheses (ri), 0 i 5. If abc is a triangle in A then
by (I'3), abc is G-conjugate to a subset of F1(x) = AH, SO without loss
+ +
of generality abc c AH. By ( r l ) and (r2), the lines a b,a c, b+ c are
incident with n, so abc is a triangle in AH and (2) is established.
Example 38.4 Let V be a 5-dimensional vector space over the field F
of order 2. From Example 1in Section 4, the projective geometry PG(V)
of V is a rank 4 geometry whose objects are the points, lines, planes,
and hyperplanes of V with incidence equal to inclusion. Let I' = P G ( v ) ~
be the truncation of PG(V) obtained by suppressing the hyperplanes of
V. Thus r is a rank 3 geometry over I = {1,2,3} whose objects are
the points, lines, and planes of V. Pick a flag (x, 1,n) from r ; that is,
x C 1 C n is a chain of subspaces of V of dimension 1, 2, 3, respectively.
Observe that I' is a rank 3 string geometry, since by Example 6 in Sec-
tion 4, the residue r ( l ) r PG(~)@PG(v/~)~. Similarly r(x) S PG(V/X)~
and r(n) S PG(n).
Let G = GL(V) L5(2). Then G is flag transitive on I?, so Hy-
pothesis (r0) is satisfied. Indeed visibly Hypotheses ( r l ) through (r5)
are satisfied, so Theorem 38.3 supplies us with a uniqueness system
U = (G, H,A, AH). The vertices of A are the points of V and as each
pair of points of V are collinear, A is a complete graph. Hence A is of
diameter 1,so by 34.5, A is triangulable. Therefore by 35.14, A is simply
connected while by Theorem 38.3 and 37.5.4, G is the free amalgamated
product of A(U). Finally by Exercise 13.1, if is a uniqueness system
equivalent to U then G r G.
I collinearity graph of r ( a ) is of diameter 2. Then there is u E A(%)n a.
L e m m a 38.5: Assume M is a finite group with F*(M) = Op(M) = R
and @(Z(R)) = 1, and a E Aut(M) centralizes a Sylow p-subgroup of
M. Then cr E Inn(M).
Proof: Form the semidirect product S of M with (a), and let Z = Z(R)
and E = Cs(R). Then E = Z x (a).
< <
Observe that if A (a)with A 9 S then [M,A] M n A = 1, so
as (a)is faithful on M, A = 1. It follows that a is a pelement and as
@(Z)= 1, cr is of order p. Now as a centralizes a Sylow psubgroup of
M , E splits over Z as an S-module, (cf. 12.8 in [FGT]) so S = MCs(M)
- -
and hence a E Inn(M).
Write d(x, y) for the distance between vertices x and y in A and for
S,T E A let d(S, T ) = min{d(s, t) : s E S, t
E T).
The following two lemmas can be used to study M24 and its 2-local
geometry; see Exercise 13.2.
207
Lemma 38.6: Assume (rl) and
(a) For each line k of I' there exists a unique y E r l ( k j with d(x, y) =
4 % k) .
(b) Each pair of lines of r(x) is incident with at least one plane.
(c) If d(x,z) = 2 then Ir3(x,z)l 5 1.
Then
(1) Each triangle of A is contained in a line of r.
(2) If y E a 2 ( x ) then there exists a unique plane n incident with x
and y. Further A(%)r l E I'l(n).
(3) Ench square and pentagon of A is incident with a plane.
(4) Assume a is a plane with d(x,rl(a)) = 1 and the wllinearity
graph of r ( a ) is of diameter 2. Then A(x) n rl(u) = {u} for
some point u, and A ( X )r)~I'l~(a) = u1 f rll(u).
Proof: First if axb is a triangle in A then a and b b e distinct points at
+ +
distance 1 from x on a b, so by (a),x E a b. Thus (1) holds.
Let y E h2(x). Then there is u E A(x, y) and by (b), there is n E
+ + +
r3(u x , u y). Hence by (c), n = n(x, y) = n(u x, u y) is the +
+ +
unique plane incident with x and y and u x and u y. Similarly if
+ +
v E A(x, y) then n(v x,v y) = n(x, y) ='n, SO v E rl(a). Finally
if w E A(x) n A ~ ( then +
~ ) x, w E A ~ ( n~(x) w), SO by (a), there is
+ +
v E A(y) n (x w). Then v E A(x, y) c n, so w E x v G n. Therefore
(2) is established.
Notice (2) implies (3). Suppose a is a plane with d(x, a ) = 1 and the
If u # v E A(x) n a then by (I), d(u, v) = 2, so by (2), x E A(u,v) S a,
contradicting d(x, u) = 1. So u is unique. Clearly uL n a C_ A ~ ~ (no. X)
Conversely suppose y is a point on u at distance 2 from x, but y !$ A(u).
Then d(u, y) = 2 so x E A ~ (n~A(u) ) a by (2), a contradiction.
Lemma 38.7: Assume the hypotheses of 38.6 and in addition assume
(d) The collinearity gmph of r ( n ) is of diameter 2 and &generated.
(e) A has diameter 3.
(f) For each z E ~ ~ ( the 2 gmph
) on r2(x) defined by l* k if and only
if d(I'l(x(l, k)),z) = 1 is connected, where ~ ( 1k), is the unique
plane through 1 and k.
Then A is 4-generated.
Proof: Let S = C4(A) be the closure of ths set of all cycles of A of length
at most 4; we must show S contains all cycles of A. By hypothesis (e)
and 34.5 we must show S contains each T-gon for r 5 7. By definition, S
208 Chapter 13 The Geometry of Amalgams 38. The uniqueness system of a string geometry 209
contains all squares and triangles. By 38.6.3, each pentagon is incident Assume also that distinct points of r ( a ) are incident with at most one
with a plane, so by hypothesis (d), S contains all pentagons. line in r ( a ) . Then
--
Let p = x0 -xT be an r-gon. Assume first that r = 6 and let a = (1) ( r l ) and ( r 3 ) hold.
) . if d(xo,a) = 1, then by 38.13.4, A(xo)n n = { x ) with
T ( x ~ , x ~Now (2) If1,k E I ' ~ ( X then
) tr3(l,k)l = 1.
x E A(x2,x4).But then 34.9 says p E S.
+
In general by (f) there is a sequence of lines x3 yi, 0 5 i 5 n , Proof: Let I, k E r 2 ( x ) .As r ( x )is a linear space there is a unique plane
r3(1,
+ +
with yo = xq, yn = 2 2 , and 7r(x3 yi,xg yi+1) of distance 1 from a E r 3 ( x ,1, k). Therefore by 38.1, a is the unique member of k);
that is, (2) holds. Further if y E r l ( l ,k ) is distinct from x then by 38.1,
xo. Let u, E A(xo, yi) with uo = x5 and % = X I . Proceeding by in-
duction on i, X O X ~ X ~ X ~ ~ E~ US,~ while
X O by the previous paragraph,
r(n),
x, y E r l ( a ) are distinct points incident with the lines I , k of so by
X O U ~ Y ~ X ~ Y E~S. +Thus
~ U by34.3,
~+~X the~product X O X ~ X ~ X ~ ~ ~ + ~ I C ~ + ~
hypothesis,
X O
1 = k. That is, (I'l)holds. If xyzx is a triangle then by (2)
of these two hexagons is in S , so p E S by induction on i. + +
there is n E r 3 ( x y,x z ) so xyz is incident with a by 38.1. Hence
Therefore all hexagons are in S , so it remains to consider the case ( r 3 ) holds. Notice that we are not claiming, however, that xyzx is a
+
r = 7. But z3,xq E a3(x0)n (x3 x,), so by hypothesis (a), there is triangle in the collinearity graph AH of r3(a);that is, y and z may not
+
x E A2(xo)n ( 2 3 xd), and hence p is in the closure of two hexagons be collinear in r(n).
and a triangle. Lemma 38.10: Assume (r1)and
The remaining lemmas in this section give criteria for establishing the (r8) I f k is a line with Q(n) 5 Gk then k E rz(n).

hypotheses (N), 1 5 i < 5. With the exception of 38.8, these lemmas Then (r2) holds.
will not be used elsewhere in Sporadic Groups, so the reader can skip Proof: If x, y E rl ( a ) are collinear then &(a)5 Gx,y < Gz+y by (rl).
them. They will be used to treat the uniqueness of other sporadic groups +
Thus x y E r z ( a )by (r8).
not considered here.
Lemma 38.11: Assume ( r l ) and P(7r) is weakly closed in NG(P(r))=
Lemma 38.8: Assume NG(G,) = G,. Then ( r 2 ) holds.
( r 6 ) Gx is primitive on planes and lines through x. Proof: By 38.10 it suffices to prove (r8).Let &(a)5 Gkand a E rs(k).
( r 7 ) Q(x)Q(x)is transitive on rl(l)- { x ) . Then by the weak closure of P(a) and Sylow's Theorem, there is g E Gk
Then with P(a)g = P(u). Then as NG(P(a))= NG(GV)= G*, ag = C , SO
k E r2(a).
(1) Q ( x ) is transitive on rl(1)- {x) and GX,! = Gx,y,lQ(x)for
Lemma 38.12: Assume ( r l ) and (r4), and assume for collinearpoints
Y r l ( q - {XI.
x,y and1 = x + y that
(2) ( r l ) , (F4), and ( r 5 ) hold.
(a) P(1) = ( P ( l )n P(x))(P(l)n P(Y)),and
Proof: By 38.1, &(a)fixes r l ( l ) pointwise. Further by (r7),Q(x)Q(a)
(b) ( P ( x ): P ( X )<~ IP(l)Q(x)
~ : P(l)kQ(x)lfor all k E r2(x) such
is transitive on r l ( l )- { x ) , so Q ( x ) is too. Thus (1) holds. Notice that that r3(l,k) is empty.
as Q(x) 5 GV,x,l,(1) implies (r5).
Next if y is on a line k E r 2 ( x )distinct from 1, then by (r6), Gx = Then ( r 3 ) holds.
(Gx,~, G x ,= ~ (Gx,y,l,Gz,y,k,Q ( x ) )= Gx,vQ(x).Then A(x)= YQ(x)= +
Proof: Suppose xyzx is a triangle in A and let k = x z. By ( r 4 ) and
1 - { x ) . Thus by flag transitivity and 38.2, 1 is incident with all points flag transitivity, IP(y) : P(y),l = IP(x) : P ( X ) ~ ~ .
of r, so by flag transitivity and 38.1, G, = G,,xGT,l, contrary to (*). Now IP(l)Q(x): P(l)kQ(x)lis the length of the orbit kP(1)of k under
Thus ( r l ) holds. As Q(x) 5 GV,r,( 1 ) and flag transitivity imply (r4). P(1) and by (a), kP(1) = k(P(1)n P(y). So

Lemma 38.9: Assume the lines and planes in r ( x )form a linear space;
that is, each pair of lines in r ( x ) is incident with a unique plane of r ( x ) .
 210 Chapter 13 The Geometry of Amalgams Exercises 211
(aP(l) n P(y1.z 5 n P(y))k) 5 IP(Y) : P(Y).z~= IP(x) : P(x)yl. system U of Theorem 38.3 is equivalent to any uniqueness system
Hence by (b) there is n E r3(lrk). Then by 38.1, xyz is incident with ?r. similar to U.
Lemma 38.13: If G # G,Gx and GX,y is transitive on the planes of (3) Let K = Gr,(q and assume Iri(l) vert is odd for i = 1,3,
r(x) not through 1 for y E rl(l), then (F2) holds. GI = KG1,T,F*(K) = 02(K), cP(Z(02(K)))= 1, and Z(K,) =
Z(G,). Let U be the uniqueness system defined by Theorem 38.3,
Proof: If x, y E r l ( u ) for some plane a not incident with I then as Gx,y
suppose U is a uniqueness system defined via Theorem 38.3 by
is transitive on planes in F(x) not incident with 1, r3(x) = r3(y). Then
a pair G, f satisfying hypothesis (N), i = 0,1,4,5, and a,4 is
by 38.2, r3(x) = r3(v) for all points v, contradicting G # G,G,. Thus
a similarity of U with U with respect to (x,-y), (2,g) such that
(r2) holds.
Remarks, The idea of establishing the uniqueness of a group G with
GngX+yC =eii,f+ii.Then U is equivalent to U.
(Hint: Use Theorem 37.9 to prove (2) and Theorem 37.10 to
respect to some hypothesis 31 by first proving prove (3).)
(a) a certain amalgam A associated to G is determined up to iso-
morphism by ? i
independently of G,
and then proving
(b) the collinearity graph of the completion of A via G is simply
connected,
was introduced in [AS11 by Yoav Segev and the author. Most of the
material in this chapter comes from that reference.

Exercises
1. Let U and U be equivalent uniqueness systems such that Aa is a base
for U . Assume either
(a) IGI = 1 ~ 1 or
1

(b) G is simple.
Then G 2 G is the free amalgamated product of A(U).
2. Let G = M24, 11 the 2-local geometry for G, and A its collinearity
graph. Prove
(1) G, I'satisfy hypotheses (f0)-(F5) of Section 38, and hence deter-
mined a uniqueness system U via Theorem 38.3.
(2) A is Cgenerated.
(3) Each triangle and square of A is incident with a plane of I?.
(4) G is the free amalgamated product of A(U).
(5) If u is a uniqueness system equivalent to U then G r G.
--- - -- - (Hi: Use Exercise 7.1 togetherwith 38.6 and 38.7.) -
3. Assume hypotheses (I'O), ( r l ) , (r2), and (r4) of Section 38 with GI
finite. Prove
(1) G is transitive on triples x, y, ?r with x, y E rl(?r) and x, y collinear.
(2) If for each triple in (I), (\r3(1)I1p)= 1, F*(Gx,y) = Op(Gz,y),
@(Z(Op(G~,v))) = 1, and Z(G,,y,,) = 1, then the uniqueness

Chapter 14
The Uniqueness of Groups
of Type M2,, He, and L,(2)
In this chapter we consider groups G possessing an involution z such
that H = CG(z) is isomorphic to the centralizer of a transvection in
L5(2). We saw in 8.9 that F*(H) = Q Z D: is an extraspecial 2-group.
Thus we can use the theory of large extraspecial subgroups developed in
Section 8 to study G. To eliminate the trivial case G = H , we assume in
addition that z is not weakly closed in Q with respect to G. Recall that by
8.10, M24 satisfies these hypotheses, and of course so does L5(2). From
Chapter 5, there is one more simple group satisfying the hypotheses: the
sporadic group He discovered by Held.
We begin our study of G in Sections 39 and 40 by generating various
facts about the 2-local subgroups of G which will define a coset geometry
r for G. This culminates in lemma 40.5, which singles out the three
possibilities for these subgroups and the geometry I?. We then begin to
use the machinery of Chapters 12 and 13 to establish that each case
gives rise to at most one group. In particular in Section 41 we associate
a uniqueness system to G when G is of type M24 or L5(2) and use
the results in Section 38 to prove G is unique. Then in the remaining
sections we analyze the final case leading to He, eventually using Lemma
36.7 to prove uniqueness here. In addition to our uniqueness result we
also derive the order of He and the structure of various local subgroups
of We.
39. Some &local subgroups i n L5(2), M24, and He 213
39. Some 2-local subgroups
in L5(2), MZ4, and He
In this section z is an involution in a finite group G such that H =
CG(z) is isomorphic to the centralizer of a transvection in L5(2). Let
Q = 0 2 ( H ) and Z = (z). Let T E Sy12(H). Assume t is not weakly
closed in Q with respect to G.
For X 2 G write A(X) for the set of elementary abelian 2-subgroups
of X of maximal order and set J(X) = (A(X)).
We regard H as the stabilizer in GL(V) of an incident-point-hyperplane
pair Vl, V4 of a 5-dimensional GF(2)-space V and let
be a T-invariant chain of subspaces with dim(&) = i . Let U1 be the
subgroup of H of all transvections with center Vl, U2 the subgroup of
transvections with axis V4,A1 the subgroup centralizing V2 and V/V2,
and AZ the subgroup centralizing V3 and V/V3.
Lemma 39.1: (1) Q E D: and H is the split extension of Q by L3(2).
(2) The subgroups Ul and Uz are normal subgroups of H isomorphic
to El6. Moreover Q = UlU2, Ul n U2 = Z, CH(Ui) = Ui, and H splits
over Ui.
(3) A(T) = {Al,Az) with Ai a T, Ai 2 E64) and A1 n A2 2 E16.
Further A1 and A2 are the max-imal elementary abelian subgroups of
J(T) = A1A2, T splits over Ai) Ai n Ui is of n;mk 3, and Ai n U3-i is
of rank 2.
(4) The transpose-inverse automorphism of L5(2) centralizing z and
acting on T interchanges Ul and Uz and A1 and A2.
(5) H has four orbits on involutions of Q: { z ) , Ul - 2,U2 - 2,and
the set 'l;j of involutions in Q - (Ul U U2).
(6) If t E TQ then ICH(t)l = 29 and Z = ~ ~ ( t ) is( the ~ ) second
member of the derived series for CH(t).
(7) NH(A1) is of index 7 in H and has seven orbits Ail 1 i 7 , < <
on A? of lengths 1, 6, 2, 6, 12, 12, 24, respectively. Indeed A1 = { z ) ,
Az = U l n A l - 2 , A3 = U 2 n A l - Z , a n d A 4 = T Q n A 1 . F o r a € A 7
and h E CH(a) -A1, CAI( h ) E8 contains z, two members of A2, and
four members of A7.
(8) CH(Al fl Ul) = AIUl with A1 and Ul the maximal elementary
abelian subgroups of A1Ul.
214 Chapter 14 T h e Uniqueness of MZ4,H e , and Ls(2)
(9) N H ( J ( T ) ) = T has six orbits ri, 0 < i 5 5, on z(J(T))# of
lengths 1, 2, 2, 2, 4, 4, respectively. Further ro = { z ) , ri = (Ui n
Z ( J ( T ) ) )- Z for i = 1, 2, and r3= TQn Z ( J ( ( T ) ) ) .
Proof: These facts can be checked inside of G L ( V ) L5(2). The check
is left as an exercise, but see 8.8 for (1).
Lemma 39.2: T E Sy12(G).
N G ( T ) 5 H.
Proof: As Z = Z(T),
Lemma 39.3: Either NG(Ui) = H or NG(Ui) is the split extension of
Ui by L4(2) acting faithfully on Ui.
Proof: AS z EUil CG(Ui) = CH(Ui) = Ui. Therefore NG(Ui)/Ui
GL(Ui) = L4(2). But H/Ui is the stabilizer of z in GL(Ui), and hence
maximal in GL(Ui). Thus NG(Ui) = H or NG(Ui)/Ui L4(2). In the
latter case as H splits over Ui, so does T , and hence NG(Ui) splits over
Ui by Gaschutz's Theorem (cf. 10.4 in [FGT]).
Lemma 39.4: Let 7 be the set of involutions G-conjugate to an element
of TQ.Then z 4 7. Indeed if t E TQ then C H ( t )E Sy12(CG(t)).
Proof: By 39.1.6, S = C H ( t )is of order Z9 and Z = ~ 1 . NG(S) <
( ~ Thus
N G ( Z ) = H , SO S E Sy12(CG(t)).
Lemma 39.5: Either ~ 1 c# zG or Uz# zG.
Proof: This follows from 39.1.5, 39.4, and the hypothesis that z is not
weakly closed in Q with respect to G.
Lemma 39.6: (1) Al and A2 are not conjugate i n G .
(2) Ai is weakly closed in G for i = 1 and 2.
(3) NG(Ai) controls fusion in Ai . either v induces a transvection on Ul and v is fused into A1 under M , or
(4) NG(Ui n Ai) = NG(Ai) n NG(Ui).
ProoE By 39.1.3, A(T) = { A 1 , A 2 } is of order 2 and by 39.1.7, A1 and
A2 are normal in T. So (1) and (2) follow from 7.7.2, and (3) follows
from ( 2 ) and 7.7.1.
Evidently NG(Ai)n N G (U,) 5 NG(AinU,). The opposite containment
follows from 39.1.8.
Lemma 39.7: If U? C zG then either
<
( I ) NG(Ul)/Ul 2 L4(2), N G ( A ~ ) Nc(U1), and zG n -41 G Ux, or
(2) uU2#C zG.
39. S o m e 2-local subgroups in L5(2),
M2& and He 215
Proof: Adopt the notation of 39.1.7, and assume ~z#
is not contained
in zG. Then z is weakly closed in U2 by 39.1.5. Thus As contains no
member of zG. By 39.4, A4 contains no conjugate of z. Let n = I Z ~ 1. ~ A ~
Then n = CiEldi, where I = {i : A, C zG} and di is the order of
Ai. We have 1,2 E I but 3,4 4: I . Thus n = 7,19,31,43, or 55 by
39.1.7. But by 39.6.3, NG(A1) is transitive on zG nA1, so n divides the
order of L6(2). It follows that n = 7 and zG n A1 = Al n u;#.Thus
Nc(A1) 5 NG(A1n Ul). So NG(A1) 5 NG(Ul) by 39.6.4. In particular
/ as NG(Al) is transitive on Al n u?, NC(Ul) $ H. Now 39.3 completes
the proof.
Lemma 39.8: Assume NG(Ul)/Ul S L4(2). Then either
< (1) U? = zG fl N G ( u ~ )O
,r
(2) U? c zG and NG(Al)/A1 E L3(2) x S3.
Proof: Let M = NG(Ul). Then N M ( A 1 ) / A 1 L3(2) x Z2 with A1 =
I B1 $B2 the sum of two equivalent natural modules for N M (A1)OO/A12
! L3(2), and with B1 = Ul n A1 and B; # B2 for u E Ul - B1. Thus
; M1 = N M ( A l ) has three orbits I'i, 1 5 i 5 3, on A? of order 7 , 14, and
42, respectively, where rl = B?, f 2 = Bz# U B,u#, and f 3 C 7. Thus
by 39.4, zG n A1 is f l or f l U f 2 of order 7 or 21.
Let I' = zG n A ~L, = NG(Al), K = k e r (L), ~ ~and assume I' is of
order 21. Then IL : MII = 3, so L / K 5 S3. In particular M p 5 K, so
M,00 = K m q L. If M I 1 L , then B1 = Z ( 0 2 ( M 1 ) )q L, contradicting
39.6.3 and our hypothesis on fusion of z in A1. So L / K S3. Then
as [u,M I ] 5 All L = C L ( M r / A 1 ) M I JSO L / A 1 !Z L3(2) x S3. Also
~z# n Al E I?, so u,# c zG by 39.1.5. That is, (2) holds.
So assume f G Ul. Then L acts on (r)= Ul n All so L = M I by
39.6.4. Now if v is an involution in M - Ul then as M/Ul = GL(Ul),
m([Ul,v ] )= 2 and v is fused into A2 under M . Thus if v E zG, v is of the
second type and we may take v E A2. Then [v,U1]= Cv,(v) = Ul nA2,
so each involution in vU1 is in v(Ul n A2) C A2, and is conjugate to v
under Ul. Notice we may assume such a v exists, or else (1) holds.
Let M* = M/Ul. Then A; contains six conjugates of v* and nine
transvections. We have seen that if r* is a conjugate of v* then all four
involutions in rUl are in zG, while if r* is a transvection then no member
+
of rU1 is in zG. Thus zG n A2 is of order 3 6 . 4 = 27.
Further if r* is a transvection with r E U:! n A2 then r(A2n U l )
contains two members of 7 and two members of U2 - 2.So there are

216 Chapter 14 The Uniqueness of M24, H e , and Ls(2)
eighteen elements of A2 fused into U2- Z and eighteen in 7.As elements
in U2nAl - Z are not fused to those in TQn Al in M I = NG(A1),these
elements are not fused in G by 39.6.3. Hence these eighteen element sets
are the orbits of NG(A2) on ~f distinct from zG n A2 by 39.6.
By 39.1.4 and 39.1.7, there is an element a E zG n A2 with C H ( a )=
A2(h) = R of order 27 and CA, ( R )= B contains five elements from zG
and two elements b and c from U2 - Z . Then as ING(A2) : NG(A2) n
CG(a)l = 27, R is of index 2 in some subgroup S of NG(A2) fl CG(a)
and S acts on (b,c ) and hence fixes z = bc. But then S _< C H ( a ) = R,
a contradiction.
Lemma 39.9: If zG n NG(Ul) = U? then Ul a G.
Proof: Let M = NG(Ul). By our hypothesis and 7.3, M is the unique
point of G / M fixed by z. Let x E A1 - UI. Then D = Cu, ( x ) = UI n Al
is a hyperplane of Ul but N*((x, U l ) ) is not transitive on D#;instead it
fixes the center [Ul,x] of the transvection x. Hence G = M by Exercise
2.7.
Lemma 39.10: Either
(1) U ~ U U or~ ,
z G n ~ =
(2) G = NG(Ui) is the split extension of Ui by L4(2) for i = 1 or 2.
Proof: By 39.5 and the symmetry supplied by 39.1.4, we may assume
Uf zG. Then by 39.1.5 and 39.4, either (1) holds or rG n Q = u?,
and we may assume the latter. Now 39.3, 39.7, 39.8, and 39.9 complete
the proof.
40. Groups of t y p e L5(2), M24, and He
In this section we continue the hypotheses and notation of the previous
section. In addition we assume zG n Q = u,#U u,#.This hypothesis is
justified in view of lemma 39.10. Recall the definition of J(T) in&,
tion 39 and observe that by 39.1.3, J ( T ) = AlA2 is of order 2* and
index 4 in T, with Z ( J ( T ) )= @ ( J ( T ) )= Al n A2 2 El6.
Lemma 40.1: (1) N G ( J ( T ) ) / J ( T )2 S3 x S3 has two orbits zG n
Z ( J ( T ) ) and 7n Z ( J ( T ) ) on z(J(T))# of order 9 and 6, respectively.
(2) zG n A, contains a NH(Ai)-orbit of length 12 for i = 1 and 2.
Proof: Let B = Z ( J ( T ) ) . By 39.1.9, T = N H ( J ( T ) )has orbits ri,
0 I i 5 5, on B#. Notice J ( T ) is weakly closed in T, so by 7.7, N G ( J ( T ) )
controls fusion in B. Also by 39.1.9, zG for i 5 2, while r3 C 7,
I
40. Groups of type L5(2), M24, and He 217
f
so from the orders of ri listed in 39.1.9 we conclude I' = zG n B is of
order 5, 9, or 13.
The last case is out as 13 does not divide the order of L4(2). In the
first case AutG(B) is of order 20 = IrllAutH(B)I with Sylow 2-group
A u t H ( B ) 2 Ed. But then a Sylow 5-group P of AutG(B) is normal in
AutG(B) and centralizes an involution in AutG(B). This is impossible
as P is irreducible on B.
So Irl = 9 and I7nBI = 6. Further AutG(B) is of order 36 with Sylow
%group E4. We conclude AutG(B) G S3 x S 3 and for b E r - Q , lbTl = 4.
Next the NH(Ai)-orbits on A# are listed in 39.1.7. As IT : CT(b)l = 4,
the length of the orbit Aj of b under NH(Ai) is not divisible by 8. But by
39.1.7, orbits of N H ( A i )on Ai - Q have length 12 or 24. Hence d = 12.
Lemma 40.2: Either
(I) / z G n A I J=21, or
(2) =45 and 1 7 n A l l =18.
Proof: Adopt the notation of 39.1.7. By the hypotheses of this section,
c
Ai zG for i 5 3, while A4 E 7 and by 40.1 we may choose notation
so that A6 C_ zG. So A = zG n Al is of order 21, 33,45, or 57 = 3 19.-
But by 39.6.3, NG(Ai) is transitive on A, so the order of A divides that
of L6(2). Hence IAj = 21 or 45.
Suppose 1 A1 = 45. Then N H ( A l ) has two orbits A4 and As on A? - A
of order 6 and 12, with A4 C 7. Thus either 7 n A1 = A? - A is of
order 18, or 7 n A 1 = A4 and As are orbits of NG(A1).We may assume
the latter. But then (A4)= Q n A1 5 N G ( A 1 ) ,contradicting that A is
of order 45.
1 Lemma 40.3: If zG n A1 is of order 21 then Nc(Ul)/Ul 2 L4(2),
NG(A1)/A1 L3(2) x S3, and A? = (zG n -41)U (I.n A i l .
Proof: Let M = N G ( A l ) and M* = MIA1. Then
I
Let I = N G ( J ( T ) ) and K = k e r I ( M ) . By 40.1, IM : I1 = 7 , so
<
M* / K * % M / K S7.
I <
Now I* r S3 x Sq. Further if K* = 1 then M* S7. But S7 has a
unique subgroup isomorphic to S3 x S4 and that subgroup is maximal
but not of index 7. So K* # 1. Thus either O3(I*)5 M* or J ( T ) 2 K ,
since 03(1*) and J(T)* = 02(1*) are the minimal normal subgroups of
I*. However if J ( T ) 5 K then I = M by a Frattini argument.
i
218 Chapter 14 The Uniqueness of MZ4,He, and L5(2)
So 03(1*) a M*. Let X be of order 3 in I with X* = 03(1*) and let
Bo = CM(X). From the action of X on J(T), CA, (X) = 1, so NM(X)
is a complement to Al in M and (NM(X) : Bol = 2. By Gaschutz's
Theorem (cf. 10.4 in [FGT])there is a complement B to X in Bo. Claim
( B : H n BI = 7. As IBo : Bo n HI = 21, it suffices to show B contains
a Sylow 3-group P of Bo n H. This follows as P is inverted by some
b~ B n H a n d B n H a B O n H .
So 7 = IB : H r l BI = /zBI and hence by 39.1.7, zB is composed of
two orbits under H n B of length 1 and 6, and (zB) = Ul n A1. Thus
< <
B NG(Ul nA1) NG(Ul) by 39.6.4. Thus NG(Ul) $ H , so 39.3 and
39.8 complete the proof.
Lemma 40.4: Assume zG n A1 is of order 45 and let M = NG(A1),
a E T n Z(J(T)), and I = CM(a). Then
(1) MIA1 S S6/Z3.
(2) I/A1 2 S5 and CA,(Ioo) = B E Eq with NM(B) = X I for
some X of order 3 with XAl g M.
Proof: Let M* = MIAl. Then
Now by 40.1, NI(J(T))* S S4 is of index 5 in I * and as in the proof
of the previous lemma, J(T)* is not normal in I*,so I * < S5. Thus
=
I * S5.
Let B = C ~ ( ~ ( ~ ) ) ( O ~ ( N ~ ( J ( TThen
. E E4 and ( ( ~ / ( a ) ) ~ )
) ) ) )B
Al/(a) is an image of the Sdimensional permutation module for I*.
Hence as an element of order 3 in I is fixed point free on A1/B, B a I ,
Further by 40.1, o~(NG(J(T)))* % Z3 x A4 is transitive on B#. There-
fore L = o'(NG(J(T)))I = NM(B) is of index 6 in M , so M*/K* < S6,
where K = kerL(M). As F*(I*) is simple and o ~ ( N ~ ( J ( T ) ) ) *S Z3 x
A4, it follows that IK*l 5 3. As IM*I = 31S611it follows that K* Z% Z3
and M*/K* E Ss, as desired.
-Lemma 40.5: Up to a permutation of 1 and 2, one of the following
holds:
(1) NG(Ui)/Ui % L4(2) and NG(Ai)/Ai E L3(2) x S3 for i = 1
and 2.
(2) NG(Ul)/U1 L4(2), NG(UZ)= Hl N G ( A ~ ) I A2~L3(2) x S31
and NG(A2)/A2 S6 123.
, 4 1. ~ r o u p ofs type L5(2) and Mz4 219
/ (3) NG(Ui) = H and NG(&)/Ai E S6/Z3 for i = 1 and 2.
Proof: By 40.2, n, = 1zG n Ail = 21 or 45. firther if n, = 21, then by
40.3, NG(Ui)/Ui 2 L4(2) and NG(Ai)/Ai S L3(2) x S3. On the other
hand if ni = 45 then NG(Ai)/Ai E S6/Z3 by 40.4. Thus in this case
H = NG(Ui) by 39.3 and 39.8. So the lemma holds.
We will say that G is of type L5(2) in case 40.5.1 holds, G is of type
1 MZ4if 40.5.2 holds, and G is of type H e if 40.5.3 holds. We will consider
each type in succeeding sections.
Lemma 40.6: G has two conjugacy classes of involutions: zG and 7.
,
1 Proof: First by 40.2 and 40.3, zG n Ai and 7 n Ai are the orbits of
NG(Ai) on A#. Thus it remains to show that each involution in G is
fused into A1 or A2.
Now A1 and A2 are the maximal elementary abelian subgroups of
J(T), so each involution in J(T) is in Al or A2. Next if NG(Ui)/Ui
I
is isomorphic to L4(2), then each involution in NG(Ui) is conjugate
under NG(Ui) t o an element of J(T) (cf. the proof of 39.8). So we may
I
assume G is of type He. Let Li = NG(Ai)". Then each involution in
i Li is Li-conjugate to a member of J(T) and there are two Li-classes of
involutions in NG(Ai) - Li, each of which has a representative in L 3 4 .
So the proof is complete.
I
41. Groups of type L5(2) and M24
<
We continue the hypotheses, notation, and terminology of Sections 39
and 40. In addition we assume G is of type L5(2) or M24 as defined after
40.5. Let G1 = NG(Ul), Gz = NG(A1), and GQ = NG(A2). Let 3 =
(GI, G2, G B )and form the coset geometry r = r(G, 3)as in Example 4
of Section 4. We adopt the notation and terminology of Sections 4 and
38 in discussing r.
Lemma 41.1: I' is a residually connected string geometry and G is flag
transitive on I?.
Proof: Let L = (3)and suppose for the moment that L = G. From 4.5
and 4.11 it suffices to prove GI, = (Gls,2s,Gls,3s) for each s f S3 and
G2 = GI2Gz3. But T 5 G123 and from 40.5, for each choice of distinct
<
i, j there is Ki T: Ki G, with Gii/& maximal in Gi/Ki, SO indeed
Gi = (Gij, Gik). For example, K1 = Ul, G1/Ul = GL(Ul) L4(2),
Gl2/Ul is the maximal parabolic of G1/Ul stabilizing a 3-dimensional
220 Chapter 14 The Uniqueness of M241He, and L5(2)
subspace of Ul, and Gl3/Ul is the maximal parabolic stabilizing a 2-
dimensional subspace of Ul. Similarly K2 E E64, IG2 : G121 = 3, and
IG2 : G231 = 7, SO G2 = G12G23.
Thus it remains to show L = G. Notice that L satisfies the hypothesis
of G so all results in Sections 39 and 40 can be applied to both G and
L. In particular by 40.6, G and L have two classes of involutions with
representatives z and t E 7 and zG n L = zL and tG n L = tL. Further
<
by 39.1.2, CG(z)= H GI 5 L, so by 7.3, L is the unique fixed point
of z on GIL. Then by 7.5 it suffices to show t fixes a unique point of
GIL, and hence by 7.3 it suffices to show CG(t)I L.
By 39.1.9 we may pick t E E = Z ( J ( T ) ) .Let M = CG(t)and I =
M n L. We may assume M # I. For v E zG n I , L is the unique fixed
point of v on G / L , so I is the unique fixed point of v on M / I .
Proceeding by induction on the order of G, we may assume L Z L5(2)
or M24. Suppose first that L r L5(2). We view L as GL(V) (where V
is the 5-dimensional space over the field of order 2 of Section 39) and
<
observe V2 = [V, t ] and V3 = CV(t),so I G23 = NL ( J ( T ) ) .By 40.1.1,
IzG n El = 9 and I / J ( T ) E S3 has orbits of length 3,6 on zG n J ( T ) .
We pick z in the orbit of length 3 and observe that by 7.5, there is
v E zG n J ( T ) with K = CM(zv)$ I.
Let B = (t,zv), D = I fl K , and K* = K / B . Observe that as
CG((zv,t ) ) $ L, zG n (zv,t) = 0 and hence zv E cE(02(1)) % E4.
So B = cE(02(1)) and D = 02(1). Next D* is the unique point of
K*/D* fixed by x* for each x E zG n D. But Al q D while D = 02(1)
has two orbits on involutions of AT of length 3,12, and each orbit has
a representative x* with x E zG. Therefore 7.5 supplies a contradiction
and completes the proof.
Therefore L = M24. Thus it suffices to prove:
Lemma 41.2: Lett E I n Z ( J ( T ) )and assume G is of type M24.
(1) CG(t)I G3.
(2) CG(t)has three orbits on zG fl c G ( t ) with representatives z, 22 E
Z ( J ( T ) )and zl E A1 - A2.
Proof: Let I = CG,(t). By 40.4.2, I/A2 r S5, B = B ( t ) = CA,(Iw) 2
Eq, and there is X of order 3 in G3 with NG,(B) = X I and G3 =
A2NG3( X ) .Then X I acts faithfully on A2/B as GL2(4)extended by a
field automorphism, so in particular each involution in A2 - B is fused
into zB under C I ( X ) .From 40.1.1, z B n 7 = {a). Let s E I n T - I*
be an involution and b E B - ( t ) .As z E Z ( T ) , s centralizes z and
zB n T = {a), and hence also za. Therefore as bS = bt, za = t , and then
41. Groups of type Ls(2) and 221
(ab)$= abt. Therefore I has two orbits on zG n A2 with representatives
z and z2 = ab, respectively.
Next each involution in Ioo-A2 is fused under I into A1 -A2. By 40.2,
1Pn A ~ I = 21 and by 40.1, (zG~ z ( J ( T ) = ) (9, so 1zGnAl -A21 = 12.
But 12 = INI(J(T)): CI(zl)lfor zl E zG n Al - A2, so I is transitive
on zG n I* - ~ 2 .
Now CT(t)is transitive on the involutions in CT(t)- C T ( B )by Ex-
ercise 2.8, and hence each is fused to s. Further ICI(s)l is divisible by
3. But all involutions in H centralizing an element of H of order 3 or 7
are in Q so by 39.1.5 and 39.1.6, if t E 7 ,and r E z G n C G ( t ) ,then 21
is prime to ICG((t,r ) ) ( .Therefore zG n (s,t ) = @, completing the proof
of (2),modulo (1).
So it remains to prove (1). Let M = CG(t).Suppose g E M and
u,ug E zG n ~ M n . We claim g E I. By (2),u,ug E J ( T ) , so u,ug E
Al u A2 by 39.1.3. If us E A2 then conjugating in I we may take us E
Z ( J ( T ) ) = Al n A2. Now u E Ai for i = 1 or 2, and we saw in the
previous paragraph that C M ( u )is a 2-group, so Ai is weakly closed in
CM(u).Similarly Ai is weakly closed in CM(ug),so g E NM(Ai). So
as NM(Ai) <_ I , our claim holds in this case. Thus we may assume
u, ug E Al - A2. But then again g E NM(A1)5 I.
So the claim is established. Then the claim and 7.3 show I is the
unique point of M / I fixed by u E zc n I .
Let K = C I ( B )and CG(B)*= CG(B)/B.Then K* is the unique
point of CG(B)*/K*fixed by u*. However, each involution in K* is
fused to z* or z f , so by 7.5, K = CG(B).
Finally let M* = M / ( t ) . Then I* is the unique point of M*/I* fixed
by b* = B*, z*, and zl, and each involution in A4 is fused to one of
these involutions, so again 7.5 shows M = I and completes the proof.
Then
Let ( x ,I , T ) be the flag of I' whose member of type i is stabilized by
Gi and more generally adopt the notation and terminology of Section
38. Thus, for example, A is the collinearity graph of I?. Recall this is the
graph whose vertices are the points of I' and with points adjacent in A
if they are incident with a common line of I'.
By 41.1, Hypothesis (I'O) of Section 39 is satisfied by the pair G, I?.
We observed during the proof of 41.1 that hypothesis (I'6)of 38.8 holds.
By 41.1 and 4.11, I'(xi) zi I'(Gi,3i)for xi of type i. But we essentially
saw the structure of Gi and Fi during the proof of 41.1. Namely we saw
that G1/Ul r L4(2) with GL2/Ul and Gl3/Ul the maximal parabol-
ics stabilizing a point and line in some natural module for G1/Ul. In
222 Chapter 14 The Uniqueness of M24, He, and L5(2)
particular Ul = Q(x). Similarly 1 has (G2 : = 3 points and U1 is
transitive on the two points of 1 distinct from x, so hypothesis (r7) of
38.8 holds. Hence by 38.8, G and I? satisfy hypotheses ( r l ) , (r4), and
(l'5), so we can appeal to Theorem 38.3 to obtain a uniqueness system
U for G.
Further as hypothesis ( r l ) of Section 38 is satisfied, each pair of points
is incident with at most one line. In particular if y # x is a point incident
with 1 then Gx,IV GI.<
Lemma 41.3: Let I = G13. Then I = Aut(1).
Proof: Let A = Aut(I) and I * = IIAn. As Z(I) = 1 we can identify I
with Inn(I) A. Notice I*= I f x I; with I f E S4 and I; E S3. Also
J(T) is not normal in I, so by 39.1.3, A1 = J(Oz(I)) char I. Let X be
of order 3 in I with X* = 03(I*). Then If = O~'(C~.(X*))and I; =
CI. (If) are A-invariant, so as Sk= Aut(Sk) for k = 2,3, A = ICA(I*).
Then by a Frattini argument, A = IB, where B = CA(I*)nNA(X). As
NI(X) is a complement to A2 in I, [B,NI(X)] = 1.
Next Ul r l A2 = CA2(02(I))is A-invariant and I 2 is absolutely ir-
reducible on Ul n A2, so B 5 C(U1 n A2). Further there is Y of or-
der 3 in NI, (X) with CA, (Y) = Ul nA2. Then B acts on [Y,A2] and as
NI (Y) nNI (X) is absolutely irreducible on [Y,A2], B centralizes [Y,A2].
But now B centralizes I = NI(X)A2, so B = 1 and A = I.
Lemma 41.4: If G is of type M24 or L5(2) and the same type as G
with uniqueness system u then U is equivalent to U.
Proof: Let I = G13. By 41.3, Aut(I) = I. Further if x # y E r l ( l ) then
Gx,v is the pointwise stabilizer of rl(l), so from 40.5, Gx,y = NGl (A1)w
is the split extension of A1 by L3(2).
We first use Theorem 37.11 to show U is similar to Li. By 39.3, we
have an isomorphism a : GI -, and by 39.1, Ala = All so from the
previous paragraph, Gz,va = NG1(A1)OOa= N ~ ~ ( A ~=) = Also
is determined up to conjugation in G1 by its isomorphism type, so
we may choose a with G1,3a = 6 1 , ~ .
Next either G is of type M24 and G3 is the split extension of A2 by
S6/Z3 or G is of type &(2) and the split extension of A2 by L3(2) xS3. In
particular in either case, Gg is determined up to isomorphism, so we have
an isomorphism C : G3 -+ (23 and arguing as in the previous paragraph,
we may pick 5 with G1,3C = and G3({z, y))< = c3((3, 8)).
Thus to show U is similar to G, it suffices to verify Hypothesis V
of Section 37. As I = Aut(I), (V1)-(V3) are satisfied. Further G?r,x,a,
42. Groups of type He 223
and Gx,y are the subgroups of G3 and G1 fixing rl(l) pointwise, so
N ~ ~ , ~ ( G n , x=, yG1,2,3
) 5 G1,2 = NG,(Gxly), so (V4) also holds.
Finally to complete the proof we appeal to Theorem 37.9. Namely
G x , is the split extension of A1 by L3(2) and G?r,x,a,contains a Sylow
2-subgroup of GXla,,SO 38.5 says Aut(Gxly) n C(G?F,Z,y)= 1.
Lemma 41.5: If G is of type L5(2) then G Z L5(2), while if G is of
type M24 then G E M24.
Proof: First if G is of type L5(2) then by 41.4, U is equivalent to the
uniqueness system U of L5(2), so the lemma follows from the discussion
in Example 38.4.
So assume G is of type M24; here we appeal to Exercise 13.2. Namely
let G = M24 and U the uniqueness system for G. By 41.4, U is equivalent
to U, so by Exercise 13.2, G r c.
Notice that 41.5 shows:
Theorem 41.6: Up to isomorphism L5(2), M24 are the unique groups
of type L5(2), M24, respectively.
42. Groups of t y p e He
In this section we continue the hypotheses and notation of Sections 39
and 40. In addition we assume G is of type He. Let t E Z(J(T)) fl
7 and define B = B(t) = c ~(02(cG(t)
( n NG(Z(J(T))))).
~ ~ Let~ ~ ~
Y 6 SYIQ(NG(Z(J(T)))),Li = NG(A~)n CG(B), and L = IL11 L2). BY
40.4.2, B E Eq, Li/Ai E L2(4), and = Cy(Li/Ai) 2 Z3 with C L ~ ( ~ )
a complement to Ai in Li and Y acting on B. Let li E CL~('&)be an
involution acting on Y. As Yl # Y2 but li inverts Yo = Cy(B), we have:
Lemma 42.1: (11, 12) induces S3 on Y, fies Yo, and is transitive on
the remaining three ~ubgroupsYl, Y2, Y3 of Y of o d e r 3.
Lemma 42.2: CL,(q) = CG(qB) for i = 1 and 2.
Proof: Let Ti= T n CL,(K), so that Ti E Sy12(CL,(x)). There is
a conjugate v, of z in &B _< A 3 4 (cf. the discussion in paragraph
one of the proof of 41.2) and as CG((K,vi)) <NG(A3+), we have
C G ( 5B (vi)) = Ti. Now the lemma follows from Exercise 16.6 in [FGT].
Lemma 42.3: (11, 12) S3, so l$ = .1:
Proof:As l1 and l2 are involutions, W = (ill 12) % D2* for some n. As
W induces S3on Y, 3 divides a. Let 1 = ll12. It remains to show l3 = 1.
224 Chapter 14 The Uniqueness of M24, He, and Ls(2)
But by 42.1, l3 E CG(YB)5 C L i ( X )nCG(Y)= Yo by 42.2. So we may
assume = (13).
Next by 40.1 there is an involution v E NT(B) inverting Y . By 42.2,
CG(YB)= Yo, so [v,I] E CG( YB ) = Yo. Thus there is an element k of
order 3 in 1Yo nC(v).Then k centralizes CB(v)= ( t ) ,and hence also B.
But (1) is a Sylow 3-group of CG(B)f l N ( Y ) ,so E9 !S ( k ,Yo)= ( I ) S Zg ,
a contradiction.
Lemma 42.4: L = L1 U Lll2Ll = L2 U L211L2.
Proof: It suffices to show L: E L1 U L112L1.Let K = NLl ( J ( T ) ) Then.
K = BOB1B2Y0, where B 5 Bi, Bo = Z ( J ( T ) ) ,At = BOBi, and Bo/B
and Bi/B are the Y-invariant Csubgroups of Ai/B. Thus li interchanges
Bo and Bi via conjugation.
Next 12K1112 = 12A2Y0B11112 = 12A2YOllB012= l2A2&l1l2B2 =
c
= A ~ Y O Z ~Ll12Ll.B ~ Therefore ( ~ 1 1 ~ 2=) 12Kll12Bo
h C
Lll2Ll.
Finally Li = KUKliB3-,. So L: = ( K U K E ~ B=~ K ) '~~~ U ( K Z ~ B ~ ) ' ~ .
We have seen E L112L1.Also K'Z C L2 = K U K12B1 2
L1 U L112L1. So the proof is complete.
Lemma 42.5: LIB 2 L3(4) with B 5 L = Lm.
Proof: First B 5 Li = L r , so as L = ( L l ,L2), B 5 L = Lm. Let
3 = {L1,L2) and I? = I'(L,F) the coset geometry of Example 4 in
Section 4. The largest subgroup of Ll nL2 normal in Ll and L2 is B , so
B is the kernel of the action of L on I?. We show I' is the projective plane
P over GF(4),and ILIBI = 1L3(4)1.But by 5.2, A U ~ ( P2)L3(4). ~ So
L = Aut(P)* 2 L3(4).
By 42.4, L is 2-transitive on the points and lines of I'. Thus each pair of
points is incident with a line and as L2 = (A1,A!) for g E L2 - NL(L1)
while A1 5 L! for each h E L1, L2 is the unique line incident with L1
and Llg. Similarly each pair of lines is incident with a unique point.
-
So is a projective plane of order IL2 : Ll n L2( 1 = 4. Then as
L i I B 5 Aut(r), = P by 18.6. Further there are 21 points of I' as
'I = P, so / L I B /= 21)L1/BI = IL3(4)1.
Lemma 42.6: L = CG(B).
Proof: Let M = CG(B)and M* = MIB. Assume L # M. As L* is
<
transitive on its involutions and CMl(a*)= CM(a)* L*, L* is strongly
embedded in M* by 7.3. But L* has 9 . 5 . 7 involutions but no subgroup
of odd order divisible by 5 9 .7, contradicting 7.6.
42. Groups of type He 225
Lemma 42.7: (1) CG(t)= L(u),where u is an involution in NG(J(T))-
CG(B)-
(2) CG(t)is transitive on involutions in uL.
(3) u E 7.
(4) NG(B)= Y L ( u ) and N G ( B ) / BEi Pr3(4).
Proof: Let M = CG(t),M* = M / ( t ) , K = L(u),and B = (t,b). Then
K = N M ( B )by 42.6, so K* = CM.(b*).Next K* has five classes of
involutions with representatives b*, z* , u*, b*u*, and b*z*. Notice bu
is of order 4 while b, z, u, and bz are involutions. By 40.1, (t,z) and
(t,bz) contain conjugates of z but B contains no such conjugate. Also
tu E u B , so once we show u E I ,(u,t ) contains no conjugate of z. Use
the argument in paragraph three of the proof of 41.2 to see u $! P.
We have shown z* and b*z* are not conjugate to b*, u*, or b*u* in
M*. Also C M ( z )and CM( b t ) are contained in K. Finally z* is not fused
to b*z* in M* by 7.7 as z* and b*a* are in the center of the Sylow 2-
subgroup CT(t)* of M*, but z* is'not fused to b*z* in G.(CT(t)*).
Thus by 7.3, K* is the unique point of M*/K* fixed by z* and b*z*,
and then M* = K* by 7.5.
So (1) and (3) are established. Part (2)follows as T n L is transitive
on the involutions in u(T n L ) by Exercise 2.8. As Y is transitive on
B#, (NG(B): CG(t)(= 3 and NG(B)= YCG(t).Also NG(B) acts on
the projective plane I' constructed during the proof of 42.5, with B the
kernel of this action. So 5.2 completes the proof of (4).
It follows from 42.7 that B is a TI-set in G. Let A = B~ and form the
graph A with vertex set A and A adjacent to C if A # C and [A,C ] = 1.
We refer to the members of A as root 4-subgroups of G.
Lemma 42.8: (1) A ( B ) is an orbit of L of length 105.
(2) For A E A ( B ) , (A,B ) = Z ( J ( S ) )for some S E Sy12(G),ABIB
is the root group of a transvection of LIB, and { A ,B ) = AB n A.
Proof: Let A E A(B). Then A 5 CG(B)= L, so conjugating in L we
may take A 5 J ( T ) E Sy12(L).Then as A1 and A2 are the maximal
elementary abelian subgroups of J(T), A i. Ai for i = 1 or 2. Then
as NG(Ai) controls fusion in Ai and is Ztransitive on B ~ G ( * ' )L, is
transitive on A ( B ) and we may take AB = Z ( J ( T ) ) .Now by 40.1,
{ A ,B ) = AB n A and JA(B)I= IL : NL(A)l = 105. As Z ( J ( T ) ) / Bis a
root group in LIB, the proof is complete.
Lemma 42.9: (1) H is transitive on H n A of order 42.
(2) T = J(T)Q.
226 Chapter 14
(3) (t) = B n Q.
The Uniqueness of M24, He, and L5(2)
I 42. Groups of type He
(4) H has two orbits on 7 n H with representatives t and b E B - Q.
Proof: By 42.7, zG nCG(t) E L = CG(B). Also NG(B) is transitive on
zG nL, while Cc(t) has two orbits on zG nL. Therefore H is transitive
on H nA and has two orbits on 7 n H with representatives t, b E B. By
39.1.5, tH = TQ = 7 n Q, so b E B - Q and (3) holds. Also lA n HI =
lH : NH(B)I = 21H : NH(Z(J(T)))I = 42.
Next J(T) = CH(b) is of index 4 in T. But as b $! Q, IQ : CQ(b)l 2 4,
so (2) holds.
Let E be the set of subgroups K of G with K Z L2(4) and Syl2(K) E A.
Lemma 42.10: Let A, C be distinct members of A(B). Then L is tran-
sitive on s n L of order z4 - 3 7 and one of the following holds:
(1) C E A(A) and ABC is L-conjugate to Al or A*.
(2) (A, C) E J ( T ) ~-
(3) (A, C) E E is conjugate to a complement to Ai in NL(Ai).
Proof: Let L* = LIB. By 42.8.2, A(B)* is the set of root groups of L*.
Hence by Exercise 14.1, (A*, C*) E for i = 1 or 2, or (A*, C*) E
J ( T ) * ~ ,or (A*, C*) % L2(4) is conjugate to a complement to Af in
NL. (Af). Further there are 24.3-7subgroups of L* of the last type, and L
is transitive on such subgroups. As {A, B) = A B n A and J ( T ) = (A, C)
for A E (A n Al) - A2 and C E (A n A2) - All the lemma follows.
We now calculate the order of G using the Thompson Order Formula.
For u = z or x, let a(u) be the number of pairs (x, y) such that x E zG,
y E 7, and u E (xy). By the Thompson Order Formula 7.2:
Thus we need to calculate a(z) and a(t). This is tedious but not difficult
given the right approach; the details appear in the next two lemmas.
Lemma 42.11: a(t) = 5 . 7 - 9.481.
I
Proof: Let L(u)* = L(u)/B. Thus L(u)* is L3(4) extended by the field
iutomorphism u. Let x E zG and y E 7 with t E (xy). By 7.1, (x, y)
is dihedral and t E Z((x, y)), so (x, y) 5 CG(t) = L(u). We calculated
during the proof of 42.7 that L has four orbits on I n L with represent*
tives t, b E B - (t), s E A E A(B), and u, and L has two representatives
on zG n L with representatives z = ts and zl = bs. Observe that as
t E (xy), t # Y-
If y = b then as b E Z(L), xb is an involution, so t = xb. Then
227
x = tb E B, contradicting x E zG.
Suppose y = s. If A = Ax then ( s x ) ~E A, so as t E (sx), s x = t and
- -
x = st = z. There are lsLl = 9 5 - 7 choices for s and hence 9 . 5 7 pairs
(x, y) arise is this subcase.
If A # Ax but (A, Ax) is abelian then sx is of order 4 but the involution
in (sx) is ssx # t.
If (A, Ax) E J ( T ) ~then (x, A) is a 2-group and (A, Ax) E Sy12(L),
so x E (A, Ax). But then (A, Ax) is abelian.
By 42.10, when y = s the only subcase remaining satisfies K =
(A,Ax) S L2(4). Then x E NL(K) = BK, and as x E zG, x = cr
for some c E B# and some involution r E K. Notice ( x s ) ~= ( r ~ E) K~,
-
so as t E (xs), lrsl is odd and c = t. Now there are 16 21 choices for K
by 42.10. Further there are fifteen choices for s in K and as ITS[ is odd,
-
there are twelve choices for r given s, Thus there are 16 21 . 180 pairs
(x, y) in this subcase.
Finally we have the case y = u. Here x = cr, c E B#, r E A E A(B).
If [x, u] = 1 then x = tu. But tu E 7 by 42.7.2.
If A = A" then as [x, u] # 1,xu is of order 4 and t = [x, u] = [c,u][T,u].
Thus [r,u] = 1 and c = b or bt. As u induces a field automorphism,
CL.(u*) L3(2) has 21 involutions, so u acts on 21 root groups. That
is, there are 21 choices for r and two choices b and bt for c, so there are
42 pairs ( x , ~ )Also
. -
luLl = 16 15, so there are 32 9 5 7 pairs (x, y)
in this subcase.
If A # A" but (A, A") is abelian then xu is of order 4 but t # [x, u].
<
Suppose (A, A") = J(T). Then A Ai and as Ai <1 T (u, J(T)), >
(A, A") < Ail a contradiction.
Finally suppose (A, A") = K E &. Then rru is of order 3 or 5 and the
involution t in (xu) is mu. Thus c = b or bt and as A # Au there are six
choices for r in K. So there are 12N pairs (x, y) in this subcase, where
N is the number of pairs (v, M ) with M E K~ and v E uL n NG(M).
ThenN=201LnEl=20-16.21.
We have shown that
Lemma 42.12: ajz) = 4 . 9 . 7 19.
Proof: By 42.9, we may take y E B. If [x,y] = 1 then x = yz. But if
y E Q then yz E yQ, so y 4 Q. Thus y = b or bt and x = yz. As there
are 42 choices for B by 42.9.1, there are 84 pairs (x, y) in this subcase.
228 Chapter 14 The Uniqueness of He, and L5(2)
Suppose x E N H ( B )but [x,y] f 1. Then (x,y) Z D8 but the involu-
tion in (xy) is in B and hence not z.
Suppose x E T . Recall Z ( J ( T ) )= B x B1 for some B1 E A. By the
previous paragraph, Bx = B1. Thus z = yyx, which forces y E Q and
hence y = t. Now there are 64 involutions in T - N H ( B )and 16 of these
involutions are in 7,so there are 48 choices for x. As there are 42 choices
for B, we have 42.48 pairs ( x ,y ) in this subcase.
Suppose y = t but x 4 T. Then as N H ( ( t , z ) )= T and z is in (xt),
(t,t x ) Z Ds. This is impossible as [v,vx] 1 for each involution v E Q
42. Groups of type H e 229
Proof: First; CG((t,X ) ) = B X , so by Exercise 16.6 in [FGT],either
C G ( X ) 5 NG(B) or C G ( X ) / X 2 L2(4). But by 42.13, X i: P E
Sy15(G) with /PI = 25, so the latter holds. Then C G ( X ) = X x I
with B 5 I 2 L2(4).Thus I E 3.
I
Next X 5 K E L n 3. Then there is an involution k E K inverting X.
/
i
Notice k centralizes BR, where R is of order 3 in NG(B)nCG(K).Then
k acts on I = CG(X)OO,so as Aut(I) E S5 and [k,BR] = 1, [k,I]= 1.
1 Then I 5 C G ( ~5 )Cc(B(k)),
~ so I centralizes (X,B(k)) = K. Now

and each involution x 4 Q.

I=
So y @ Q and x @ T . Let H* = H / Q . Then x*y* is of order 3 or 4.
Suppose Ix*y*l = 4. Then yx E T and z G ( y , yx). As y # t , we have a
contradiction as in paragraphs two and three.
So Ix*y*l = 3. Thus there is h of order 3 in (xy) and y inverts h. Now
CH(h)= (h) x CQ(h)with CQ(h)2 D8 and [y,CQ(h)]= 1. Further
each involution in yCQ(h) is in zG, so the three elements of y(h) are
the three choices for elements of H n 7 inverting h, and x = zyh is
determined by y and h. Finally there are 7. 27 choices for h, so there
are 2' .3 .7 pairs ( x ,y ) in this subcase.
We have shown that
. .
Lemma 42.13: (GI = 2''. 33 52 73 -17
1 by symmetry, K = C G ( X I )for XI E Sy15(I).So as N G ( X )= I N G ( X I )
by a Frattini argument, NG(X)5 NG(K).Hence as K is transitiv~on
I
1 Sy15(K),K is the unique member of X containing X .
i
Next by 42.8, Z ( J ( T ) )n A = { A ,B ) and we may take A E Sy12(K).
So there is g E NG(J(T))with Bg = A and g2 G NG(B).Now Ig E L n 3
and as NG(B)n NG(Bg)is transitive on { D E L n 3 : Bg 5 D),we may
/ take I9 = K. Then as K = CG(I),Kg = CG(Ig)= CG(K)= I , so g
interchanges I and K . We conclude (3) holds as ING(BX)I = 240.
Lemma 42.15: (1) Up to conjugation in L there is a unique subgroup
S of L with S n l nonempty and S r S3.
(2) CG(S)E Sg with CG(S)* E E.
Proof: By Exercise 14.2, up to conjugation in L* = L I B there is a
unique subgroup So* S3.Further CL.(Sz) = 1. Then So = B x S with
S % S3 and if s is an involution in S then sB contains a unique member

Proof: We apply the Thompson Order Formula 7.2: I

of I which we take to be s. Hence (1) is established.
Let K E L n 5. Then K contains an S3-subgroup and the involutions -
I in K are in 7 ,so we may take S 5 K . By 42.14, CG(K) = I E .;
+ IcG(t)la(z).
lGI = lcG(~)la(t) I
Let M = CG(S),so that I 5 M. Now CG(S(t))= B(u) 2 D8, with
We have ICG(z)l= 2' - -
. 3 7 and ICG(t)l= 29 32 5 .7. So / u E 7 inducing a field automorphism on L*. Thus I(u) E &. Then
CI(u)Z S3, so as CG(S(t))is a 2-group, u 4 t M .Hence by a transfer
+ (2'
lG( = (2". 3.7)(5.7.9.481)
. +
= 2''. 33. 5 . 72 (481 6 19)
32 5 7)(4.9.7 19)
+

/ argument (cf. 37.4 in [FGT]) u 6 o ~ ( M ) Then

. B = Co2(M)(t),so
O ~ ( M=) I by Exercise 16.6 in [FGT].Thus (2) holds.
1I
= 210 .33 - 5 .72 .595, 1 Lemma 42.16: Let X be of order 3 in L. Then
as claimed. (1) N G ( X ) / X E S7 with C G ( X )= CG(X)".
..
(2) In the representation ofNG(X)on (1,. ,7), transpositions and
Lemma 42.14: Let X be of order 5 in L. Then products of two distinct commuting transpositions are in 7,while
(1) X is contained in a unique member K of &. products of three distinct commuting transpositions are in zG.
I

I
(2) C G ( X )= CG(K)E E. Proof: Let M = N G ( X )and M* = MIX. Then CM.(t*) 2 D8 x S3.
(3) NG(KCG(K))interchanges K and CG(K)and is of index 2 in Let s E 7n L with X ( s ) r S3. By 42.15, CM*(s*)2 2 2 x $5.
S5wrZ2. Next we may take XD1 9 NG(D1)for some conjugate Dl of A1 with
1
 230 Chapter 14 The Uniqueness of M2q1 He, and Ls(2)
(s, B) 5 NM(Dl) = MI. Then Ml 2 s6/23 with X < CMl(X)03
by 40.4. Let v = st and R E S Y ~ ~ ( C ~ ( ( S ,Then ~ ) ) )v. E zG and
CMl (v)* 2 2 x Sq with 02(CM1(v)) 5 02(CG(V)). Hence CM, (v)
is maximal among subgroups K of CG(v) with R E Sy12(K). But
@(R) = (t), so as R E Sy12(CM(t)), we conclude R E Syl2(M). Hence
CM,( 4 = CM (v).
Therefore t*, s*,v* are representatives for the conjugacy classes of
involutions of M*. Further we are in a position to apply the Thompson
Order Formula 7.2. Namely the parameters in the order formula for M*
are the same as those for S7 since the involution centralizers and fusion
pattern in M* are the same as in S7. Therefore by the Order Formula,
IM*J = /S71.Then as IM* : M;( = 7 and M: 2 86, we conclude
M* E 5'7. Further in the representation of M* on {I,. . . ,7), t* is the
product of two transpositions as CM=(t*) 2 S3x Dg ,s*is a transposition
as CM. (s*) % 2 2 x S5, and v* is the product of three transpositions as
CM.(v*) 2 z2 X 6'4. SO (2) holds.
43. The root 4-group graph for He
In this section we continue the hypotheses and notation of Section 42.
In particular A is the commuting graph on the set of root 4-subgroups
of G. We will show that A .is 4generated in the sense of Section 34.
Throughout this section let M = NG(B).
Lemma 43.1: M has seven orbits on A:
(4 {B).
(2) A(B) of order 105.
(3) A ~ ( B )= {A E A : (A,B) = J(S), S E Sy12(G), B <
D 5
S, D E A?), i = 1,2, of order 8 . 105. firther A(A, B) =
A n Z(J(S)) is of order 2.
(4) A ~ ( B ) = {A E A : (A, B) E 8) of order 26 21. Further
A(A, B) = Sy12(I) is of order 5, where I = CG((A,B)) E Z.
(5) A ~ ( B )= {A E A : (A, B) 2 Sq) of order 24 . 32 .5. Further
NM(A) = NA(B) x NB(A) x L3(2).
(6) A ~ ( B )consisting of those A E A such that (A, B) = CG(X)
- - - -.
for some X of order 3, and of order 27 -35. Further NM(A) =
NM(R) E ~ 4 1 3 for ' ~ some
~ R E Sy13(G).
Proof; By 42.8, A(B) is an orbit of M of length 105.
Next by 42.8, A n (Ai - Z(J(T))) is of order 4 and by 42.10, if A E
A n (Ai - Z(J(T))) and C E A n (A3-i - Z(J(T))) then (A, C) = J(T)
43. The mot 4-group graph for He 231
and A is regular on A n (A34 - Z(J(T))). SOG is transitive on the set
S of pairs (A, C) from A x A with Ag < A, and (A, C)g = J(T), with
l6lG : NG(T)I = IS1 = JA~N;, where N? = ~A:(B)I. Thus
and M is transitive on A:(B). As CG(J(T)) = Z(J(T)), A(A,C) =
A n Z(J(T)) is of order 2 by 42.8.
Next if A E A$(B) then by 42.14, CG((A,B)) = K E E f l L and
(A, B) = CG(K). So as L is transitive on Z n L by 42.10, and as B is
regular on (A, B) n A - {B), L is transitive on A ~ ( B ) Further
. I A ~ ( B=
)I
413 n LI = 26.21 by 42.10.
By 42.7 there is u = t g E CG(t) - L. Then B acts on I = (u,t)
and t E CG(u) 5 NG(Bg), so [Bg, t] = (u) and hence Bg acts on I.
Thus (B, Bg) acts on I and from that action we conclude (B, Bg) 2 Sq.
That is, Bg E A:(B). Conversely if A E A ~ ( B )then NA(B) = (v) is
of order 2 and CB(v) = ( c ) for some c E B#. Conjugating in M we
may take c = t. Then as [v, B] # 1, v 4 L, so by 42.7.2, v E uL. Hence
s orbit under M. Further
A = B(v) is L-conjugate to Bg, so A j ( ~ ) . i an
~ A ~ ( B=) IIuM1 = 2 4 - 3 2 - 5and NM(Bg) =CM(u) = (u) x (t) x L3(2)
as u induces a field automorphism on L I B (cf. 42.7.4).
By Exercise 14.2, L is transitive on its subgroups X of order 3 and
by 42.16, NG(X)/X E S7. Represent I = NG(X) on C = {I,... ,7)
and let I * = I I X . Then B* is the 4-group in I*moving some set C(B)
of order 4. Further CG(X) = (A, B) for some A E A n I if and only
if C(A) U C(B) = C. Then NM(A) = NlnM(A) S ~ 4 / 3 l +and ~ B
is regular on A ~ ( B n ) I. Hence (A;(B)~ = 4 1 ~ =~271.35 and M is
transitive on A ~ ( B ) .
To complete the proof, observe that the sum of the orders of the seven
orbits listed in 43.1 is 8,330 = 2 . 5 72 17 = IG : MI = 1A1, so these are
all the orbits of M on A.
Lemma 43.2: All triangles in A are fused under G into A1 or A2.
Proof: Let ABC be a triangle. We may take AB = Z(J(T)) by 42.8.
Then C < CG(AB) = J(T), so as A1 and A2 are the maximal elemen-
tary abelian subgroups of J(T), ABC _< Ai for i = 1 or 2.
Lemma 43.3: A ~ ( B )= u:=~A:(B).
Proof: Let A E A. If A E A:(B) then A(A, B) # 0 by 43.1 and hence
A ~ ( B )C A 2 ( ~ )Conversely
. assume d(A,B) = 2 and let C E A(A, B).
Then C B I B is a root group of LIB. But by 43.1, CLIB(A) contains a
root group of L I B only if A E A:(B) for 1 < i < 3.
232 Chapter 14 The Uniqueness of Mz4, He, and Ls(2)
Lemma 43.4: Each square in A is fused under G into K I , where K, I
are a pair of commuting members of 8.
Proof: If p = Bo Bq is a square then B2 E A 2 ( ~ oand ) B1, B3 E
A(Bo,Bz), with B1 E A 2 ( ~ 3 )so, the remark follows from 43.1 and
43.3. For example, if C2 E A:(&) for i = 1 or 2, then by 43.1.3,
A(Bo,B2)= { A ,B ) with A E A(B) rather than A E A ~ ( B ) .
Lemma 43.5: If A E A:(B) for i = 1 or Z1 then B E A$-~(A).
Proof: By 43.2, (A,B ) = J ( S ) for some S E Sy12(G)and B <D 5 S
with D E. A?. But then A E D' < S with D' E AE~.
Remark 43.6. We sometimes view M/B as acting as PrL3(4)on its
natural %dimensional projective module W over GF(4).Observe that
in this representation, each X E E n L is a characteristic subgroup of
the stabilizer of some decomposition W = c ( X )@ a ( X )of W as the sum
of a point c ( X )and a line a(X).
Similarly each A E A ( B ) is the root group of transvections determined
by an incident-point-line pair (el(A),e2(A))= (c(A),a(A)). F'urther we
43. The root 4-group graph for He 233
Let A E A ~ ( Band) adopt the convention of Remark 43.6. Thus
BNM(A)is the stabilizer of a nonincident-point-line pair ( p , I ) o f W .
Then one orbit of NM(A)on A ( B ) consists of those C with (c(C),
a(C)) = (q,k), where q # p, k # 1, q I , and p 4 k. Then Y =
NM( A )1NM
1 ( C )2 S3 with O3( Y )= X having eigenspaces Wl and W2
on W of dimension 1 and 2, respectively. Then X $ L,so X is faithful
on B and q < Wz and Wl 5 k, so X centralizes C. We claim C E Ai(A);
<
then as d(A,C) 3, the lemma is established.
) X is faithful on B, X is also faithful on A. As
As A E A ~ ( Band
C $ NM(A),C 4 A(A). As [X,C]= 1 and A = [A,X],C 4 Ai(A).
Finally we check using the representation of NG(C)on A(C) supplied
by Remark 43.6 that if A E A ~ ( c )then
, there exists no B E A(C) such
that Y = NM(A)n NG(C)E S3 with 0 3 ( Y )5 CG(C).
In the remainder of this section let w = N C , ( ~ ) be the invariant equiv-
alence relation on the paths of A generated by C4(A)(cf. Chapter 12).
Lemma 43.8: Let p = Bo .. .Bq be a path with Bg E A ~ ( B ~Assume
).
there exists no path q of length 3 with p q. Then
N

may choose notation so that A1 is the group of transvections of V with (1) Bq E A ; ( B ~ for
) j = 1 or 2.
a common center and A2 is the group of transvections with a common (2) For C E A(B2,B4) and X = CG((Bo,B2)), c(C) $ a ( X ) and
axis. Then C E A(A) if and only if c(C)= c(A) or a(C)= a(A) and in
the first case ABC E AF, while in the second ABC E A:.
4x1 4 a ( c ) .
(3) There exist three P E A ; ( B ~n) X with BoPB2B3B4 p.
Notice A 5 X if and only if c(A)E a ( X ) and a(A)= c(X) c(A).+ Proof: Without loss of generality B = B2;we adopt the notation of RE-
Finally C E A ~ ( Aif)and only if ei(A)E e3-i(C)but ei(C)$ e3-i(A).
mark 43.6. As p is equivalent to no path of length 3,34.10.1 says Bi+2 €
Lemma 43.7: (1) A ~ ( B=) AQ(B) U A$(B). A ~ ( Bfor~ )0 < i < 3. Similarly by 34.10.2, d(A(Bo,B), A(B4,B ) ) > 1.
(2) A is of diameter 3. For i = 0,4, let Xi = CL(B)i,and if Bi E A:(B) let cj = c(Xi)
Proof: Observe that 43.1,43.3, and (1)imply (2), so it remains to prove and a; = a(Xi). For example, by hypothesis, Bo E A ~ ( B )Assume .
(1).Further d(B,B') 1 3 for B' E A:(B), i = 1,2, by 43.3, and by 43.1, B4 E A$(B) and let c be a point on a0 n a4 and Ci E Xi n A with
A:(B) is an orbit of NG(B)on A, so it suffices to exhibit A E A?(B) c(Ci) = c. Then by Remark 43.6, C4 E c;, contradicting d(A(B,Bo),
with d(A,B ) 5 3. A(B,B4)) > 1.
Now by 43.8, NL(A1) is the split extension of Al by I E E. Next So Bq E A ~ ( Bfor ) j = 1,2, and without loss of generality j = 1 and
by 40.5, A(B, B4) = {C,D) with BCD = A1. Notice B3 = C or D by 43.1.
As d(C,A(B, Bo))> 1, c(C) 4 a0 and QJ 4 a(C). Thus (1) and (2) are
o 2 ( ~ G ( ~ 1=) O
) *~ ( N G ( A ~ ) ) / ~ ~ , ~Gi (A6-
NC(~~)) established.
Then 0 2 ( ~ ~ ( A 1is)represented
)* as Ag on a set St of six points and if Next let P E A n Xo. If c(B3) 4 a(P) and a(P) 4 c(B3) then P E
C1 E A n I and Cz E such that (Cl,C2)fixes no point of a, ) p BoPBB3B4. But by ( 2 ) and as a(P)= QJ 4- c(P)with
A g ( ~ 3and
then (Cl,Cz)* Z Sq. Hence by 43.1, C2 E A!(c~). Therefore there exist c(P) € ao, there exists a unique P E A n X Owith c(B3)E a(P);namely
B-invariant D E A? and A E NG(D)n A ~ ( B )Further . ABlB2B is a that P with c(P) the projection of c(B3)on ao. Similarly the unique
path in A, where B1 E A n CD(A)and B2 E A n CD(B).This shows P' E A n Xo with c(P) E a(B3) satisfies c(P) = a(Bo)n ag. So (3)
d(A,B) 1 3 for A E A;(B). holds.

234 Chapter 14 The Uniqueness of Mz4,H e , and Ls(2)
In the remainder of this section assume A is not Cgenerated, in the
.-
sense of Section 34. Thus there exists a nontrivial cycle p = Bo - Bn.
Choose p with n minimal subject to this constraint. Then by 34.4, p is
an n-gon.
Lemma 43.9: Bi+z E A!(~)(B~) with j(i) = 1 or 2 for each i.
Proof: Assume not. Then without loss of generality B:! E A~(Bo).Now
by minimality of n and 34.10.3, Bo -..B4 is not equivalent to any path
of length 3, so by 43.8, Bq E A?(BZ) for j = 1 or 2, and ~A:(B~)n
A(BolB2)1 2 3. By symmetry, Bn-z E A;(BO) for k = 1 or 2, and
I A $ ( B ~ - ~n
) A(Bo,Bz)l 2 3. Hence as lA(Bo, Bz)l = 5, there exists
P E A ~ ( B ~ B3) - ~ ,n A(Bo, B2). NOWby 34.10.4, p BoPBl. Bn,
N -
so without loss of generality P = B1. But then as P E A ~ ( B ~ B3),
43.8.1 supplies a contradiction.
-~,
Lemma 43.10: (1) j(i) = 3 - j(i + 1) for all 0 < i 5 n.
(2) n is even.
(3) n > 7.
Proof: Without loss of generality B2 = B. By 43.9, we can assume B f
A;(Bo); that is, j(0) = 2. Then by 43.5, Bo E A ~ ( B ) .Then (B, Bo) =
J(S) for some S E Sy12(G) and Z(J(S)) = BIB; with {B1,Bi} =
A(B, Bo) and BBIB; E A?.
Similarly (B,B4) = J(R) and Z(J(R)) = B3Bi with BB3Bi E A?
for i = 1 or 2. Finally (B1, B3) = J(T).
We claim J ( T ) = B1BiBB3Bi. Assume not; then without loss of
generality B i $ T. Then as BBIBi is the member of A? containing
BB1, B1 5 A2, so B3 E A % ( B ~ )Similarly
. B3 E A~(B:). That is,
c(B3) E a(B1) and c(B1) $ a(B3). But p N BOBiB2...Bn, SO also
(B',, B3) = J(T1) and as B3 E A~(B;), B1 $ TI, so c(B3) E a(B;).
Therefore c(B3) E a(Bl)na(Bi) = c(B1), so c(B3) = c(B1), contradict-
ing [Bl, B31# 1.
Hence the claim is established. In particular Z((B, Bo))B = A1 =
Z((Bil B3))Bi and A(Bo,B) E Z((B, Bo)) E J(T). By symmetry
A(BTB4) C J(T), so (B1l 83) = J(T) = (A(BolBz), A(%, B4)).
- - Now as Z((B1,B3))Bl = All j(1) = 1. That is, (1) holds. Also by
(I), j(2r) = j(0) = 3 - j(1) = 3 - j(2s + 1) for all integers r, s, so (2)
holds.
Next let A$ = BoBIBi be the member of AF in S and Y = (Ah, Az).
Then A1 A Y and A1 n A2 and A1 n A; are of index 4 in All so E =
Az flA1 n A', is of order at least 4 and contained in Z(Y). Then from
1
I 43. The root 4-group graph for He 235
the structure of NG(Al), Y = CG(E) nNG(A1) is the split extension of
! Al by (BoyB3) S4 and E# C_ ZG.
As n 2 5 is even, t o prove (3) and complete the proof of the lemma,
we may assume n = 6. Notice Y = (Bi : 0 < <i 3). Also K =
CG((BolB3)) g L3(2) by 43.1.5 and E is a Csubgroup of K. As E# C
zG,we may assume z E E. Then as 3 divides the order of Y 5 CG(E),
E < Q. Let H* = H/Q.By 42.9, B t r Z2 for all i, 0 < <
i 3,
I so Y* GZ S4. Then from the structure of H , (YI = ICH(E)I, so Y =
CH(E) = CG(E). As A2 5 Y and A2 is weakly closed in NG(A2), there
is no Y-invariant member of ~ fBut . P = (B3, Bq, B5,Bo) satisfies
the hypotheses of Y except that there is a member of AB normal in
P, so E = Z(P) must live in the second class of Cgroups of K. In
-
particular if r = B3C4C5B0 is a path such that El = Z((r)) E BK,then
P - BOB5B4B3r 1. Thus to complete the proof it suffices t o show
. ..
we can choose r subject to this constraint such that Bo B3 . r 1. N
I Indeed we will show that this holds when Z((r)) n E = 1. Toward that
end we let Gz = NG(A2) and show:
(a) NG(J(S)) r l NG(B) is transitive on those D E ~ fwith
: B3 <
<
D NG(Az) and (A1,D)/A2 S4-
--
(b) There exists a hexagon q = Co. C6 with 'Ci+2 E A;(il (Ci),
<
C,+3 E A;(C,) for 0 i 5 6 and (q) = H.
Now if q satisfies (b) then conjugating in H we may take Ci = Bi
I
<
for 0 5 i 3, and then the hypotheses of (a) are satisfied with D, =
Z(J(T))C4. Similarly our typical nontrivial hexagon p satisfies the hy-
potheses of (a) with Dp = Z(J(T))Bq, so by (a), (p) = (Dp, J(S)) E
(dG
(D,, J ( s ) ) ~ = = H ~Therefore
. we have shown that if p is non-
trivial then E n E # 1, to complete the proof.
So it remains to establish (a) and (b). For (b), let H* = H/Q and
q* = C t--- C,* a hexagon in the commuting graph of involutions of H*.
Let q be any lift of q* in H to A with Co = C6.
Let G; = Gz/02,3(Gz) and observe that G; acts on A? as Spq(2)
on the fifteen points of its symplectic space with (A;, D*) g Sq, A5, for
D orthogonal, not orthogonal to Al in this space, respectively. Further
NG,(B3)* E 55 has two orbits of length 5, 10 on A? with the set
I
0 of members of A? containing B3 of order 5. So as B3 $ A1 and
NG2(A1) = NG2(J(T)),a subgroup X of CG, (B3)nNG(J(T)) of order 3
is transitive on the three members D of 0 with (D*,A;) G Sq. But as
[B3, X] = 11 [X, NG(Al)"] < <
A11 so X NG(J(S)).
236 Chapter 14 The Uniqueness of M241He, and L5(2)
Lemma 43.11: A is 4-genemted.
Proof: By 43.7.2 and 34.5, n 5 7. Then 43.10.3 supplies a contradiction.
44. The uniqueness of groups of type H e
In this section we continue the hypotheses and notation of Section 42.
Our aim is to show that, up to isomorphism, there is at most one group
of type He. Let Gi = NG(Ai) ~ n G3 d = M = NG(B). Let B 5 K i E Z
and K2 = CG(Kl). Choose K1 so that Z(J(T)) E Syl~(KlK2).Let
.
G4 = NG(KIK2). Finally let I = (1,. . ,4) and 3 = (Gi : i E I ) and
I? = I?(G,F).
Lemma 44.1: Up to isomorphism there is at most one quasisimple group
L with Z(L) zz E4 and L/Z(L) ?2L3(4).
Proof: Let be the universal covering group of L3(4) and 2 = z(E)
(cf. Section 33 in (FGT]). Let % = (s2: s E 2 ) and = i/&. Then
e is the Iargest perfect central extension of L3(4) whose center 2 is an
elementary abelian 2-group, so there is a surjection of onto L. Thus
it suffices to show 121< 4.
Let 112 be a maximal parabolic of 2/8. Then I contains a Sylow
2-subgroup of e, so by 33.11 in [FGT], I is a perfect central extension
of I/Z. Let E = 0 2 ( I ) . Then E = E/Z is the natural module for I*=
I/E 2 L2(4). As E is the natural module for I*, I is transitive on E#, so
each element in E# is an involution, and hence E is elementary abelian.
Hence there are involutions in I - E, so as I is perfect, E = [E, I].
Thus 121 <_ I H ~ E)I( ~ ,by 17.12 in [FGT]. But as a GF(4)-module,
1 = dirn(fl1(f, E)) by Exercise 14.6, so indeed 121<_ l ~ l ( i , E ) =
I 4.
See Example 36.1 for the definition of the amalgam A(F) of the family
F of subgroups of G.
Lemma 44.2: If G is a group of type He then the amalgams A(F) and
A($) are isomorphic.
Proof: By 44.1, L is determined up to isomorphism, so as M is the split
extension of L by S3 with the involution inducing a field automorphism
on LIB, there is an isomorphism as : M + M . Similarly for i = 1,2, Gi
is the split extension of Ai by S6/Z3 and in particular is determined up
to isomorphism. So there exist isomorphiims ai : Gi --, Gifor i = 1,2.
Finally by 42.14, G4 is a determined subgroup of index 2 of the wreath
product L2(4)wrZ2, so there is an isomorphism a 4 : G4 -+ c4.
44. The uniqueness of groups of type He
Let I = NG(J(T)) and E = Z(J(T));notice I = G12. Now I / E =
Il/E x 12/E,where Ii/E r S4.So as S4 = Aut(S4), the subgroup D of
Aut(1) normalizing I1factors as D = IA, where A = CAut(I)(I/E).
Next for X E Syls(I), X = X1 x X2 with Xi E Sy13(Ii) and E =
[E,Xi]. Then E = I n A and A = ECA(X)with CA(X) = CA(NI(X)) 5
CA(E) as Nr(X) is absolutely irreducible on E. Similarly [CJ(T)(Xi),
CA(X)] <_ CE(Xi) = 1 as NI(X) is absolutely irreducible on CJ(T)(Xi).
X ~ ) , J(T)] = 1. But then
Hence as J(T) = E C . J ( ~ ) ( X ~ ) C J ( ~ ) ( [CA(X),
CA(X) centralizes I = N I ( X )J(T),SO CA(X) = 1. Thus D =
ICA(X) = I.
That is, JAut(I) : I)= 2 and I is the stabilizer in Aut(I) of I1 and I 2
and hence also the stabilizer of A1 and A2.
In particular as Ajai = Aj for j = 1,2 and i = 1,2,3, ala;l induces
an inner automorphism on I = G12, so by Exercise 14.3 we may pick a1
and a 2 so as to agree on I.
Similarly GI23 is a well-determined subgroup of index 2 of I and the
argument above shows I is the stabilizer in Aut(G123) of Al and A2,
and hence by Exercise 14.3 we may choose 0 3 so that a 3 agrees with a1
and a 2 on G123.
Finally Gs4 = NG4(B) E Z2/(A4 x A5) and Gi4 = G24 = G124 =
NG4(E) is a well-determined subgroup of index 2 in S4wrZ2.Then it is
an exercise to show Aut(GQ4)= NAut(G4)(G34)S S5 X S4, Aut(G124) =
N ~ ~ t ( ~ + ) ( G f22 S4w~Z3,
4) and C A ~ ~ ((G1234)G ~ ) = 1, so by Exercise
14.3 we can choose a 4 so that a = (ai : i E I ) defines an isomorphism
of the amalgams A(3) and d(F).
Lemma 44.3: Up to isomorphism there is at most one gmup of type He.
Proof: Let A = A(3). Applying the construction of Example 36.2,
we obtain a faithful completion P : A 4 G and by 36.4, a surjection
rp : G(A) -+ G of the universal completion G(A) onto G. Observe that
A = A(P, 1) is the collinearity graph of I' defined in Section 36.
I We now appeal to 36.7 applied to the completion P : A -+ G and the
collinearity graph A. Observe that hypotheses (*) and (**) of 36.7 are
satisfied. For example, 43.2, 43.4, and 43.11 say (**) holds. So by 36.7,
G(A) Z G.
I Next by 44.2, if G is a group of type He then A(3) r d ( F ) . So also
G(A) S G.
Theorem 44.4: Assume G is a finite group containing an involution
z such that CG(z) is isomorphic to the centralizer of a tmnsvection in
238 Chapter 14 T h e Uniqueness of MZ4,He, and L s ( 2 )
L5(2) and z is not weakly closed i n 0 2 ( C G ( z ) )with respect to G. Then
one of the following holds:
(1) G is isomorphic to the maximal parabolic of L5(2) stabilizing a
point of the natural module for L5(2).
(2) G L5(2).
(3) G r M z 4 .
(4) G E H e .
ProoE By 39.10 either (1) holds or zG r l Q = U1# U Uf, and we may
assume the latter. Then by 40.5, G is of type L5(2), M24, or He. In the
first two cases (2) or (3) holds by 41.5. In the third, G is determined up
to isomorphism by 44.3, and hence as the group He of 32.5 is of type
He, (4) holds.
Remarks. Held [He] was the first to consider groups G possessing
an involution z such that C G ( z ) is isomorphic to the centralizer of a
transvection in L5(2). He proves that if G is simple then G is isomorphic
to L5(2) or MZ4,or G has order 21°. 33. 5' -73 - 17 and determines much
of the local structure of G. G. Higrnan and J. MacKay then proved the
existence and uniqueness of H e using the machine.
Our treatment of the problem bears little resemblance to Held's. For
one thing, more local group theoretic techniques are available today
than in 1969, making possible a more conceptual, less computational
proof. For another, Held felt free to quote extensively from the literature,
whereas the treatment here is self-contained. And of course we actually
establish the uniqueness of He.
Exercises
1. Let L = L3(4), R be the set of root groups of transvections in L , and
A E R. Prove N L ( A ) has six orbits on R:
(1) { A ) .
( 2 ) { A # B E 52 : center(A) = center(B)) of order 4. Further
(A,B)=AxB.
(3) { A # B E $2 : axis(A) = a x i s ( B ) ) of order 4. Further ( A ,B ) =
A x B.
(4) { B E 52 : center(B) # center(A) E a x i s ( B ) # a x i s ( A ) ) of order
16. Further ( A ,B ) E Sy12(L).
( 5 ) { B E R : center(A) # center(B) E axis(A) # a x i s ( B ) ) of order
16. Further ( A ,B ) E Sy12(L).
Exercises 239
(6) { B E R : center(A) 4 a x i s ( B ) and center(B) $! a x i s ( A ) ) of
order 64. Further ( A ,B ) S L2(4).
2. Let L = L3(4). Prove
I ( 1 ) L is transitive on it subgroups of order 3.
( 2 ) L is transitive on its subgroups isomorphic t o S3, and if So is such
a subgroup then CL(So) = 1.
3. Let A , B be subgroups of a group G I 2 , B be subgroups of a group G,
, a : A + A, ,f3 : B 3 B be group isomorphisms, I = A n B , I = An B,
l a = I = I b , and 7 = a@-l E A u t ( I ) be the automorphism induced
on I by Prove
(1) If 7 E A u t B ( I ) then for some c E B, Po = ec/3 : B -t B with
a = Po on I, where tc: b +-+ bc is the automorphiim of B induced
by c.
( 2 ) Let ai : Ai -+ Ail 1 5 i 5 n, be isomorphisms for subgroups Ai 5
ni
G , Ai < G, Ii = A i n B , I. = Ainii, J = n , % n B , J = AinB,
I , -,
I.a.- I . - I ,P,
. and Jai = = Jp. Assume a, = aj on J for
all i, j, AutB(J,) = Aut(Ji) for each i, A u t s ( J ) = A u t ( J ) , and
C B ( J )= 1. Prove there exists c E B such that tcP = Po = ai on
Ii for each i.
4. Let V be a &dimensional orthogonal space over the field of order 2
and L3(2) 2 L IG = O ( V ) . Prove
(1) V has sign +1 and L stabilizes a maximal totally singular subspace
U of V .
, ( 2 ) P = NG(U) is transitive on the set W of eight totally singular
complements W to U in V. Further N p ( W ) = L1 % L.
(3) If L E LP then L has orbits Oi, i = 1,2,3, of length 7,7,21 on
singular points of V.
(4) If L $! ~f then L is transitive on W, L n L1 is transitive on Oi
for each i, and L has two orbits of length 7,28 on singular points
of V .
5. Let G be a finite group, z an involution in G , and H = C G ( z ) ,and
assume Q = F*(H) is extraspecial of order 128 with H / Q r L3(2)
1
and 1zG n QI = 29. Let Go = L5(2), zo a transvection in Go, and
Ho = CG, (zO).Prove
( 1 ) H / ( z ) E Ho/(zo), so in particular 39.1.2 and 39.1.5 hold.
(2) H is transitive on the set W of pairs ( W l , W2)such that W i is a
hyperplane of Ui with z 4 Wi.
(3) Let (Wl,W z ) E W and L = N H ( W l ,Wz).Then L % SL2(7) or
L3(2).
240 Chapter 14 The Uniqueness of M24t He, and L5(2)
(4) If L E SL2(7), s is an involution in Q - (z),and S E Sy12(CH(s)),
then a2(s) = (z).
(5) H 2 Ho. !
I
(Hint: Use Exercise 14.4 to prove ( I ) . )
I
6. Let L r L2(4) and V the natural GF(4)L-module. Prove
dim(lT1 (L,V)) = 1.
Chapter 15

The Group U4(3)

*
The group U4(3) is the image PSU4(3) of the special unitary group
SU4(3) in PSL4(9). Thus this unitary group is a classical group (cf.
Chapter 7 in [FGT] for a discussion of the classical groups and unitary
groups in particular), but it exhibits sporadic behavior and is crucial in
; the study of various sporadic groups. For example, we saw in Exercise 9.4
that U4(3)is the stabilizer of a point in the rank 3 representation of the
McLaughlin group. Further we find in Chapter 16 that U4(3)is a section
in a blocal of Suz.
In Section 45 we prove a uniqueness theorem for U4(3)characterizing
the group in terms of the centralizer of an involution. In the end we
construct a geometric complex for the group which we prove to be iso-
morphic to the complex of singular points and lines in the Pdimensional
unitary space over the field of order 9. This last part of the proof can
also be used in Exercise 9.4 to identify the point stabilizer of Mc in
terms of the information in Lemma 24.7.
In Chapter 16 we use the characterization of Section 45 t o pin down
, the structure of the centralizer of a certain subgroup of order 3 in groups
of type Suz. This result is used in turn in the proof of the uniqueness
of Suz and in 26.6 to determine the structure of the centralizer of the
corresponding subgroup of order 3 in Col, while 26.6 is used in 32.4 to
; establish the existence of a subgroup of the Monster of type F24.
242 Chapter 15 The Group U4(3)
In this section we assume the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 45.1: G is a finite group, z is an involution in G , H =
CG(z), 0 2 ( H ) = Hi H2 with Hi r SL2(3),Hi 9 0 2 ( ~and ) ,H I n Hz =
( z ) , Q = 0 2 ( 0 2 (=~F*(H),
)) and z is not weakly closed in Q with
respect to G.
Let H = H / ( z ) and H* = H/Q.
Lemma 45.2: (1) [ H I ,H2] = 1 and H permutes { H I ,HZ).
(2) Q 2 Q;.
(3) Q is a 4-dimensional orthogonal space of sign -1 over GF(2) and
H* 5 0(v)
E' 0, ( 2 ) .
(4) 0 2 ( H )is transitive on the eighteen involutions i n Q - ( z ) .
, I Hl n H2 = ( z ) < Z(Hi), so as Hi =
Proof: As Hi 9 0 2 ( H ) ,[ H I Hz]
o ~ ( H ~[)H, I ,Hz] = 1. Then { H I ,H2) is the set of normal subgroups of
o ~ ( H isomorphic
) to SL2(3) and hence is permuted by H. That is, (1)
holds. F'urther ( 1 ) implies (2) while (2), 8.3, and 8.4 imply (3). By (3)
there are 18 involutions in Q - ( z ) and if t is such an involution then
l o 2 ( H ) : C0'2(H)(t)l= 18, so (4) holds-
By Hypotheses 45.1 and 45.2, there exists u = zg E Q - ( z ) with
(u,Z ) = E Q T E SyZ2(H).
Lemma 45.3: Assume Q n Qg = E and let N = (Q,Qg) and R =
CQ(u)CQg( 2 ) . Then
(1) N is the split extension of R by Y E S3 with C R ( Y ) = 1.
(2) R is isomo~phicto a Sylow 2-subgroup of L3(4) and both mem-
bers of A(R) are normal in N .
(3) R*o~(H*) is the subgroup of O q ( 2 ) of index 2 whose Sylow 2-
subgroup R* is a 4-group containing no transvections.
(4) All involutions in R O ~ ( H are
) i n zG.
(5) For X E Syl3(H), NR02(H)(X) = X T X With TX r D8 and
( z ) = C T (XI.
~
Proof: By 8.15, N J R E S3 and R is special with center E and R / E =
R 1 / E @ R 2 / E the sum of natural modules for N / R .
Let s E Q - R be an involution. By the Baer-Suzuki Theorem (cf. 39.6
in [FGT]),s inverts some element y of order 3 in N , so Y = js,y ) e!S3
is a complement to R in N . Further [ R I E ,s] = ( Q n R ) / E and Q n R =
CQ( E ) 2 Z2 X D8.
Next R* E R / ( R n Q ) 2' E4 and [R,Q n R] 5 E , so [EL,R*] 2 E.
Now if r* E R* induces a transvection on Q then [Q,r*] is a nonsingular
point of Q. However, is singular and [EL,r*] < E , so either E =
I
[ ~ l , r *5] [&,r*]or ( ~ ~ , r=* 0] so EL is the axis of r* and hence
E = ( E ~= )[Q,T*]. ~ Therefore R* contains no transvection and (3)
holds.
Next there is exactly one more irreducible R 3 / E for Y on R / E and
R, = ( r y ) ~where
, 1 and ri, 1 5 i 5 3, are coset representatives for
E in Q n R. Thus we may pick rl and ~2 to be involutions and r3
#
of order 4. Then as Y is transitive on (R,/E)#,all elements in Ri are
involutions for i = 1,2, while Stl(R3) = E. In particular R1 r R2 r El6.
If x E C R I ( r 2 )- E then x* # 1 and [x,Q n R] = 1, so x* induces a
transvection on Q, contrary to (3). Hence CR,(r2) = E and then as Y is
, ( r ) = E for all r E R2 - E. It is now an easy
transitive on ( R ~ / E ) #CR,
exercise to verify that R is isomorphic to a Sylow 2-subgroup of L3(4)
with {R1,R 2 ) = A(R). By construction, R, 9 N . So (2) is established.
By (2), if 1 # r* E R* then [Q,rk]= C*(rk), so by Exercise 2.8,
if ? is an involution then all involutions in FQ are conjugate to f . Thus
all involutions in rQ are contained in ~ ( z )Therefore
. each involution in
R O ~ ( H- <
) Q is conjugate to si, 1 i 5 3, where 1 and si are coset
representatives for E in Qg n R. Thus 45.2.4 implies (4).Recall also that
two of the si are involutions and the third is of order 4.
Finally for X E Sy13(H), R O ~ ( H = ) Q N R O ~ ( H l ( Xby
) a Frattini
argument with NQ(X)= ( z ) , so N R O ~ ( H ) ( X=) X T X 7 where Tx E
~ ) ( Tx X) /) ( z )Z E4. We have seen that if 1 and t i ,
s ~ , ! ~ ( N ~ ~ a ( with
1 5 i < 3, are coset representatives for ( z ) in Tx then as iiis an
involution, two of the ti are involutions and the third is of order 4. Thus
T X D8, completing the proof of (5).
Lemma 45.4: Either
(1) Q n Q g = E , or
(2) Q n ~g = v r ~ 8 there , exists zk E v - E, and i f we set
N = ( Q ,Qg, Q ~ )N,/ V r L3(2) is faithful on V .
Proof: As Q has width 2, 8.15.7 says V = Q n Qg is of rank at most 3.
So as E 5 V , either V = E or V Si 8 8 , and we may assume the latter.
By 45.2.4, V# C zG, so there is zk E V - E .
Now v is a totally singular line in Q, so as each such line admits
the action of a subgroup of 0 2 ( H )of order 3, N H ( V ) is transitive on
v#. Thus V 5 Q~ for zk E V - E, so 8.16 completes the proof, since
Q ~ H ~ ~ H ~ = C ~ ( V ) = V .
244 Chapter 15 The Group U4(3)
Define G to be of type U4(3) if Hypothesis 45.1 is satisfied with
IQ fl Qg1 = 4 for z9 E Q - ( z ) and IHI = 27 . 32. In the remainder
of this section assume G is of type U4(3).We will show G % U4(3).
Define R, &, i = 1,2, and N as in the proof of 45.3. Recall T E
Sy12(H)with E g T .
Lemma 45.5: (1) H = R O ~ ( H ) .
(2) T E Syl2(G), T E Sylz(N), and IT1 = g7.
(3) R = J ( T ) , A ( T ) = { R l ,Rz), and & is weakly closed in T with
respect to G.
(4) G has one conjugacy class of involutions.
Proof: As JHI = 27. 32 = I R O ~ ( H ) ~ , (1) holds. As ( I ) = Z ( T ) and
T E Sylz(H), T E 312(G). As E T and IN12 = IT[, T E Sy12(N).
Thus (2) is established.
-
If s is an involution in T R then IR/E : CRIE(s)l = 4 = ICRIE(s)I
and ( s ) E 2 Dg, so by Exercise 2.8, sR is the set of involutions in sR.
But we saw during the proof of 45.3 that if we choose s E Q then
CR(s) = CQnR(s) 2 Dg, SO m(CT(s)) = 3. Thus as m(&) = 4 and
A ( R ) = { R l , R2} with R, 9 T, (3) holds. Finally 45.3.4 implies (4).
Lemma 45.6: NG(R,) is the split extension of 4 by A6 acting as
Sp4(2)' on R,.
Proof: Let Mi = NG(&). First CG(&) = CH(&) = &, SO Mi/& is
faithful on 4.Next as R, is weakly closed in T it follows from 7.7 and
-
45.5.4 that Mi is transitive on R?. In particular IMiI = 15 IH fl Mil =
-
16 IA61, so (Mi/&( = IA6(. Finally the map
is a bijection of ~ f with
i the hyperplanes of 4, so by Exercise 15.1,
Mi/& _< Spq(2) '15'6. Hence Mi/& is the unique subgroup A6 of S6 of
index 2. The extension splits by Gaxhutz7sTheorem (cf. 10.4 in [FGT])
as T splits over &.
-
Lemma 45.7: Let X E Sy13(H) and Tx E Sy12(NH(X)).Then
(1) If Z3 % U 5 x is TX-inuariant and ICH (U)12> 2 then C H ( U )
is the split extension of X by CT,(U) S Eq.
(2) N G ( X ) = V T x , whew V = 0 3 ( N G ( x ) ) E81 and TX E
Sy12(NH( X ) )is isomorphic to DR.
- of order 4 inverting X.In particular C Q ( W ) ( ( )= S E Sy12(NH( W ) ) ,
(3) If Z3 ^. U 5 X with-CTX(U) ^. E4 then V _o NG(U) and
N G ( u ) / v s4.
Proof: By 45.3.5, N H ( X )= X T x , where T x P Dg and ( z }= CTx(X).
Thus (2) E Sy12(CG(X)),so C G ( X ) = V ( z ) ,where V = O(Ca(Z)),
and N G ( X ) = V T x . So to prove (2) it remains to show V 2 Egl.
Next by 45.6, Ui = Nx(&) % Z3 and CR(Ui) G E4, so as (2) E
s y l 2 ( C G ( X ) )X, = Ul x U2. Then (1) is established.
As z inverts V / X , V / X is abelian. By ( I ) , Z3 U = Ul cen-
tralizes an involution t E TX - (z). By Exercise 8.1 in [FGT],V =
Cv(z)Cv(t)Cv(tr) = XCv(t)Cv(tz). But as t E .zG and (VI is odd,
ICv(t)l divides 9. Further as t z is conjugate to t in T x l ICy(t)l =
ICv(tz)(. Thus as U = C v ( ( t , z ) )Z Z3, V = X or IV1 = 81.
Suppose V = X . Then X E Sy13(G). So as ING(Rl)13 = 9 , a Sylow
3-subgroup X I of MI = NG(R1) is Sylow in G. This is impossible as
an element of order 4 in NM,(Xl) is faithful on X I , whereas T x E
Sy12(NG(X))and T x contains no such element.
So lVl = 81 and V / X = G / X @ I/'t,/X, where V, = CV(s)X I En.
HenceifVisnot Esl thena = [v,w]# 1 for v E G - X ar~dw E &,-X
' inverted by z. Notice (a) = [V,V ] .Further there is an involution s E T x
with tS = t z . Then we may choose us = w, so as = [w,v]= a-l. AS
(a) = [V,V],by symmetry between t and s, s inverts a also. Hence
st E CTx(a) is of order 4, contradicting (1).This establishes (2).
Let K = NG(U). Then NMl(U)= T x W , where Es r W E Syk(M1)
and CM,( U ) S Z3 x A*. As ( z ) = Z ( T x ) and TX E Sy12(NH(u)),
T x E Sy12(K). Also S = CTx ( U ) I E4 and as W is transitive on S#
with C H ( U )= S X , for all s E s#,CG((s,U ) )= SCV(s). So W acts on
( C K ( ( s 1 U ):) s E s#)= S V , and I = T X W V = ( C K ( s ) , N K ( S ): s E
s#).Similarly if T E Tx - s is an involution then ( z , ~E) sy12(cK(r))
and CV(r) E SgZ3(CG(~)), so as CG(r) is a {2,3)-group, CK(r) =
(r,e)Cv(r) 5 I. Thus if I # K then I is strongly embedded in K
in the sense of Section 7. This contradicts 7.6, as T 81 zK since r inverts
U while z centralizes v. Therefore I = K and (3) is established.
Lemma 45.8: Let W = X n HI E Sy13(H1). Then
(1) F*(NG(W))r 31+4 has a complement H2 in N G ( W ) , where
IH2 : H21 = 2 and H2 has quaternion Sylow 2-subgroups of
order 16.
(2) P = V F * ( N G ( W ) )E Syba(G), /PI =36, a n d V = A ( P ) .
Proof: Let M = NG(W). Then NH(W) = Hz@), where t E T x is
where CQ(W)= Q r l Hz 2 Q8. Thus S is quaternion of order 16 and
N H ( W ) = H2W, where & = (()Hz. In particular as ( z ) = Z ( S ) ,
246 Chapter 15 The Group U4(3)
S E Sy12(M).Then as S is quaternion, by a result of Brauer and Suzuki
(cf. Theorem 12.1.1 in [Go]), M = D ( H n M ) ,where D = O ( M ) .Notice
H~ is a complement to D in M , so to prove (1) it remains only to show
D s 31+4.
Next as W = D n H, z inverts D I W , so DIW is abelian. Further
W 5 V and V is abelian, so V < M , and then V n D = [V,z]W is of
index 3 in V . Pick U = Ul and U2 as in the proof of 45.7. Then from
45.7.3, there is a conjugate F of U2under NG(U) with F = [F,z]. Hence
F 2 V n D and by 45.7.3, NG(F) _< NG(V) with ING(F)/ = 23 - 35.
In particular as D is of odd order, ICD(F) : V n D ) = 1 or 3. But as
DIW is abelian, [D,F] 5 W , so ID : CD(F)I = 1 or 3. Thus ID : D n V l
divides 9.
Now if D 5 V then Hz = [V n H2,Hz] 5 C ( D ) , contradicting D $
C ( z ) .So ID1 = 3a, a = 4,5. Then as z inverts D / W and GL2(3)contains
no quaternion subgroup of order 16, I f 2 is irreducible on D / W and a is
even, so ID1 = 35 and @ ( D )5 W . Indeed D = ( ( v n~ ) ~ is2 generated
)
by elements of order 3 and D is of class at most 2, so D is of exponent
3. Finally as F $ Z ( D ) and & is irreducible on D I W , W = Z ( D ) , so
D r 31+4 and (1) is established.
Let P = V D , so that P E Sg13(M). As W = Z ( P ) , P E Sy13(G).
Next CDIw(U)= (V n D ) / W , so for d E D - V , Cv(d) 5 D. Then as
D E 31f4, IV : CV(DO)(> IDo/(V n D)I for all Do < V with V n D
proper in Do. This shows {V) = A ( P ) , and completes the proof of (2).
Lemma 45.9: NG(V) is the split extension of V by As acting faithfully
as Rq(3) on V , with wGnvthe set of singular points of V and uiGflv,
i = 1,2, the two classes of nonsingular points of V .
Proof: Let M = NG(V) and M* = M I V . Then from 45.8, V = C G ( V ) n
N G ( W ) = CG(V),so M* is faithful on V . Again by 45.8, N M ( W ) * =
NM(P)* is the split extension of P* E Eg by Zq and P E Syls(M). By
45.8.2, V is weakly closed in M with respect to G , so by 7.7, PG n V =
vM v
for each <: V .
We claim P* is a TI-set in M*. For if d E P n Pm - V for some
m E M - NG(P),then as dim(Cv(d)) = 2, C v ( d ) = W W m is invari-
ant under (P,Pm) ( 2 ) . Then (P,Pm) ( z ) induces GLs(3) on CvCd), so
N M ( P )contains a Cgroup, a contradiction.
Next D8 Tx E Syl2(H n M ) , so a s ( z ) = Z(Tx), Tx E Sgl2(M).
<
Then as M* GL4(3), IM*l = 23 .32 5" 1 3 ~with- - , a, b E {O,l). In
particular IM* : NM=(P*)I= 2 . 5". 1 3 ~But . as P* is a TI-set in M*,
(M* : NM*(P*)I= 1 mod 9, so we conclude IM*l = 23 . 32 - 5 = 1 4.
1
f
45. u4(3) 247
I In particular IM* : NM*(P*)I= 10 = IP*l+ 1, SO as P* is a TI-set in
/ M*, M* is 2-transitive on Sy13(M*) and hence on wMas N M ( W ) =
NM(~)-
Similarly from 45.7.3,(UP/= 15, so as V contains 40 points, these 40
points are wMU U? U u?.Now by Exercises 15.2 and 15.3, M* acts
as RT(3) on V . The extension splits by Gaschutz's Theorem as we can
, find a complement to V in P contained in F*(NG(W)).
I
Let I' be the rank 2 geometry with point set wG and line set vG,
where incidence is defined by inclusion. Let A be the colliiearity graph
of I?. It turns out I? is the geometry of singular points and l i e s in the
&dimensional orthogonal space for PSI; (3) (E U4(3))over GF(3).This
is essentially proved in the next two lemmas. See also 24.7, the Remark
preceding 24.7, and Exercise 9.5.
Lemma 45.10: (1) Each element of onler 3 in P is contained in V or
D = F*(NG(W)).
(2) W is weakly closed in D with respect to G .
(3) A is the commuting graph on wG.
(4) Each line has ten points and each point is on four lines.
(5) lA(W)l = 36.
(6) D is regular on A ~ ( wof) order 35.
(7) For W' E (w),(W,W') E HP,so (W,W ' ) S SL2(3).
(8) I? is a generalized quadrangle.
I (9) A is of diameter 2
-
(10) JGI = 27. 36 5.7.
Proof: Let x E P - V be of order 3. Then from 45.9, x has Jordon
blocks of size 1 and 3 on V with [V,x,x] = W . Then all elements of
I
order 3 in xV are contained in xCV(x)[V,x] = x wL = x(V f l D), so (1)
is established.
Let K = NG(W). By 45.9 there are ten points on the line V , while
there are IK : K n M)I = 4 lines through W . So (4) holds. Observe also
from 45.9 that wMn V n D = { W ) .
Also the sets ((vkn D)/w)#, k E K , contain 32 vectors of (D/w)#,
with the remaining 48 vectors forming an orbit under K . We claim that
if w E W and y E G , then wYW is not such a vector and hence & f vk
for some k E K. Then as w M n V n D = { W ) , ( 2 ) holds. Namely
ID : CD(wY)I = 3 with W < @(CD(W9))< Dv, and Dy n D is abelian
<
so ID n Dvl 27. Hence C D " ( W )$ Dl establishing the claim.
By (1) and (2), each member of wGn K - { W ) is contained in a
I
248 Chapter 15 The Group U4(3)
unique member of v K , so (3) holds and (3) and (4) imply (5). Further
we see all triangles of A are contained in lines.
For Wl E AnV, Wl is transitive on the three lines through W distinct
from V and V n D is transitive on the nine points on any line vk # V
distinct from W, so G is transitive on paths WWlW2 with d(W, W2) = 2.
In particular K is transitive on A ~ ( w ) .
Next let W # W2 E Sy13(Hl). Then W2 E A and Wl = X n Hz E
A(K W2), so W2 E A2(w) with H 2 = NK(W2) a complement to D in
K. Thus D is regular on WF = A ~ ( w )of order 35. Further for each
k E K, and Wg E A n vk,vkn If2 E A(W2, WO),so d(W2, WO) I 2.
This proves (8) and (9). Then lAl = 1 + lA(W)l+ la2(w)l = 112, so
[GI = 112. lKl, and (10) holds.
Lemma 45.11: Up to isomorphism, U4(3) is the unique group of type
u4 (3).
Proof: Let GI be a second group of type U4(3). The group of 45.8 is
determined up to conjugacy in Out (D) r GSp4(3), so the split extension
K = NG(W) of D by H2 is determined up to isomorphism, so there
exists an isomorphism a : K -+ K' with Hza = Hi and V a = V'. Let
I = Hz n V and W # J E A n HI. Set I' = la and let W' # J' E
Hi n A'. Define p :A + A' by W p = W', ( I ~ ) P= I ' for ~k~ E K, and
(Jd)p = J ' for ~ d~ E D. As D is regular on A2(w) and K is transitive
on A(W) with NK(I)a = (VNR2(V))a = V'Nq (V') = NKI(IJ),the
map fi is a well-defined bijection of A with A'.
We claim p is an isomorphism. By construction A(W)P = A(W1).
Next by 45.10.8, I is adjacent to if and only if is on the unique
line incident with W and I ; that is, when I V. So I is adjacent to
if and only if k E NK(V) if and only if k a E NKt (V') if and only if I' is
adjacent to (I'~)P. Similarly I is adjacent to J~if and only if d E D n V
if and only if d a E D' n V' if and only if I' is adjacent to (Jd)p. Thus
A(I)@= A(I1),
Thus to complete the proof of the claim it suffices to show J is adjacent
to J~if and only if J' is adjacent to (Jld)p. But J is adjacent to Jd if
+
and only if the line J Jdthrough J and Jdcontains a unique point of
A(W), which we may take to be I. Then [V, z] = DnDV, where I = WY,
+
and thus [V,z] is regular on J I - {I), so J is adjacent to Jdif and
only if d E [V, z] if and only if d a E [V', za] if and only if J' is adjacent
to (Jd)p. So the claim is established.
Now the isomorphism P : A -+ A' induces an isomorphism P* :
Aut(A) -,Ad(At) (cf. Section 1). Finally W is the pointwise stabilizer
Exercises 249
in Aut(A) of wI,so Wp+ = W' and hence G T = ( W * U ~ ( ~ )=) ~GI,
*
completing the proof.
Remarks. The group U4(3) was first characterized via the centralizer
of an involution by Phan in [Ph].
Exercises
1. Assume V is an n-dimensional vector space over the field F of order
2 and h : v I-+ h(v) is a bijection of V# with the set of hyperplanes
of V such that
(1) v E h(v) for all v E v#.
(2) If u,v E V# with u E h(v) then v E h(u). Then the map f :
(u, v) w f (u, v) is a symplectic form on V, where f (u, v) = 0 if
u E f (v) and f (u, v) = 1 otherwise.
2. Assume G is a finite group, S4 Z H 5 G with IG : HI = 15, P E
Sy13(G) with E9 g P a TI-set in G, and Nc(P)/P 2 Z4 is faithful
on P. Prove:
(1)H = NG(O2(H)) with 0 2 ( H ) weakly closed in H with respect
to G.
(2) G is rank 3 on GIH with parameters k = 6, 1 = 8, X = 1, and
p = 3.
(3) The rank 3 graph of G on G/H is isomorphic to the graph A of
all 2-subsets of a 6-set, with s adjacent to t in A if s n t = 0.
(4) G E As.
3. Let G = As, F the field of order 3, P E Sy13(G), H = NG(P),
Vo the 1-dimensional FH-module with H/CH(Vo) Z Z2, and V =
voGthe induced FG-module. Let I be the 4-dimensional orthogonal
space of sign -1 over F regarded as an FG-module, recalling that
G r L2(9) SZ, (3). Prove
(1) A nontrivial FG-module U is a homomorphic image of V if and
only if there is a 1-dimensional FH-submodule Uo of U with Uo
FH-isomorphic to Vo and U = (UoG).
(2) V is FG-isomorphic to the dual space V*.
(3) CV(P) is FH-isomorphic to the sum of two copies of Vo and
dim(C[v,P](PI) = 1.
(4) Soc(V) = (CIV,pl(P)G) is irreducible.
(5) V is indecomposable with Soc(V) Z V/J(V) !+ I.
(6) If U is an irreducible FG-module and Uo an FH-submodule of U
which is FH-isomorphic to Vo, then U Z I.

Chapter 16
Groups of Conway, Suzuki,
and Hall-Janko Type
In this chapter we prove the uniqueness of the Conway group Coil the
Suzuki group Suz, and the Hall-Janko group J2. More precisely we
consider groups of type X ( w , Rzw(2)) and define G to be of type Col
if ( w ,e) = (4,+I), G to be of type Suz if ( w ,e) = (3, - I ) , and finally
G to be of type J2 if ( w ,e) = (2, -1) and G has more than one class of
involutions. Then we prove Col is the unique group of type Col, S u z is
the unique group of type Suz, and J2 is the unique group of type J2.
In the process we generate much information about the three groups.
For example, for each group we obtain the group order and determine
most of the conjugacy classes and normalizers of subgroups of prime
order. This determination i s completed in Chapter 17.
46. Groups of t y p e C o l , Suz, J 2 , and J3
In this section we assume G satisfies Hypothesis Z ( w , R5,(2)) with
( w ,e) = (2, - I ) , (3, - I ) , or (4,+I). (See the Preface for the definition
of groups of type X ( w , L).) In particular z is an involution, H = CG(z),
and Q = F*(H).
Let H* = H I & , H = H / ( z ) , zg E Q - ( z ) , E = (z,zg), and R =
(Q n Hg)(Qgn H ) .
Let AH be the set of subgroups X of H of order 3 such that [Q,XI S
(28.
1I 46. Groups of type Col, Suz, J2, and J3 251
Lemma 46.1: (1) Q is an orthogonal space of dimension 2w and sign
e over G F ( 2 ) and H* Z Rfiw(2) acts as the commutator group R(Q) of
the orthogonal group O(Q) of Q.
(2) H is transitive on the involutions in Q - ( z ) , and all such involu-
tions are in zG.
Proof: By definition of Hypothesis X ( w , RZw(2)),H* Z R5,(2) and Q
is extraspecial of order 21+2w.Then by 8.3, Q is an orthogonal space over
GF(2) of dimension 2w and H* preserves this structure. In particular
H* < o(Q). As H* R5,(2), this forces Q to have sign c and H* =
R(Q). That is, (1) holds. As R(Q) is transitive on the singular points
of Q , which by 8.3.4 correspond to the involutions in Q distinct from z,
(2) holds.
Lemma 46.2: (1) E = Q n Qg.
(2) (Qg17 H)* = 02(cH* ( g ) )% E22("-1) &i!h C H I( E ) / ( Qf ~l H)*
fig-,( 2 ) and (Qg n H)* and (Q n H g ) / E the natuml module for
Proof: As H* = R(Q) and E is a singular point in the orthogonal space
Q, o ~ ( c ~ *S(! E2aw-z
E ) ) and C Q ( E ) / Eare the natural modules for
In particular cH(E) ) . by 8.15, 1 #
is irreducible on O 2 ( C H * ( ~ )But
( ~ n9HI*A cH.(E),
so ( ~ gHnI * = O ~ ( C ~ . ( E and
, ) then (1) holds
by 8.15.8. Finally (1) and earlier remarks imply (2).
Lemma 46.3: (1) R is special with center E .
(2) N G ( R ) / R r Rfiw-2(2) x S3 with R I E the tensor product of the
natural module for its factors.
(3) N G ( R ) splits over R .
Proof: Parts (1) and (2) follow from 46.2 and 8.15. Let X be of order 3
' in N G ( R ) with X R a NG(R). Then C R ( X ) = 1 so N G ( X ) n NG(R) is
a complement to R in NG(R), establishing (3).
Lemma 46.4: H ~ ( R (2),
~ , Q ) = 0.
Proof: If w = 3 or 4 let X be of order 3 in L = R5,(2) with C a ( X ) = 0.
' Then the commuting graph on AXL is connected as L = ( N L ( X ) ,N L ( X ~ ) )
for X # Xg 5 C L ( X ) .Hence the lemma follows from an observation of
Alperin and Gorenstein which appears as Exercise 6.4 in [FGT].
I
252 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suzulci, and Hall-Janlco Type
So take w = 2. Here if V is a 5-dimensional GF(2)L-module with
L] r Q then Dlo
[V, <
Y L satisfies [V,L ] = [ V , Y ] ,so if C V ( Y ) #
C V ( L ) then V is an image of the permutation module U for L on L / Y .
As the 4dimensional composition factor of U is not isomorphic to Q , this
L], so 17.11 in [FGT] completes
is a contradiction. Thus V splits over [V,
the proof.
Lemma 46.5: Let w = 3 and Y E AH. Then C G ( Y ) is quasisimple
with C G ( Y ) / Y U4(3)and ING(Y) : CG(Y)I = 2.
Proof: Let NG(Y)* = N G ( Y ) / Y , K = C G ( Y ) , and P = C Q ( Y ) .
Then F * ( C H ( Y ) * )= P* with 0 2 ( c H ( y ) * )2 SL2(3) * SL2(3) and
4 = ICH(Y) : 0 2 ( C H ( Y ) ) I By
. 8.13 and 46.1.2, all involutions in P are
in z K . In particular we may take E < P and g E K ; then by 46.2.1,
E = PnPg. Thus K* is of type U4(3),as defined in Section 45. Therefore
by 45.11, K* g U4(3).
Next as I N H ( Y ) : CH(Y)I = 2, ING(Y) : KI = 2. So it remains to
' show Y < Km. But there is h E H with yh 5 HI a 02(cH(y)),
H1 E SL2(3), and Y = [Yh , s] for some 2-element s E CH( Y ) .Then
yh = [yh, s] 5 K w and if Y 31, K w then by 45.8, yh < @(So)for some
So E s ~ z ~ ( N ~ (Thus Y ~ Y) )<. @ ( S )for S E Sy13(K), contradicting
K=YxKm.
Lemma 46.6: Let w = 4, X € AH, and X 5 Y <H with Y % Eg and
C Q ( Y ) E Q:. Then
(1) C G ( X ) is quasisimple with C G ( X ) / X S Suz.
(2) C G ( Y ) is quasisimple with C G ( Y ) / Y 2 U4(3).
Proof: To prove C G ( X ) / X E S u z , argue as in 25.9. Actually this argu-
ment only shows C G ( X ) / X is of type S u z but proceeding by induction
on the order G and appealing to 48.17 in an inductive context, up to
isomorphism there is a unique group of type Suz. Notice (2) now com-
pletes the proof of (I), so it remains to prove (2). Let P = F*(CG(z)).
As in 25.9, C Q ( X ) E Q:. Then there is h E N H ( Y ) with Y = X X ~
and xh inverted in C H ( X ) .Thus by 46.5, xh 5 CG(Y)OO. Finally as
h E N G ( Y ) , X 5 CL(Y)OO,establishing (2).
Lemma 46.7: Let w = 3 and I' the set of involutions i E H such that
i* is of type cp. Then
( I ) H is transitive on J?.
(2) POTi E r, IcH (i)l= 2'.
46. Groups of type C o l , Suz, J2, and J3 253
Proof: We recall from Exercise 2.11 that i* is of type c2 if [Q, i]is 2-
dimensional and not totally singular and that if i E I' then i z E i Q ,
each involution in i Q is in i&> and iQ= i Q 6 , where : Q = C g ( i ) and
Q; = [Q,i].
Pick Y E AH;by 46.5, C G ( Y ) / Y 2 U4(3), so there is an element
t E C H ( Y )with t2 = z and t* E c2. Now t centralizes Y [ Q , Y ]G SL2(3)
with Q t = C Q ( Y )n Q?, so by the previous paragraph each involution
i E t Q is conjugate under Y Q to t u for some fixed u E [Q, Y ]of order 4.
In particular there are 24 involutions in t Q , so as H* is transitive on
c2 of order 270, H is transitive on r of order 24 270. Thus C H ( i ) =
-
IH1/(24 270) = 2'.
Lemma 46.8: H is determined up to isomorphism independently of G.
Proof: Let Ho '. 9 the universal covering group of H and
Let Z = Z ( H )and P = [ o ~ ( H HI ). Then
, by 46.4 and 8.17, P % Q and
H = H / U for some complement U to Z ( P ) in Z and H / P 2 L , where
L = Lo/O(Lo)ia(02(Z(Lo)))and Lo is the universal covering group of
H*. Let (n)= Z ( P ) .
Suppose first w = 2. Then L Z SL2(5) (cf. 33.15 in [FGT]).Thus
Z 2 Ed. Also H* has one class of involutions and m([Q, t ] )= 2 for
each such involution t, so I? is transitive on involutions in I? - Q by
Exercise 2.8. Thus if z Z is an involution in H / Z - P Z / Z then x2 = a
is the unique element of Z such that t2 = a for some t E H - P Z with
t2 E Z. Noticeas Z E E4, Z = ( a , ~and ) IUI = 2 .
We claim U = (a).For if not U = ( a n ) , so for each t E H Q -
with t2 E ( z ) , t2 = z. That is, Q contains all involutions in H. This
contradicts 46.3.3 which says H contains an S3 subgroup.
Suppose next that w = 3. The argument is similar. This time by
Exercise 16.6, Z Y Eq and each involution in H* of type c2 l i i s to an
element of H I P of order 4. Now by 46.7 and its proof, H has two orbits
t f , i = 1,2, on the set f' of t E 81 with t2 E Z and t P Z of type q in
H I P 2 r H* with t 2 = t l x for some element x of order 4 in C p ( t 2 ) ,
Itrl = 8, and It;[ = 24. Then as involutions of H* of type c2 lift to
ti
elements of order 4 in H I P , cr = # 1; then ti = a x 2 = an. In this
case we claim U = ( a n ) . If not U = ( a ) and t = tlU E I' (where I' is
defined in 46.7), so 46.7 supplies a contradiction as ltQl = Itr( = 8.
Finally take w = 4. We lift X E A H to a Sylow 3-group in its preimage
in H, and hence regard X also as a subgroup of H. Now X centralizes
254 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suzulci, and Hall-Janko Type
an involution i E H with i* of type c2, and by the previous paragraph i
lifts to t E H of order 4 with t2 E U.
By Exercise 2.11, H* has two classes of involutions of type a4 with
representatives jl and j2, where [Q,!,] = Ai are the two classes of max-
imal totally singular subspaces of Q. Further if a is a transvection in
O(Q)then cu induces an outer automorphism on H* with A? = A2 and
jr = j2. By Exercise 16.7, m ( Z ) = 3 and ji lifts to an element ti of
order 4 in H I P with Z = (al,ag,n),where t; = ai.
By 8.17.4, a l i i s to an automorphism of H, which we also denote by a.
Then tq E t3-,Z, so a interchanges a1 and 0 2 . Hence up to conjugation
under a , U = (al,a2), ( a l ,nu2),or (nal,na2).
Next Q induces the full group of transvections on Ai with center ( z ) ,
so cH(Ai) = QCG(Ai)and CG(Ai)/Ai E cH*(Ai) g Efj4. Further the
involutions in cH*(Ai) are of type c2 or jl, so as t2 E U , @(CG(A,)) =1
if and only if ui E U.
Now if G = Col then (cf. the proof of 46.12) @(CG(Ai))= 1 for
exactly one of i = 1,2, say i = 1. Thus in that case a1 E U but a2 $ 4.
Therefore U = (ol,n q ) . Further t2 E U is fixed by a , so t2 = n a l w .
Now in the general case we know t 2 E U, but of the three possibilities
for U, only the second contains t2 = nsla2, so indeed H is determined
up to isomorphism and the proof is complete.
Notice in the process of proving 46.8 we have also proved several other
facts. First
Lemma 46.9: Let L 3 0 = Aut(A) be the automorphism group of the
Leech lattice, K < L be quasisimple with K / Z ( K ) E Suz, and Z ( L ) 5
J 5 K with J/Z(L) a mot J2-subgroup of L/Z(L). Then the root 4-
involutions of K / Z ( K ) % Suz, L/Z(L) %' Col, and J/Z(L) r J2 lift to
elements of K , L, and J of order 4, and J is quasisimple.
See 49.1.1 for the definition of a root J2-subgroup of Col. Now Z ( K ) %'
Zg and Z ( L ) G Z2, so from the proof of 46.8, CK(z)/O3(Z(K))=
I;TK is HO,K/O(HO,K), where HO,Kis the universal covering group of
C K ( z ) / Z ( K )Similarly
. fiL = & , L / ( o l ) ~ ( ~ Oin, lthe
) language of the
- -prooE of 46.8. Our analysis in Section 48 will show that each root 4
involution i of K / Z ( K ) contained in H is of type c2 in H* and hence a
lift ;in riICor HL is of order 4 from the proof of 46.8. Also Z2 generates
Z ( L ) ,so as we can pick ;E J , J is quasisimple.
Lemma 46.10: If w = 4 and jl and jz are representatives for the two
1 46. Groups of type Col, Suz, J2, and J3 255
classes of involutions of H* of type a4 then there exist involutions i E H
with i* = jl, but no involution j E H with j* = j2.
For if ti E H with tiPZ = ji then we showed that t: E U but t i 4 U.
I
L e m m a 46.11: If w = 2 then H is transitive on the involutions in
H - Q.
Namely we saw that H is transitive on involutions in H - Q, whiie
since an involution t E H -Q is of type c2 on Q, t z E tQ by Exercise 2.11,
completing the proof.
Lemma 46.12: Assume w = 4 and let T E Sy12(H).Then
(1) J ( T ) = A r E 2 i i .
(2) NG(A) is the split extension of A by M24 with A the Golay code
module for NG(A)/A.
(3) NG(A) has two orbits on A#: the octad involutions with repre-
sentative z and the dodecad involutions.
(4) The isomorphism type of the amalgam
H 6 N H ( A )+ NG(A)
is determined independently of the group G of type Col.
Proof: By 46.8, there is an isomorphism a : H -, H of H with the
centralizer H of a 2-central involution f in G = Col. By 22.5, G contains
a subgroup M which is the split extension of A Z E211 by M24 with A the
11-dimensionalGolay code module for M24. By 23.10, CA(A)is a point
and then by 23.1 and 23.2, that point is and N = N ~ ( A ;= )~ ~ ( 2 ) .
By Exercise 7.4, A = J ( M ) .
Let A = Aa-l. The isomorphism a : A -+ A induces an isomor-
phism a* : GL(A)A -t GL(A)Aof the semidirect product of A by
GL(A)with the semidirect product of A by GL(A).Now M = N ~ ( A )
satisfies conclusions ( 2 ) and (3) of the lemma. In particular we may
regard M as a subgroup of GL(A)A;let M = ~ a - li: GL(A)A.
<
Then N H ( A ) = ~ ~ ( A ) a - lM is isomorphic to N ~ ( Avia ) a , so
as A = J ( M ) , also A = J ( T ) and hence (1) holds. Similarly NH(A)is
the split extension of A by the split extension Ho of El6 by L4(2). Fur-
ther NH(A)is the stabilizer of the octad involution z in the Golay code
module for a complement Mo to A in M containing Ho. Let h E 02(Ho);
then by 8.10, CHo(h)= CM,(h) and hence by 8.8 is isomorphic to the
centralizer of a transvection in L5(2).
Let N = NG(A) and N* = NIA. We claim C N . ( ~ *= ) CEi,(h)*Z
CHo(h).First CG(A) = CH(A) = A, SO N* is faithful on A and
256 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suzuki, and Hall-Janko Q p e
Ho z Hz = CN.(z). Now h E Q - A, so h induces a transvection
on Q n A Z E32 with center z and axis B = CQnA(h). Further V =
CHo(B) r E16 with HO/V the stabilizer of z in GL(B). So if we set
Hl = CN(h) n N(B), CH;(B) = CHi(B) n C(z) = V* and Hi/V* is
maximal in GL(B), so either CHo(B)* = H: or H:/V* = GL(B). The
latter is impossible as 2; fixes h* and Aut(V*) n C(h*) contains no
L4(2)-section, so Hf 5 C(V*), whereas V* = CH; (V*).
Thus Hf = CHo(h)*. We next show B = [A,h], so CHo(h)* = CN(h)*.
Indeed as A is the Golay code module for Mo, [02(Ho),A] 5 Q n A, so
[A, h] 5 CQnA(h) = B. On the other hand M contains no transvection,
so m([A, h]) > 1 and then as CHo(h)is irreducible on B/(z), B = [A,h].
So CN(h)* S CHo(h) is the centralizer of a transvection in L5(2).
Further O~(HO)#= hHo C 02(CHo(h))= Qo, so by 44.4, either N =
NH(A) or N* G L5(2), M24, or He. The first case is impossible as
A = J(T), so A is weakly closed in T with respect to G, and hence by
7.7, N controls fusion in A. Thus z is fused to zg in N.
As Ho 2 Hz is a 2-local subgroup of N*, 40.5 says N* is not He.
Suppose N* 2 L5(2). Then IN : NH(A)I = 31 = IQ n A#I, so as
Q n A# czG n A = zN, Q n A# = zG n N. This is a contradiction as
NG(R) n NG(A) does not act on Q n A from 46.3.
So N* E M24. As Ho is a complement to A in NH(A) and NH(A)
contains the Sylow 2-subgroup T of M, N splits over A by Gaschutz's
Theorem (cf. 10.4 in [FGT]).
Next A = (zN) with HG = CN. (2) and m(Q n A) = 5 with Hz the
stabilizer in GL(Q nA) of z. Thus by Exercise 7.2, A is the Golay code
module as an N*-module. Thus (2) holds. By 19.8, (3) holds.
c
We have shown there is an isomorphism : N -, IV with ( H n N)(' =
H n = ( H n N)a. To prove (4) it remains to show we can pick a and
< so that a = C on H nN = I. For this we observe I/A = Aut(I/A). For
example, I/Oz(I) = GL(O2(I)/A) and H~(GL(o~(I)/A),02(I)/A) = 0
by the Alperin-Gorenstein argument (cf. Exercise 6.4 in [FGT]) applied
to the class of subgroups of order 3 that are fixed point free on 02(I)/A.
Then the claim is easy.
Thus by Exercise 14.3.1 we may assume a = C on IIA. Finally A is
generated by the orbits of I on zN of length 30 and 240 (cf. 19.2) and
<
as a = on I/A, a = on these orbits, so a = 6 on I.
When w = 4, 46.12 says there are two G-classes of involutions in A
corresponding to the octads and dodecads via the identification of A with
the Golay code module. Further z is an octad involution and we refer to
4 6. Groups of type Col, Suz, J2,and J3 257
the second class as the dodecad involutiow of G. We will see eventually
that G has one more class of involutions: the root 4-involutions.
Lemma 46.13: Let w = 4, T E Sy12(H), A = J(T), and d E A a
dodecad involution. Then
(I) d is contained in a unique G-conjugate of A; in particular
CG(d) 5 NG(A).
(2) CG(d) is the split extension of A by Aut(M12) and is determined
up to isomorphism.
Proof:By 46.12, N = NG(A) is the split extension of A by M24 with
A the Golay code module, so as d is a dodecad involution, CG(d) n
N satisfies (2); for example, see 19.8.3. Further by 46.12.1 and 7.7, N
controls fusion in A. Therefore if CG(d) < N then (I) holds by 7.3. Thus
we may assume CG(d) $ N and it remains to derive a contradiction.
By 26.3 the result holds if G = Col so by 46.12.4, CH(d) 5 N and
hence CG((u, d)) < N for u E zN. SO as CN(d) controls CG(d)-fusion in
A, 7.3 says each u E zG n A fixes a unique point of CG(d)/CN(d). This
puts us in a position to appeal to Exercise 2.10.
Let d E B 5 A with B maximal subject to CG(B) & NG(A). Let
K = CG(B), M = N n K, and K* = K/B. Then by Exercise 2.10, M*
is transitive on A*#. Thus 211-m - 1 divides IM1, where m = m(B).
However, we see in a moment that m 5 3, whereas 211-m - 1 does not
divide IM241 for 1 5 m I: 3.
So it remains to show m 5 3. But by Exercise 2.10, z 4 B, so each
member of B# is a dodecad involution. Thus m 5 3 by Exercise 7.3.
Lemma 46.14: Let w = 2 and R < T E Sy12(H). Then
(1) R is isomorphic to a Sylow 2-subgroup of L3(4) and NG(R) is
the split extension of R by Z3 x S3.
(2) R = J(T) and A(R) = {A1,A2) with Ai E El6 and R =
NT(A~).
(3) NG(R) n NG(Ai) is transitive on Ai - E and E#.
(4) NG(Ai) controls fusion in Ai.
(5) Either
(a) NG(Ai) is the split extension of Ai by GL2(4) acting nat-
urally on Ai and G has one conjugacy class of involutions,
or
<
(b) NG(Ai) NG(R) and G has two classes of involutions with
representatives z and a E Ai - E. Moreover Q is the weak
closure of z in H.
258 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suzuki, and Hall-Janko Type
Proof: By 46.3, IR1 = 64 with NG(R) the split extension of R by X =
Xo x X3 with Xo S3 and X3 Z Z3,and R / E is the tensor product
of the natural modules for Xo and X3. Further Xo is faithful on El so
Cx(E) = X3.
Now X has two more conjugate subgroups X1 and X2 of order 3
and R = CR(X1)CR(X2)E with CR(Xi) 2 E4 for i = 1,2. There-
fore Ai = ECR(Xi) % Els with R = AlA2 and A1 n A2 = E. More-
over X2 induces a GF(4)-structure on A1 preserved by CR(X2)X1X2,
so CR(X2)X1X2 acts as a Bore1 group of GL2(4) on All establishing
(1)-(3)-
If b, bh E Al then b E Al n A:-', and then by (2), A?-' = At for
some c E CG(b), so ch E NG(A1) with bch = bh. Hence (4) holds.
Next by 46.11, H is transitive on involutions in H - Q, while by 46.12
each involution in Q is fused to z in G, so either G has one class of
involutions or two classes with representatives z and a E A1 - E and Q
is the weak closure d z in H . In the first case by (4), N G ( A ~is) transitive
-
on ~ fso ,ING(Al)I = 15 lNH(A1)l = 2*. IGL2(4)1. Let K = NG(A1).
Then IK : NK(R)I = 5 so the permutation representation n of K on
K/NK(R) maps K into S5.We conclude AlX2 = ker(r) and K s r As.
Thus (a) holds in this case.
In the second case K acts on zG n A1 = E#, so K 5 NG(R) and (b)
holds.
If w = 2 and G has one class of involutions we say G is of type J3.If
w = 2 and G has two classes of involutions we say G is of type J2. In
previous sections we have already defined G to be of type Col if w = 4
and of type Suz if w = 3. Thus the hypotheses of this section can be
restated to say that G is of type J 2 , J3, Suz, or Col.
In the remaining sections in this chapter we prove that up to isomor-
phism there is a unique group of type J2, Suz, and Col, respectively.
There is much parallelism in the proofs, so we could prove a few more
lemmas simultaneously for each type, but soon the proofs would have to
diverge. We choose to begin the separation after the next lemma, and
even that lemma makes appeals to facts established later in this chapter.
Lemma 46.15: G is simple.
Proof: If G is not of type J2we appeal to Exercise 2.4. To apply that
result we need only show Q is not the weak closure of z in H. This is
true if G is of type J3since G has one class of involutions and we have
seen there are involutions in H - Q. If G is of type SUZ or Col this
follows from 48.4, 49.4, and their proofs.
I 4 7. Groups of type J 2
So assume G is of type J2.Then by 46.13, Q is the weak closure of z in
259
H , so we need to work harder. Let M = ( z ) ~Then
. by 8.11, M = F*(G)
is simple. Then Q = (zG n H ) 2 M and as Q is weakly closed in H ,
G = MNG(Q) = M H by a Fkattini argument. Thus it remains to show
H 5 M, so assume not.
As Q 5 M and H/Q is simple, Q = H n M . Let X E AH.By 47.3.1,
K = CG(X) = (zGnK), so K 5 M. This is a contradiction as X is not
contained in Q = H f l M .
I
I
f
47. Groups of type J2
In this section we assume G is of type J 2 as defined at the end of the
previous section. Moreover we continue the notation of that section.
In addition let R 5 T E Sy12(H); by 46.14, A(T) = {A1,A2) with
Ai G Elel R = A1A2, and Al n A2 = E.
i
L e m m a 47.1: ( I ) For t E A1 - El CG(t) 2 E 4 x A5 and U(t) =
O2(CG(t)) is a TI-set in G with NG(U(t)) A4 x A5, z E E(CG(t)),
and X3 a Sylow 3-subg~oupof CG(E(C~(t)))in AH.
1
(2.) I G = . .
~ 27 33 52 .7.
Proof: By 46.14.5, G has two classes of involutions with representatives
z and t. This allows us to use the Thompson Order Formula 7.2 to
calculate the order of G. For x = z or t define a(x) = IP(x)l, where
I P(x) = {(u,v) : u E zG, v E tG, x E (2121)).
I Then by the Thompson Order Formula,
I IG/ = a(z)lC~(t)l$- a(t)ICG(z)l.
Thus we must determine a(%)and ICG(x)).We recall that if (u,v) 6 P(x)
then as (u, v) is dihedral and x E (uv), x E Z((U,v)) so (u, U) 5 CG(z).
Observe that ICG(z)l = /HI = 27 e3.5. We claim a(z) = 26 - 3 .5. For
if (u,v) E P(z) then by 46.14.5, u E Q, while by 46.1, v E H - Q. Then
uv 4 Q,SOUV # zand hence [u,v] # 1. But ifil E CQ(v) then [u,u] = 1,
so [il,v] # 1 and (u, v) 2 Dl6. Conversely for each involution u E Q and
each involution v E H - Q with [il,v] # 1, z E (u,v), SO ( u , ~ E) P(z).
Thus P(z) consists of such pairs.
Now tG n H = tH is of order z3 3.5, while C- (t) contains a unique
B
singular point, so there are eight choices for u wit v = t. Hence a(z) =
26 - 3 . 5 , as claimed.
<
Suppose that CG(t) NG(R). In the notation of the proof of 46.14,
we may take t E CR(X1), so CG(t) = XlAl. Now (u,u) E P(t) if and
260 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suzuki, and Hall-Janko Type
only if u f E# and v = ut, so a(t) = 3. Also ICG(t)l = 3 . 24, so
IGl = a ( z ) l C ~ ( t )+l a(t)lHI
=26.3.5.24.3+3.27.3.5
=27.32-5-(1+8)=27-34.5.
Now Sylow's Theorem supplies a contradiction. For let P E Sy15(H).
Then N H ( P ) E D20 so ( z ) E S y 1 2 ( c ~ ( P )and ) ING(P)~ =~4. But
lG : PI E -2 mod 5, so as JG: NG(P)I = 1 mod 5, ING(P) : PI -2
mod 5. Thus as ING(P)( 2 = 4, v = 0 3 ( N G ( P ) )E Sy13( N G ( P ) )is of
order 33. As N H ( P ) has order prime to 3, z inverts V . Now we may
take t to invert P and V = CV(t) x C v ( t z ) with ICv(t)J = 32 and
ICv(tz)l = 3, contradicting ICG(t)I3 = 3.
So K = CG(t) NG(R). Let K* = K / ( t ) . NOWA E Syl2(K) and
E is strongly closed in A, so by Thompson Transfer (or use the more
general 37.4 in [FGT])applied to A*, K* has a subgroup Kg of index
2 with E* E Sy12(K$). Then as E* = CK;(z*), Exercise 16.6 in [FGT]
says K i E A5. As above we may take t E CR(X1) = U ( t ) . As U ( t )
centralizes X I E , [U(t),K:] = 1, so K = U ( t )x E ( K ) with E ( K ) E A5.
Notice E = [A1,X1]E Sy12(E(K)).Further X3 acts on CG(U(t))= K
and centralizes X l E , so [ E ( K ) X3]
, = 1 and NG(U(t)) = X3U(t) x
E ( K ) Z A4 x A5. Now z E E 5 E ( K ) so X3 5 CG(z) = H and hence
X3 E Sy13(H) = AH.That is, (1) is established.
Now we use the Thompson Order Formula to complete the proof of (2).
We have shown ICG(t)l = 24.3.5, ICG(z)I = 27.3-5, and a ( z ) = 26.3-5,
so it remains to calculate a(t). If ( u ,v ) E P ( t ) then u E zG nK E E ( K )
a n d v ~ t ~ n ~ ~ _ ~ - ~ ( ~ ) , s o v = w x , w ~ ~ ( t ) ~ a n d x ~ z ~ ~ { l ) .
Then t E (uv) = (wux) and ( W U X ) ~= ( u x ) E~ E ( K ) , so lux1 is odd and
w = t. Thus Iuxl = 1, 3, or 5 and there are 15, 60, 120 pairs ( u ,v) of the
respective type. Therefore a(t) = 195 = 3.5.13. So by the Thompson
Order Formula,
establishing (2).
We call the conjugates of U ( t ) the root 4-subgroups of G and the
conjugates o f t the root 4-involutions of G. Denote by A the set of G-
conjugates of members of AH;that is, A is the set of subgroups of G of
order 3 centralizing a conjugate of z.
I
4 7. Groups of type J2 261
I
Lemma 47.2: Denote by 5A15B the conjugacy class of subgroups of
G of order 5 centralizing a root 4-involution, 2-central involution of G ,
respectively, and let P E Syls(G). Then
(1) 5~ and 58 are the conjugacy classes of subgroups of order 5 in G.
(2) For X E 5,4, N G ( X ) Dl0 X A5, E(CG(X))= (A n N G ( X ) ) ,
X is inverted by a conjugate zY of z, and E ( C G ( X ) ) is a wm-
plement to QY in Hy .
(3) ForY EsB, N G ( Y ) = Dlo x Dl0-
(4) P = CG(P) and NG(P) is the split extension of P by Dl2.
Proof: Let N = NG(P). Then by 47.1 and Sylow's Theorem, IP( = 52
and I N : PI = J G :PI -= 2 mod 5.
Let t be a root 4-involution, X E Sy15(CG(t)),M = C G ( X ) ,and
M* = M I X . By 47.1, U ( t ) E Sy12(M) and U(t)* = CM*(t*).Also
taking X 5 P , P 5 M , so M $ CG(t). Thus by Exercise 16.6 in
[FGT],M* G As. Further we may take z E E(CG(t))to invert X , so
z centralizes CG(E(CG(t))) n NG(U(t))r A4 and hence [z,E ( M ) ]= 1.
Finally N G ( X ) = E ( M ) C M ( t )= E ( M ) x X ( z ) % A5 x D10, so (2)
holds.
Next let Y = P n E ( M ) , so that P = X x Y 2 E25. Without loss of
generality t inverts Y . Now ( z ) E Sy12(CH(Y))with N H ( Y ) = Y ( t ,z ) ,
so C G ( Y ) = O ( C G ( Y ) ) ( z )with z inverting O ( C G ( Y ) ) / Y .Therefore
O ( C G ( Y ) ) = Y x [O(CG(Y)),z]is abelian, so C G ( Y ) CG(P) = <
C M ( P )= P and thus N G ( Y ) = P ( t ,z ) 2 Dl0 x Dlol so (3) holds.
As ( t , z ) E S y l P ( N G ( Y ) with
) X , Y the fixed points of ( t , z ) on P
and X 4 yG,(t,z ) E Sy12(N)and then by the Burnside pcomplement
Theorem (cf. 39.1 in [FGT]),N = O ( N ) ( t , z ) .As ( N : PI E 2 mod 5,
IO(N) : PI = 3 mod 5. Then as N I P 5 GL2(5),N I P E D12. Therefore
(4) holds and N has two orbits on the six subgroups of P of order 5, so
(1) holds.
Lemma 47.3: Denote by 3.4,3~3the conjugacy class of elements of G
of order 3 centralizing a 2-central, root 4-involution of G, respectively,
and let P E Sy13(G). Then
(1) For x E 3 ~ (x)G , = A, c G ( x ) is quasisimple with C G ( x ) / ( x )
A6, and i V G ( ( x ) ) / ( ~ )PGL2(9).
(2) For E 3 8 , N G ( ( Y ) )'2 S3 x 444-
(3) P Z 31+2, NG(P) is the split extension of P by Z8 faithful on
P / @ ( P ) ,and Z ( P ) E A is weakly closed in P with respect to G.
(4) 34 and 38 are the conjugacy classes of elements ofG of order 3.
 262 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suzuki, and Hall-Janko Qpe
Proof: First let D E Sy17(G). Then ING(D) : Dl r IG : Dl 6 i
mod 7. Further by 47.1 and 47.2, no element of order 2 or 5 centralizes
- < <
an element of order 7, so JNG(D): Dl = 2a 3b with a = 0,1, 0 b 3.
Thus ING(D): Dl = 6 or 27.
Next let K = E(CG(t)) and X E Sy13(CG(K)).Thus X E AH and
X = (2)for some x E 3 ~Now . NH(X) = SX, where S is semidihedral
of order 16 and Cs(X) = CQ(X) r Dg. Let X 5 I E SyZ3(XK) and
<
I P. Choose I to be z-invariant. Then I = X x Y, where Y = [I,z] is
generated by y G 3 ~ Indeed
. setting M = CG(Y) and M* = MIY, we
have U(t)* = CM.(t*), so by Exercise 16.6 in [FGT], either U(t) a M, so
(2) holds, or M S Y x A5. In either case P $ CG(Y),so P is nonabelian
and as X and Y are the only subgroups of I fixed by z, X = Z(P).
Now let L = CG(X). Then K 5 L and Kg E Sy15(K) C Syl5(L)
as a Sylow 5-subgroup of G is self-centralizing. Also P E Sy13(L) and
CQ(X) E Sy12(L),so ILI = 23. 33. 5.7=,c = 0,l. If c = 1we may take
<
D L and INL(D) : Dl = IL : Dl 2 mod 7, so DX < NL(D). But
by a Frattini argument in NG(X), I NG(X)r l NG(D) :NL(D)I = 2, so as
ING(D): Dl = 6 or 27, ING(D) : Dl = 6, contradicting NL(D) # DX.
Hence c = 0 and IL : KXI = 6. So as K GS A5 it follows that L/X r A6.
Then as P is nonabelian, L is quasisimple and P E 31f 2. Also as S is
semidihedral, NG(X)/X S PGL2(9), so (1) is established.
Further we have seen that if (2) fails then CG(Y)2 Z3 x A5. But by
47.2, only B of type 5~ centralizes an element of order 3 and a Sylow
3-group of CG(B) is of order 3. Thus 3~ = 3f3, whereas such elements
have nonisomorphic centralizers. Hence (2) holds.
As X = Z(P), NG(P) 5 NG(X),so by (I), P is the split extension of
P by Zs transitive on (PIX)#. Thus NG(P) is transitive on elements
of P of order 3 in P - X, so all are in 3 B . Thus X is weakly closed in
P, and (3) and (4) are established.
Notice in the process we have also shown:
Lemma 47.4: The nonnalizer of a Sylow 7-subgroup of G is a Fbbenius
group of order 21.
. -
-For we showed during the proof of the previous lemma that if D E
Sy17(G)then ING(D): Dl = 6 or 27. But by 47.1 and 47.3, elements of
order 2 and 3 do not centralize elements of order 7, so the lemma holds.
Notice we have now determined the order of each group G of type J2,
its conjugacy classes and normalizers of subgroups of prime order, and
the isomorphism type of the normalizers of Sylow groups of G.
i 4 7. Groups of type J2 263
?
I
The remainder of this section is devoted to a proof that, up to isomor-
phism, there is a unique group of type J2. In the process we generate a
great deal of information about the set A of subgroups of order 3 cen-
tralized by a 2-central involution. Thus in the remainder of this section
I let X E A and M = NG(X).
Lemma 47.5: (1) M has four orbits on A: {X), A(X), A?(X), and
A;(X).
(2) A(X) = {Y E A : (X,Y) E A*), IA(X)I = 36, and NM(Y) E A5
for Y E A(X).
(3) A:(x) = {Y E A : (X,Y) 2 SL2(3)), ]A!(X)~ = 135, and
NM(Y) E Syl2(M) for Y E A:(x).
(4) A$(x) = {Y E A : (X,Y) As), IA;(X)~= 108, and NM(Y) 2
Z2 x Dl0 for Y E A ~ ( x ) .
Proof: By 47.2, X 5 E(CG(F)) = L for some F E 5.4, L E A5, and
CG(L) = D 2 Dlo. Then there exist Y, X2 E xLwith (XIY) S Aq and
(X,X2) = L. In particular NM(X2) = (M n L) x D s 2 2 x DlO, so
I X ~= IIM : NM(X2)1= 108 and X2 E A ~ ( x ) .
Next 02((X,Y)) = U is a root 4subgroup of G, so by 47.1,
with K S A5. Then K = NM(Y), lyMl= IM : KI = 36, and Y E
A(X).
Finally we may take z E M. Then CM(z) = XT, T E Syl2(M), and
(xQ) = (X,X1) SL2(3) for suitable X1 E AH. Then NG((X,X~)) =
NH ((XIXi) = T(X,Xi), SO NM(X~) = T, Ix?~ = IM : TI = 135, and
X1 E A:(X). Now
so A = {X) u Y U X? U XY, and the lemma holds.
We now regard A as a graph with A(X) the set of vertices adjacent to
X in A. In order to prove the uniqueness of groups of type J2, we prove
A is simpjy connected. By 35.14 it suffices to show each cycle of A is in
the closure C3(A) of the set of triangles of A. This is accomplished in a
series of lemmas.
. -
Lemma 47.6: Let Y E A(X) and K = NM(Y). Then
(1) A(X) n A:(Y) = {Ye : e E E(M) - KX) is an orbit of KY of
order 15.
(2) {Ym : m E M - E(M)) is an orbit of KY of order 18 such
that for each M E M - E(M), ymXcontains one member
264 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suzukz, and Hall-Janko a p e
of A(X, Y ) and two members of A(X) fl A ~ ( Y ) .In particular
IA(x) n A;(Y)~ = 12.
(3) lA(X,Y)l = 18.
(4) For each U E A, zG n CG((X,Y, U)) # 0.
(5) Each triangle of A is conjugate to (X, Y, Yl) or (X, Y, Y2), where
f i E A n (X, Y) - (X, Y) and Q E A(X, Y) - ~ ~ ( ~ 1 .
Proof: Let L = E ( M ) . Then L acts 4transitively as As on LIKX, so
I' = {Ye : e E L - K X ) is an orbit under K X of order 15 with K acting
as A5 on r / X of order 5. Further for each Ye E I', K n K e % A4 and we
may take E = 0 2 ( K nKe). Then (X, Y, Ye) < CG(E) = RX. Therefore
(X, Y) = XIA1, XI, (X, Ye) = X[A2, XI, and (Y, Ye") 2 SL2(3) for
each x E X . Thus I? C A:(Y).
Similarly for t E M - L, K acts as L2(5) on L / x K t of order 6, so
19 = ytXKis of order 18 and K acts as L2(5) on 8/X. Further for
<
ymE 6, K f l K m Dl0 and (X, Y, y m ) CG(K n Km) 2i A5 by 47.2.
In particular CG(K n P) acts on a set I? of order 5 with Fixr(X) of
order 2 and Fix(X) n Fix(Y) and Fix(X) n Fix(Ym) distinct points
of 'I as Y,Ym E A(X) but Ym $ yX.Thus ymXcontains a unique
Yl E A(Y) (i.e., the Y1 with Fixr((Y,YI)) # 0 ) and two members of
A$ (Y).
We have established (I), (2), (3), and (5). Further we showed (4) holds
in the case U E A(X). If U E A:(x) then CL(U) = S E Sy12(L), so
each point of L/XK is fixed by some involution of S. In particular if
s E S fixes X K then s E K n S, so (4) holds in this case. Finally if
U E A ~ ( x ) then CL(U) 2 Dlo and again some involution in CL(U)
fixes the point K X of LIKX, so (4) holds here too.
Lemma 47.7: (1) A is of diameter 2 with A ~ ( x )= A$(x) U A;(x).
(2) lA(X,Y)l = 4 for Y E A2(x).
(3) If Y E then A(X, Y) G A n (X, Y) and A(X, Y) is con-
nected.
Proof: Count the set Ri of pairs (U,Y) with Y E A:(x) and U E
A(X, Y) in two ways. Let A i = IA(X,Y)J and A J = ~ JA(U) n A:(X)[
for U E A(X). Then ~A:(x)~A~ = [nil= lA(X)lai, while 47.5 and 47.6
say IA(X)( = 36 and ( A ; ( x ) ( / ~ ~= 9. Therefore (2) holds and of course
(2) implies (1). Further if Y E A ~ ( x )then K = (X,Y) E A5 and by
inspection A(X, Y)n K is of order 4 and connected, so (3) holds. Namely,
as in the proof of the previous lemma, if we view K as acting on a set I'
of order 5 then U E A n K is in A(X) if Fixr(X) n Fixr(U) # 0 and
U E A ~ ( x ) otherwise, which makes the calculation easy.
47. Groups of type J 2 265
We now set up the machinery to analyze AH. First 0 has five singular
..
points which we label S = {sl, . ,s5); then si = 2i = 24%is the image
of two involutions of Q. We choose X _< H. Then X is contained in
four complements to Q in H conjugate under CQ(X), and if A is such
a complement then A* 2 A acts as A5 on S. Notice each a E A5 is
determined by its action on S. For example, we may choose notation
so that X = (2) with x = (sl, s2, s3), which we usually write as x =
(1,2,3). Then CQ(X) = (24, z5) E Ds and [Q, 2 , 2 Qs.
x] = ( ~ 1 ~zlza)
Notice U E A n A is in A(X) if U and X have a common fixed point
on A and U E A;(x) otherwise.
Lemma 47.8: A(X, Y) is connected for Y E A ~ ( x ) .
Proof: Without loss of generality (z) = Z({X, Y)), so X* = Y*. Then
Y = Xa for some a E Q and without loss of generality a = zl. Let A be
a complement to Q in H containing X as above and let Uj = (ui) < A
with ui = (i,2,3), for i = 4,5. Then Ui E A(X) and a E CQ(Ui) so
Y = Xa E A(Ui). Also U4 E A(U5). NOWZi E CQ(U9-i) - CQ(Ui) for
i = 4,5, and CQ((X,Y)) = {z4,z5), so since IA(X,Y)I = 4 by 47.7.2,
we conclude A(X, Y) = {U4, U z ,U5, UF ). Finally A4 Z (U4, U5) 2
(U4, U5)zi = U
(,: US-i) 2 (U4,U5)Z4Z5= ( U p , Up), SO A(X, Y) is
connected.
Lemma 47.9: A is simply connected.
Proof:By 47.7, A is of diameter 2, so by 34.5, it suffices to show each r-
gon is in C3(A) for r < 5. By definition of C3(A) (in Section 34) triangles
are in C3(A). Further if Y E A 2 ( x ) then by 47.7 and 47.8, A(X,Y) is
connected, so squares are in C3(A) by 34.6. Thus it remains to show that
-
if p = Xo. - X 5 is a pentagon, then p E C3(A). By 47.6.4 we may take
(Xo, X2, X3) < H. Let Xi = (xi).
Suppose (Xo,X2} = A r A5 and X3 E A?(xO). Without loss of
generality x0 = (1,2,3) and x2 = (3,4,5). Now I = (X2,X3) E A4 2
(Xo,X3}*, so we may take xg = (1,3,4). As (xO,x3) SL2(3), xg 4
A. ~ u ast I E A4, I < = B for some b E CQ(X2) = (zl,z2).
Further CQ(I) = (z2), so I < B n BZ2 and B = z1 or ziz2. Let v =
(2,3,4) E A; then V = (v) G A(Xo, X2). If b = zl then b E CQ(u),
<
so V = vb B and then V E A(X3). Similarly if b = 2122 then
V = VZ1 < At' = BZ1z2Zl= BZ2, SO again V E A(X3). Therefore in
any case V E X$ n X$ n X: , and then 34.8 says p E C3(A).
Suppose X2,X3 E A ~ ( x ) . Without loss of generality, zt; = (1,2,3),
xa = (3,4,5), and xz = (1,4,5). Then there is U = (u) E A(X2, X3)
266 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suzuki, and Hall-Janko Tgpe
with u* = (1,3,4) and by the previous paragraph, if V E A(U,XO)then
XoXlX2UVXo, XoVUX3X4Xo, and UX2X3U are in C3(A), s o p is too
by 34.3.
This leaves the case X2, X3 E A$(xo). Now if U E A(X2, X3) with
U E A$(x~), then as in the previous paragraph, p E C3(A), so assume
otherwise. Then Xg* = X.j or X,*, say the former. But then up to con-
<
jugation in H, (Xo,X2,X3) CH(E) = RXO, with z € (XO1X2)and
Z((Xo, X3)) = e = z9 or zzg. Then replacing z by ze, we reduce to a
previous case.
Lemma 47.10: Up to isomoqhism there is a unique group of type J2.
Proof: By 25.10, a root J2-subgroup J of Col is of type J 2 or J3.
(Cf. 49.1.1 for the definition of a root J2-subgroup of Col.) Further J
contains root Cinvolutions and 2-central involutions of Col, so 3 has
more than one class of involutions, and hence 3 is of type J2. That is,
there exists a group of type J2. Thus it remains to show that if G is a
group of type Jz then G E G. For thiis we use Corollary 37.8. Thus we
must first construct a uniqueness system for G.
Let Y E A(X); by 47.5, Gxy g As. Let Dl0 2 D I GXy and
K = CG(D); by 47.2, K 2 As. We let AK = A n K regarded as
a subgraph of A. Finally let U = (G, K, A, AK) and observe that U
is a uniqueness system for G in the sense of Section 37. For example,
(M, K ) is of type J2, so by 47.1.2, G = (M, K). Also E(M) is the
unique maximal subgroup of M containing Gxy, so as Kx $ E(M),
M = (Gxy1Kx).
Next E(M) is the unique covering of A6 over Z3 (cf. 33.15 in [FGT])
and M is the split extension of E(M) such that M I X 2 PGL2(9),
so there exists an isomorphism a : M + M, where of course M =
NE(X) for some X E A. Further as M is transitive on its As-subgroups
(cf. Exercise 5.1 in [FGT]), GXya = GRP for some P E ~ ( x ) Let .
K = CG(Da) and form the uniqueness system a = (C?, ElA, AR) just
as U was constructed. Then K g As g K and Kx S S3 = Aut(KX), so
by Exercise 14.1.1, a : KX + Kx extends to an isomorphism C : K -,
K.
- Now CG(GXy ) 2 A4 is a Borel group of K , so CG(Gx y)C is one of the
two Borel groups of K containing X. These two groups are interchanged
by T E CA,t(k)(Kx), so replacing c by CT if necessary, we may assume
CG(GXY)C = CE(GRT)_.
Next for some Z E X , YCQ = P, where cz is conjugation by 3.
Thus replacing a, C by acz,C q , we may assume YC = Y. In particular
48. Groups of type Suz
K({X, Y)) = (t), where t E CG(GXY) with xt = Y. Therefore P =
YC = (xt)[ = ZtC.Hence the pair a,C forms a similarity of U with U ,
in the sense of Section 37.
Indeed as t E CG(GXY) and tC E CG(GXy), (bt)a = bar = (ba)tc for
each b E GXY, so the pair forms an equivalence of 2.4 and U.By 47.6.5,
each triangle of A is G-conjugate to a triangle of AK. By 47.9, A is sim-
ply connected. Thus we have achieved the hypotheses of Corollary 37.8,
and that result completes the proof.
48. Groups of type Suz
In thiis section we assume G is a group of type Suz as defined at the end
of Section 46. Further we continue the notation of Section 46. As usual
let A be the set of G-conjugates of members of AH and regard A as a
graph with vertices adjacent if they commute.
Lemma 48.1: Let X E Sy15(H). Then
(1) X is contained in a unique subgroup L of H with L 2 A5 and
CQ(L) = CQ(X).
(2) CG(X) = XCG(L) with CG(L) 2 i41jand CG(CG(L)) = L. A
Sylow 3-subgroup Y of L is in A.
(3) NG(L) = (L x CG(L))(a), where a is of order 4 with (a)CG(L) =
CG(NL(Y)) Mlo and (a)~ / ( a r~ S)g .
Proof: First CQ(X) = D E D8 and we may take E 5 D.Now by 46.3,
X is contained in a complement Lo t o R in NG(E) and Lo = L x L l
with L 2 A5 and L1R = (Q,Qg). Then X < L 5 H and Nc(XE) =
NL(X) x L I E with L I E E! S4 and D ILIE.
Now CH(D) = CQ(D)L and as NH(X) = NL(X) x D 5 NH(L), L is
the unique complement to CQ(D) in CH(D) containing X , so (1) holds.
Let I = CG(X). Then L I E II and D E Sy12(I) as D E Sylz(In H).
Let E' be the second 4group in D. By the uniqueness property in (I),
L also centralizes Sq g LiE' 5 NG(E1), so K = (LIE, LiE') < CI(L).
Now Y E Sy13(L) AH. Let S = NL(Y) and M = CG(Y). Observe
that D8 E D = CQ(S) as CQ(DY) 2 Ds and for s E S an involution,
(s)CQ(DY) is semidihedral. Further as s inverts Y, s induces an outer
automorphism on M/Y 2 U4(3). Therefore by Exercise 16.1.5, CM(S) 2
Mlo. Therefore as K 5 CM(S), K % A6. Further NI(Do) 5 K X for
each 1 # Do 5 Dl so K X is strongly embedded in I. However, K X
has no subgroup of odd order transitive on 1zKl, so by 7.6, I = K X .
Therefore K = CG(L). Now NG(K) = KNH(D) = (K x L)(a), where

268 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suzuki, and Hall- Janko Q p e
Ea = E' and (Y induces an outer automorphism on L. We may choose
(Y E CG(S), SO as C G ( S )2 Mlo, (3) holds.
Lemma 48.2: Let Y E AH. Then
(I) C G ( Y ) has one class of involutions zCc( Y).
(2) C G ( Y ) is transitive on involutions s inverting Y and each such
s E H is of type c2 in H*. Further C G ( ( s ) Y )Z Mlo, N G ( Y ) =
( s ) C G ( Y ) ,and N G ( Y ) / Y S Z2/U4(3) is determined up to iso-
morphism.
(3) y G n ~ = y H = h H .
Proof:Part (1) follows from 46.5 and the fact that U4(3)has one class of
involutions. By ( I ) , zG n C G ( Y )= zCc(*), so ( 3 ) holds. We saw during
the proof of 48.1 that there exists an involution s E H inverting Y with
C G ( ( s ) Y )2 Mlo; indeed by Exercise 16.1.5, ( s ) C G ( Y ) / Yis a uniquely
determined subgroup of Aut(U4(3))transitive on the involutions not in
U4(3), so N G ( Y ) / Y is determined up to isomorphism and C G ( Y ) is
transitive on involutions inverting Y . Finally each involution in H* is of
type a2 or c2 (cf. Exercise 2.11) and if i E H inverts Y then [Q, Y,ij is
nonsingular, so i* is not of type a2. Thus (2) is established.
Lemma 48.3: Let X E Sy15(H), A4 g I < C G ( E ( C G ( X ) ) ) and
, U=
O2(1). Then
(1) C G ( I ) r L3(4).
(2) For u E u#,CG(U)5 N G ( I ) , U is a TI-set i n G, and u* is of
typeczinH*. .
(3) N G ( I ) = I C G ( I )( s ) , where s is an involution inducing a graph-
field automorphism on C G ( I ) and I ( s ) Z S4.
(4) Each involution i n N G ( I )-CG(I) is fused into U under G, while
zCc(I) is the set of involutions in C G ( I ) .
Proof: Let Lo = CG(CG(X))be the the As-subgroup of H containing
X supplied by 48.1; thus I I Lo. From 48.1, a Sylow 3-group Y of I
is in AH. Also Lo has one class of involutions, so u E U is conjugate
t o an element inverting Y and hence u* is of type c2 in H* by 48.2.
From the action of Lo on Q there is a unique singular point in [Q, U ] ,
<
which we choose t o be E. Thus U R = CH(E'/E) n C G ( E ) and Y
centralizes E .
Now R = [ R , Y ] C R ( Y )and using the structure of N G ( R ) described
in 46.3, the argument of 46.14 shows the product is central with factors
isomorphic to Sylow 2-subgroups of L3(4) and with CR(u) = CR(U) =
U x S , where S = C R ( Y ) . In particular d ( S ) = { A l , A 2 ) with S = A1A2
48. Groups of type Suz 269
and A l n A 2 = E . Notice NG(E)nNG(U)= I S ( Y l , s), where (Yl,s ) g S3
is faithful on E, Z3 Z Y1 centralizes I , and I ( s ) Z 5'3. We may pick s
to centralize u. Then IUS(s)l = 2', so by 46.7.2, U S ( s ) = CH(u).
Let M = C G ( I ) ; then S E Sy12(M) and S = M n H . Let KO =
Cc(Loj; then KO 5 M and by 48.1, KO r A6. Without loss of generality
z E S n KO E Sy12(Ko),so A1 n A2 n KO = ( I ) and NK,(Ai n K O )2 S4
for i = 1,2. Then arguing as in 46.14, we conclude N M ( A i ) is the split
extension of Ai by L2(4) acting naturally on Ai.
Let L = C G ( Y ) , so that L / Y E U4(3). Let S < So E Sy12(L). By
45.5 and 45.6, S = J(So) and NL(Ai)/AiY 2 A6 acts as Spd(2)' on Ai.
In particular there exists a unique subgroup Ni of NL(Ai) with Ni/fii g
L2(4) and Ai the natural module for Ni/Ai. Therefore K = ( N l ,N2)
is a uniquely determined subgroup of U4(3).We claim K Z L3(4). For
<
from 24.4.0, L3(4) 2 G5 G7, in the notation of Section 24, while by
Exercise 9.4, G7 2 U4(3).Further as S = J(So) is isomorphic to a Sylow
2-subgroup of L3(4) we may take S 5 G5, and then by uniqueness of
Ni, K = ( N 1 ,N 2 ) = (75 2 L3(4).
So K r L3 (4). In particular K has one class of involutions and S =
C M ( z ) 5 K , so K is strongly embedded in M . Hence as K has no
subgroup of odd order transitive on its involutions, M = K by 7.6. So
(1) is established.
Also as I ( s ) E S4 2 Aut(I), I M ( s ) = N G ( I ) . By 48.1 there is t E
N G ( I ) acting on KoLo with Ko(t) 2 Mlo and t inducing an outer
I
automorphism on I . It follows that s induces a graph-field automorphim
on K. Thus ( 3 ) is established. Each involution in N G ( I )-I C G ( I ) inverts
a conjugate of Y and hence is fused into U under H by 48.2. Each
involution in U E - E is fused into U under [R,Y ] ,and zK is the set of
involutions in K , so (4) holds.
I
Thus it remains to show CG(u) IN G ( I ) , so assume not. Let D =
CG(u) and B = N D ( I ) . Then S = C D ( z )<_ B and zG n B = zK = z B ,
so by 7.3, z fixes a unique point of D / B . Then by Exercise 2.10.1, D
has a normal subgroup Do with D = BDo and S E Sylz(D0). But now
I K = B n Do is strongly embedded in Do, while K has no subgroup of
odd order transitive on its involutions, so 7.6 supplies a contradiction.
We term the conjugates of the subgroup U of 48.3 mot 4-subgroups of
G and involutions fused into U under G as root 4-involutions. We call
conjugates of the groups I and L of 48.3 and 48.1, root A4-subgroups
and ~ o o A5-subg~oups,
t respectively.
, Lemma 48.4: (1) G has two conjugacy classes of involutions: the class
i
270 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suzuki, and Hall-Janko Type
zG of 2-central involutions and the mot 4-involutions.
(2) Let t l = z and t2 be a mot 4-involution. Let G be a group of
type Suz with corresponding involutions 6 , i = 1,2. Then there e$st
isomorphisms (Yi : CG(ti) -+ CC(fi) S U C ~that (t? n CG(ti))ai = f y t l
CG(fi) for all i,j E {1,2).
(3) 1GI = 1G1.
(4) Each involution inverting a member of A is a root 4-involution.
Proof: Part (3) follows from (1)and (2) and the Thompson Order For-
mula 7.2. Thus it remains to prove (I), (2), and (4).
Let u,fi be root Cinvolutions of G, G, respectively; take u E H. By
48.3 there is an isomorphism 0 = a 2 : CG(u) -, CG(fi) and setting
e = zp, we have zG n CG(u) = zCc("), so (zG nCG(u))/3 = zC n ce(a)
is the set of 2-central involutions of G centralizing a.
Next by 46.8 there is an isomorphism a = a1 : H -+ H = Ce(Z). By
46.1 the involutions in Q, Q are 2-central in G, G, respectively. Thus it
remains to consider involutions in H - Q.
Now H* E 52;(2) has two classes of involutions: those of type a2 and
c2 (cf. Exercise 2.11). By 48.3.2 and 46.7, each involution of H of type
c2 is a root Cinvolution, so it remains to deal with the involutions of
type ag. Also this observation together with 48.2.2 implies (4).
Let Y E AH. Then CH(Y) contains an involution i of type a2, and in
the notation of Exercise 2.11, Q : = Q; * [Q, Y]. But [Q, Y] E Qs, so z
is its unique involution and hence by Exercise 2.11, the set of involutions
I(iQ) in iQ satisfies I(iQ) c Q i C CG(Y). Therefore each involution
of type a2 is 2-central in G by 48.2.1, completing the proof.
Lemma 48.5: Let Y E A and P E Sy13(NG(Y)). Then
(1) J ( P ) = A 2 E3s and CG(A) = A.
(2) NG(A) is the split extension of A by Ml1 and is determined up
to isomorphism.
(3) P E S Y ~ ~ ( G )
(4) NG(A) is 4-transitive on A n A of order 11.
(5) NG(A) is transitive on the remaining 110 points of A.
Proof: Let M = NG(Y) and M* = M/Y. Thus by 48.2.2, M* is
E(M)* % U4(3) extended by an involution u* inverting Y, and
CM.(u*) g Mlo. In particular if A is the preimage of J(P*) then
Esl E A* with NM.(A*) the split extension of A* by Mlo and A*
has the structure of a Cdimensional orthogonal space over GF(3) with
48. Groups of type Sux 271
NM(A) transitive on the ten singular points and 30 nonsingular points
of A* (cf. 45.9).
Without loss of generality z E NM(A). Then CA(z) = B 2 E27
I
with B* a nondegenerate subspace of A* containing two singular points
B; and B$.Now from the structure of H, B is abelian and by 48.2.3,
B n A = {Y,Yl, Y2) with = Bt. Thus NM(A) is 3-transitive on
-
A n A (Y) of order 10 and A Z E3a. Now for 1 # Po* 5 P*, IA :
CA(Po)l > IP{l, so {A) = A(P), establishing (1).Further as lA n A1 is
prime to 3, P E Sy13(G), so (3) holds.
By 7.7, N = NG(A) controls fusion in A, so IN : NM(A)I = IAnAl =
11 and NIA is a Ctransitive extension of Mlo. Therefore by Exercise
6.6, N/A % Mll. As NM(A) splits over A, N splits over A by Gaschutz's
Theorem (cf. 10.4 in [FGT]). So to show NG(M) is determined up to
isomorphism it remains to show the representation of L = Mll on A
is determined. But A = V/W for some L-submodule W of the induced
module V = ,< <
; where : K -+ GF(3) is the sign representation of
K r Mio. In particular V is monomial with basis X and L preserves the
quadratic form on V making X orthonormal. As NM (A) is irreducible on
A/Y but A does not split over Y, A is not self-dual as an NIA-module,
and hence W is not a nondegenerate subspace of V. Thus W has a totally
singular L-subspace U-isomorphic to the dual of A and V is uniserial as
a GF(3)L-module. In particular A is the unique 5-dimensional image of
V and hence is determined as a GF(3)L-module. So (2) is established.
As N is 2-transitive on yGn A of order 11 there are )'2I( = 55 2-
+
dimensional subspaces Yl Y2 with E A nA and each such subspace
contains two conjugate points not in A n A. Hence N is transitive on
the remaining 110 points of A.
Lemma 48.6: Let I be a root A4-subgroup of G and B E Sy17(CG(I)).
Then NG(B) I NG(I), so CG(B) = B I and NG(B) is the split exten-
sion of B I by a of order 6 with a2E CG(I) and (a3, I) 8 4 .
I Proof: Let U = 02(I); by 48.3, CG((u)B) = BU for each u E u#,so
by Exercise 16.6 in [FGT], CG(B) = B I or B x K with K G As. Now in
the latter case Y 5 S 5 K with S 2 S3. But by 48.2.2, G is transitive
on such subgroups and indeed CG(S)G Mlo, contradicting B 5 CG(S).
. '
Lemma 48.7: IGI = 213 3 .5 -7.11.13.
Proof: Let M = Col act on the Leech lattice modulo 2. By 25.9 there
is a quasisimple subgroup G of M with Z(G) = D of order 3 and G/D
of type Suz. So by 48.4.3 we may take G = G/D.
272 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suxuki, and Hall-Janko Q p e
We observe first that CA(D) = 0 by Exercise 9.6. Therefore D cen-
tralizes no element m of M of order 23. For Cii(m) is a 2-dimensional
nondegenerate subspace of the orthogonal space A containing two sin-
gular points and hence admits no automorphism of order 3.
-
On the other hand [GI divides jMI, so /GI = 2a - 3b . 5C 7d lle 13f.
As z is 2-central and lH12 = 213, a = 13. By 48.5, b = 7 and e > 0. So
as lMlll = 11, e = 1. By 48.6, d = 1. We interject a lemma:
Lemma 48.8: (1) G has two classes 5,4 and 5 8 of subgroups of order 5.
=
(2) G has a subgroup K = (LA x LB)(a) with LA A5 a root AS-
= =
subgroup of G, LB As, ( a ) ~ * / ( a ~%)S5, and (a)Lg Mlo, XC E
Sy15(LC) with NG(XC) I K t and Xc E 5 c for C = A, B.
(3) For P E Sy15(G), NG(P) is the split extension of P by Z4 x S3
faithful on P.
Proof: Ip the notation of 48.1, let X = XA, L = LA, LB = CG(L),
XB E Syz5(LB), and P = XAXB. Then by 48.1, K = NG(L) has the
structure described in (2) and NG(X) < K. Further L contains a root
Csubgroup U and CG(XB) n CG(u) = UXB for u E U# by 48.3, so by
Exercise 16.6 in [FGT], XBL = CG(XB) and then NG(XB) < K.
Therefore P = CG(P) n CG(X) = CG(P) and NK(P) is the split
extension of P by Z2 x Zq. In particular if S E Sy12(NK(P)) then
S E Sy12(NG(P)) as XA and Xc are the eigenspaces of S on P and
XA 4 xg.
SimilarIy if P 4 Sy15(G) then P is of index 5 in PI < G and as a
Sylow 2-subgroup S of NG(P) is abelian, we conclude from the structure
of GL2(5) that Pl q NG(P). Thus S acts on Z(Pl), so Z(P1) = XC
for C = A or B, contradicting NG(XC) 5 K. So P E Sy15(G). Thus
either the lemma holds or NG(P) 5 K. In the latter event 1 r IG :
NG(P)I r 213 - 37 . 7 . 1 1 . 1 3 f / 2 ~ E 13f E 3f mod 5, so f = 0. But
by 48.6, if B f Sy17(G) then ING(B) : BI = 72, so if f = 0 then
1 = IG : NG(B)I = 213 . 37 . 52 11/72 = -1 mod 7, a contradiction.
Thus f = 1 and the lemma holds.
Notice by 48.8 that c = 2 and we also showed f = 1 during the proof
of 48.8, so the proof of 48.7 is complete.
In the remainder of this section let Y E A and M = NG(Y). As usual
A(Y) denotes the vertices in A adjacent to Y but distinct from Y; that
is, those X E A with (X, Y) % E9.
Lemma 48.9: (1) M has five orbits Ai(y), 0 < i < 4, on A, with
A'(Y) = {Y) and A'(Y) = A(Y).
48. Groups of type Suz 273
(2) lA(Y)I = 23 5 7 = 280 and NM(Y1) 2 Z2/(Z4 * ~ ~ 2 ( 3 ) ) / 3 ~ + ~
for Y1 E A(Y).
(3) A ~ ( Y )= {fi E A : (Y,Y~)r SL2(3)} is of order 35 . 5 - 7 =
I 8,505 and NM(Y2) is a complement to CM(z), when z is the involution
in (Y, Yz) .
-
(4) A3(y) = {Y3 E A : (yY3) 2 A5} is of order 23 35 7 = 13,608
and NM(Y3) r Z2 x Mlo.
(5) a 4 ( y ) = {Y4 E A : (Y,Y4) 2 A4) is of order 2 . 35 = 486 and
NM (Y4) E L3(4) extended by a graph-field automorphism.
Proof: The argument is much the same as 47.5. Let M* = MIY, so
that M* is U4(3) extended by an involution s with CMl( s * ) % Mlo. We
find members X of A ~ ( Y )such that NM(K), and hence also lxMl=
J M: NM(x)I, is as claimed.
For example, by 48.2 and 48.5, the map Yl I-+ Y{ is a bijection of
A(Y) with the set of root subgroups of transvections of U4(3), so (2)
,
holds (cf. 45.8 and 45.10). We choose Y E AH and let Y2 E YQ.We
pick Y3 and Yq so that (Y, X) is a root A5-, root Aq-subgroup of G, for
i = 3,4, respectively. Finally we observe that
;
while also
so A ~ ( Y )= qMand the lemma holds.
Lemma 48.10: (1) A ~ ( Y )= {X E- A : dA(Y,X ) = i ) .
(2) G is transitive on triples (Yo, Yz,
Y3) with d(Yo, Y,) = 2 for i = 2,3
and f i E A(Y2). Moreover Y& n Y; n Y* # 0 for each such triple.
I
(3) For Y3 E A3 (Y), M is transitive on a2(Y) n A(Y3) of order 90.
Proof: By construction (1) holds for i = 0,l. Further if we set M* =
M/Y, A(Y)* is the set of root groups of transvections in E(M)* U4(3)
with the map Yl H Y; a bijection of A(Y) with the set of such root
groups, so for each A, B E A(Y), (A, B)* E E g or SL2(3). Hence A2(y)
is the set of members of A a t distance 2 from Y by 48.9. In particular
the members of A ~ ( YU ) A ~ ( Y are
) at distance at least 3 from Y.
Let E h 2 ( y ) ; without loss of generality z E (Y,Yo) = S. Then
by 48.9, NM(Yo) is a complement to Y in H n M. So by Exercise 16.2,
NM(Yo)has three orbits Fi,1 _< i 5 3, on A(Y) with = A(Y) nH =
A(Y, Yo) of order 8, r2of order 128 and consisting of those Y2 E A(Y)
with Y$ E A(Y2), and I'3 of order 144 consisting of those Y3 E A(Y)
i
274 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suzuki, and Hall-Janko a p e
with Yg E A2(y3). As NG(&) is transitive on vertices at distance 2
from Yo and there exist vertices at distance 3, d(Yo,Y,) = 3 for i = 2
or 3.
Let P E Sy13(M) and A = J(P). Then from 48.5, A r E3s and
NM. (A*) and NM. (Z(P*)) are the two maximal parabolics of M* with
Z(P*) = X * for some X E A(Y). Then picking m E CM(Z(P)) -
NM(A) and letting K = (A,Am), we have from 48.9.2 that K =
3 ~ + ~Xo. E A n A - {X, Y) and set
0 2 ( c G ( x Y ) ) 2 ~ ~ ~ ( 3 ) / Choose
X2 = X c . Then X2 f A2(xo) and we choose notation so that z E
(Xo, X2). Indeed for X3 E Am f l A - {Y, X, X2), X3 # X i 5 Am,
so X3 E A2(xO) and X i E A(X3). Thus (Xo,X2,X3) is a triple
with d(Xo,X2) = 2, X3 E A(X2), and X i E A(X2,X3). But we
showed in the previous paragraph that G is transitive on such triples, so
(Yo, Y, fi) E (XO,X2, ~ 3 )Then ~ . as d(Xo, X3) = 2, also d(Yo, Y2) = 2.
Therefore by the previous paragraph, d(Yo,Y3) = 3 and M is transitive
on the members of A at distance 3 from Y. Finally Y E X+ n X: nx ,:
so (2) is establiihed.
To complete the proof of (3) we show Y3 E A3(yO).Then we count the
set R of pairs (Y, f i ) with Y E A2(yO)and Q E A(Y) n A3(yo) in two
-
ways: (35. 5 7). (Z4 32) = I A ~ ( Y= ~IRI) = ~ IA3(Yo)[@
~ . -
= 23 35 7 @,
where a = IA(Y) n A 3 ( ~ ) = l lr21= 144 and P = lA(Y3)nh2(yo)l. We
conclude @ = 90, so that (3) holds.
It remains to show Y3 E h3(yO). We consider the action of H*
R i (2) on the orthogonal space Q. Now the stabilizer L* of a nonsingular
.
point ii of Q is isomorphic to Ss. Represent L* on {I,.. ,6) and let
Xi = (xi) E L n A for i = 0,2,3, with x3 = (1,2,3), xo = (3,4,5), and
x2 = (4,5,6). Then (X;, X i ) G A5, so by 48.9, X3 E A3(xO).Similarly
X3 E A(X2). Finally (X;,Xz) Z A4, so replacing X2 by a suitable
conjugate under Q, we may take X2 E A2(xO).Thus (Xo, X2,X3) is
conjugate to (Yo,Y, Y3), completing the proof.
Lemma 48.11: Let Y3 E A3(y). Then
(1) NM(Y3) is transitive on A(Y) n A"Y~) of order 90, 180, 10, f o ~
i = 2,3,4, respectively.
(2) A(Y) n A2(y3) is connected.
(3) F o r X E A(Y)nA3(&), A(Y,X)nA2(y3) #a.
Proof: We represent M* = M/Y on the set t of singular lines of a 6-
dimensional orthogonal space V over GF(3), with A(Y) corresponding
to C via the equivariant map X H [V,X*]. Notice X1 E A(X) if and
only if [V,XI] n [V,V2] # 0.
48. Groups of type Suz 275
Let N = NM(Y3). By 48.9.4, Z2 x Mll E N* = CM.(@) for some
-
involution @ E M* E(M*). Then by Exercise 16.1.8, N* has three
orbits tjl1 < j 5 3, on t of order 10, 180, 90, which therefore corre-
spond to the orbits of N on A(Y). By 48.10.3, the orbit of length 90 is
A(Y) n A2(y3). Then (2) holds by Exercise 16.1.9.
Further if X E A(Y) with [V,X*] E t2then by Exercise 16.1.8,
X E A(X1) for some X1 E A(Y) n A2(y3), so da(X, f i ) = 3. On
the other hand by 48.10, A4(y) # 0, so as M is transitive on A3(y),
A4(y3) n A(Y) # 0.We conclude (1) holds. Moreover X I E A(Y, X ) fl
A2(y3), so (3) holds.
Lemma 48.12: Let & E A4(y). Then NM(&) is transitive on A(&)
and A(&) c A ~ ( Y ) .
Proof: Let X = IA(&) n A3(y)I and a = IA4(y) n A3(y)I for Y3 E
A3(y). Then counting pairs (z,
Y4) with & E Ai(y) and Q E A(G)
in two ways, we get
from 48.9 and 48.11. We conclude X = 280 = IA(Y4)J, so A(Y4) C
a 3 ( y ) . F'urther by 48.11, G is transitive on triples (yY3,Y4) with
& E A ~ ( Y )and Yq E A(Y3), so NM(Y4) is transitive on A(&) n
A3(y) = A(&).
Lemma 48.13: A is simply connected.
Proof: By 48.10, A has diameter 4, so by 35.14 and 34.5 it suffices to
-
show each r-gon p = Xo .X, is in C3(A) for 4 < r < 9. If r = 4 this
holds by 34.6, once we show A(Y, 5)is connected for fi E a 2 ( y ) . But
taking a E (Y, Y2), (Y,Y2) = Y[Q, YJ = S and A(Y, Y2) = A1 U A2,
where Ai = A n Si and 0 2 ( c H ( s ) ) = S1* S2with Si 2 SL2(3). So as
Ai c A(X) for X E A(Y,Y2) is connected.
If T = 5 then p E C3(A) by 34.8 and 48.10.2. If r = 6 then p E C(A)
by 48.11.2 and Exercise 12.2.1, while if r = 7 we appeal to 48.11.3 and
Exercise 12.2.2. Finally by 48.12 there are no 9-gons in A and 48.12 plus
Exercise 12.2.1 handle the case r = 8.
Lemma 48.14: Let L !2! As, V a 4-dimensional orthogonal space of
sign -1 over GF(3) regarded as a faithful GF(3)L-module of dimension
4, A = N G ~ ( ~ ) ( Land
) , U = U(L, V) the largest GF(3)L-module such
that V < U, CV(L) = 0, and [U, L] < V. Then
(1) L is absolutely imducible on V, and AIL Z D8.
(2) d i r n ( ~ l (v))
~ , = 2.
276 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suzuki, and Hall-Janko Type
(3) A has two orbits on hyperplanes of U containing V with repre-
sentatives Ul and U2 such that NA(Ul) g Zz x S6and NA(U2) S
z2 x M10.
Proof:The first statement in part (1) follows as a Sylow %subgroup of
L fixes a unique point of V. For the second observe that from Section 45,
the semidirect product S = LV is a local subgroup of X = U4(3) and if
B = Aut(X) then B / X % Ds, B = XNB(S), and V is self-centralizing
in l&(S) = D, Thus D/V 5 A with DILV E D8, Further as L is
absolutely irreducible on V, ICA(L)I = 2, while IOut(L)I = 4, so indeed
D j V = A.
Next L has two conjugacy classes of subgroups K~ and K~~ with
K 2 As, for some a E A (cf. Exercise 5.1 in FGT]). By Exercise 15.3,
V r [VI, L]/CV,(L), where VI is the permutation module for L over F
on the cosets of I = K or Ka. Notice, however, that UK = VK/CVK(L)
is not isomorphic to UKa = VI(./C~~.(L) as K fixes a point in the
~ , 2 2.
former but not the latter. Thus d i r n ( ~ l (V))
Observe next that d i r n ( ~ l (V))
~ , = 1. This is because W/CW(K) =
U(K, V), where W is the 6-dimensional permutation module for K , since
a Dlo-subgroup of K fixes a point in Vf - V for any extension Vf of V
by the trivial K-module.
Thus if Z is an GF(3)L-module with CZ(L) = 0 and [Z, L] = V,
and dirn(Z/V) > 2 then there exist points X , Y of Z fixed by K, Ka,
+ + +
respectively, with V X = V Y. Thus V X 2 UK g UKo, a
contradiction. So (2) is established.
Finally by the universal property of U (cf. 17.11 in [FGT]), the action
of A = NGL(")(L) extends to U. Let e E A induce scalar action on
V. Then (e) = CA(L) and as CV(L) = 0, Cu(e) = 0, so AIL S D8 is
faithful on U/V and hence has two orbits on the points of U/V with
representatives Ui/V, i = 1,2. We may pick Ul r UK, so NA(Ul) =
LNA(K) 2 Z2 x S6. As U2 is the restriction to L of the 5-dimensional
irreducible for Mll discussed in the next lemma, NA(U2) % Z2 x MIO.
Lemma 48.15: Let L S Ml1, V a faithful 5-dimensional GF(3)L-
module induced from the sign representation of Idlo, and K = LV the
semidirect product. Then
(1) V is determined up to isomorphism as a GF(3)L-module, so K
is determined up to isomorphism.
(2) L has two orbits on the points of V of length 11 and 110.
(3) If X is a point in the orbit of length 11 then
48. Groups of type Suz 277
Proof: Parts (1) and (2) were established during the proof of 48.5.
Moreover Lx % Mlo and E = E(Lx) 2 A6 and from the proof of
48.5, V is isomorphic to the dual of the module U2 of 48.14.3 as an E-
module. Thus by 48.14.3, NGqV)(E)= LX(t), where t is an involutory
automorphism of K centralizing L and inverting V. So Aut(Kx) =
Lx (t)U, where U = U(Lx, V) in the language of Section 17 of [FGT].
But by 17.11 in [FGT] there is an injection U/X --+ U(LX, V/X) and
U ( L ~V/X)/(V/X)
, r (U(E, V/X)/(V/x)) n c ( L ~ )z z3 by 48.14.3.
Thus (U : VI < 3.
Now take S to be the quasisimple subgroup of Col with Z(S) r Z3
and S* = S/Z(S) E S z , supplied by 46.6.1. Then there is Kg 2 S*
with Kg E K , and as KO contains a Sylow 3-subgroup of S, KO does
not split over Z(S). Thus H'(L, V) # 0, so V < U ( L ,V). But as LX
contains a Sylow %subgroup of L, U(L, V) < U, so as (U : VI 5 3,
we conclude U = U(L, V). Thus Aut(Kx) = Lx(t)U = NAut(K)(KX),
completing the proof of (3).
Lemma 48.16: Let P E Sy13(G) and A = J ( P ) . Then
(1) J = ( A n P ) .
(2) G is transitive on triangles of A and each such triangle is fused
into A n A.
Proof: By 48.9 if X, Y E A with (X, Y) a 3-group then [X,Y] = 1, so
B = ( A n P ) is abelian. Then as CG(A) = A 5 B, (1) holds. Then (2)
follows from (1) and 48.5.
We now establish the main theorem of this section:
Lemma 48.17: Up to isomorphism there is a unique group of type SUZ.
Proof:By 25.9 there exists a group of type SUZ.Thus it remains to prove
that if G is a group of type SUZ then G % c. As usual we construct a
uniqueness system U for G and appeal to Corollary 37.8.
Let P E Sy13(NG(Y)), A = J ( P ) , and K = NG(A). Let AK = A n A;
by 48.5, K is Ctransitive on AK of order 11 and AK is a complete
.
subgraph of A Thus AK contains a second member X in Z(P). Let
U = (G, K, A, A,) and observe that U is a uniqueness system in the
sense of Section 37.
Pick P E A; by 48.2.2 and Exercise 16.3 there exists an isomorphism
a : G y -+ C?.);. Let P = P a , A= J(P),K = N&), dR= AnA, and
2 = Xa the second member of in Z(P).Then U = (G, K, A, ELR) is
also a uniqueness system.
278 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suzuki, and Hall-Janko Q p e
By 48.5.2 there is an isomorphism C : K -+ K with XC = X and
YC = F. Thus KyC = KCYC= KT = Kya. Now we appeal to Theo-
rem 37.12 with Z(Y) = Y. By construction, hypotheses (1) and (2) of
Theorem 37.12 hold. By 48.15.3, Aut(Ky) = A U ~ ~ ~ ~ ( Thii ~ ) ver-
( K ~ ) .
ifies hypothesis (3) of Theorem 37.12. As K is 2-transitive on K/KX,
hypothesis (4) of Theorem 37.12 holds. Thus Theorem 37.12 says our
uniqueness systems are similar.
Next by 48.9.2, F*(GXY) = 03(GXY) and Z(KXy) = 1. So as P 5
Kxy, 38.10 says CAut(Gxv)(KXY)= 1. Therefore Theorem 37.9 says
our uniqueness systems are equivalent. Now by 48.16, each triangle in
A is fused into AK under G. Also by 48.13, A is simply connected. So
Corollary 37.8 completes the proof of the main theorem of this section.
We close thii section with several results which establish the existence
of certain subgroups of G and various properties of the graph A. These
results will be used in the next section in our proof of the uniqueness of
groups of type Col.
Lemma 48.18: Let U be a root 4-subgroup of G and V E Sy13(CG(U)).
Then
(1) CG(V) = V x E(CG(V)) with E(CG(V)) Z Ag and NG(V) =
TOCG(V), where Qs E To E Sy12(E(CG(U)) n NG(V)) and
ToE(CG(V))/CTO( E ( c ~ ( V ) ) 9)!S6.
<
(2) NG(Vo) NG(V) for each 1 # Vo 5 V.
Proof: Let L = E(CG(U)) and I = CG(L), so that L r L3(4), I is
a root A4-subgroup of G, and NL(V) = VTo with Q 8 E To faithful
on V. Further NG(V) n Nc(I) = I(t) x VTo, where t = uh induces a
graph-field automorphism on L and u E u#.
Without loss of generality (z) = Z(To). Then as zG n NG(I) C L,
V(z) 5 (zG n CG(t)) = L ~ so , (I, rh) = K 5 CG(V(z)). Next as
U is weakly closed in T E Sy12(I(t)), T E Sy12(CG(V)). By 46.1, all
involutions in Q are in zG, so as no involution in T is in zG, T (7 Q = 1.
<
So K n Q = 1 and K E K* H*. Let KO be a root As-subgroup of G
containing I, as described in 48.1. By 48.1, NG(Ko) contains a conjugate
of VTo, which we take to be VTo. Notice that by 48.1, CT,(Ko) = (to)
is of order 4. Then to E CH(Ko) < Q, so [to,K ] < Q n K = 1, and
therefore K* 5 CH. (h)9!S6, so K E A6.
Now K V is strongly embedded in CG(Vo)for each 1 # Vo 5 V and no
subgroup of K V of odd order is transitive on the involutions of KO,so by
7.6, K V = CG(Vo). Thus the lemma is established. Notice ToK/(to) S
Sfjas TOKO/(tO)g S5.
49. Groups of type C o l 279
We refer to conjugates of the subgroup E(CG(V)) of 48.18 as mot
As-subgroups of G .
Lemma 48.19: (1) G is transitive on triples (Xo, Xi, X2) from A with
d(Xo, XI) = 4 and X2 E A(X1).
(2) For each such triple, (Xo, XI, X2) is a root As-subgroup of G,
Xz E A3(x0), and Cc((Xo,Xi,Xz)) % Z ~ / E S .
Proof:Part (1) is 48.12. Then (1) and 48.18 imply K = (Xo,X2,X3)
is a root As-subgroup of G and Z4/E9 E V(tO) < CG(K), with the
notation chosen as in the proof of 48.18. As (to) = CH(K), CG(K) =
O(CG(K))(tO)with z inverting O(CG(K)). Therefore O(CG(K)) is abe-
lian so O(CG(K)) = O(CG(K)) n NG(V) = V.
Lemma 48.20: For each X E A:
(1) A(X) n H # 0,and
(2) Xz E A ~ ~ ( x ) .
) i > 2 then zG nNG((X,Y)) E: CG((X,Y)) by
Proof:If X E A ~ ( Y for
48.3.4 and 48.1. Thus X Z E A ~ ~ ( xand) it remains to establish (1).
If z E NG(X) then by 48.4.4, X < H, so (1) holds. Suppose X Z E
A(X). Then by 48.9.2, O ~ ( N G ( X X ~2 ) )~ ~ ~ ( 3 ) / so
3 z~ centralizes
+ ~ ,
some conjugate zl in 0 2 ( ~ ~ ( x X Z ) )lies in CG(zl) n NG(XXZ)E
and
D8/(& x SL2(3)), where we check that z centralizes some member of
A(X, XZ) n C(z1)-
Finally suppose X z E A ~ ( x ) and let (22) = Z((X,XZ)). Then z E
Qo = 02(C~(.t2))= QI * Q2 * Q3, where QI = [Qo,X] and 9 2 and
Q3 are the two quaternion subgroups of CQ,,(X). Then z = xy, where
x E Q1 - (3)and y E CQo(X). Then x is of order 4 so as z = xy is
an involution, y is also of order 4. Therefore y E Qi for i = 2 or 3, and
hence z centralizes Xi E A(X) with [Xi, Qo] = Q5+,
49. Groups of type Col
In this section we assume G is of type Col as defined as the end of
Section 46, and we continue the notation of Section 46. Again A denotes
the set of Fconjugates of members of AH, regarded as a graph whose
edges are pairs of commuting members of A.
Recall that for X E A, CG(X) is quasisimple with CG(X)/X 2
Suz by 46.6. Defme the root Cinvolutions, root 4-subgroups, root Aq-
subgroups, etc. of G to be the Gconjugates of the corresponding ele-
ments or subgroups of CG(X).
280 Chapter- 16 Groups of Conway, Suzuki, and Hall-Janko Q p e
Lemma 49.1: Let B be of order 5 in H with CQ(B) 2 QSD8. Then
(1) E(CG(B)) = L 2 J2.
(2) CG(L) r As is a root A5-subgroup of G.
(3) NG(L) = NG(CG(L)) = (CG(L) x L)(P), where P is an involu-
tion inducing an outer automorphism on L and CG(L).
Proof: As in 25.10, CG(B)/B is of type J2, so by 47.10, c G ( B ) / B J2.
We claim CG(B) splits over B, so L = E(CG(B)) % J2.For by 47.2
<
there is Lo CG(B) with Lo/B = L l I B x L2/B Dl0 x A5. Now
both L1 and L2 split over B; for example, L2 splits over B as L2IB
is perfect of 5-rank 1 (cf. 33.14 in [FGT]) while L1 splits as O(L1) =
Co(tl)(d) x [O(Ll),d] for d an involution in L1. Thus as Lo contains a
Sylow 5-subgroup of L, L splits over B by Gaschutz's Theorem.
Next L contains some X E A; let M = CG(X), so that M I X 2 Suz.
Then by 48.1, CM(B)/X S Zg x As and CM(E(CM(B))) = K x X
with K 2 As a root As-subgroup.
Now CL(X) contains E(CM(B)) and hence an As-section, so by 47.3,
X 5 E(CM(B)). Then also X 5 E(CM(B)) IE(CM(I)) for a root
Ad-subgroup I of K , so we have shown:
Lemma 49.2: If X E A and I is a mot A4-subgroup of CG(X) then
x ~ ~ ( 1 xr1~ ~ ~ ( 4 1 .
Returning to the proof of 49.1, we have [Q, B] = [Q n M, B] is K-
invariant so K acts on CQ( [Q,B]) = CQ(B) and then K = [K,B]
centralizes CQ(B). Therefore K centralizes (CQ(B),E(CM(B))) = L.
Then by a Frattini argument and 48.1, NG(L) = LNM(L) = LK(a),
where a is of order 4 in M and induces an outer automorphism on K ,
and (a)E(CM(B))/X r Mlo. Now by 47.3, NL(X) = E(CM(B))(y)
with NL(X)/X 2 PGL2(9) so there is an involution P E yaE(CM(B))
inducing an outer automorphism on K and L.
We call the conjugates of the group L of 49.1.1 root J2-subgroups of G.
Recall the definition of octad involutions and dodecad involutions from
Section 46; in particular zG is the set of octad involutions of G .
Lemma 49.3: (1) The classes of octad involutions, dodecad involutions,
and root 4-involutions are distinct.
(2) H ~ A = A ~ =~ O x ~ X E A ~ .
Proof: With notation as in 46.12, as A is weakly closed in T , NG(A)
controls fusion in A by 7.7, so octad and dodecad involutions form dif-
ferent classes.
49. Groups of type Col 281
Let X E A, U a root 4-subgroup of CG(X), u G U# a root 4
involution, and K = E(CG(UX)). Then K % SL3(4) by 49.2 and 48.3.
Now if u = z j for some j E G then setting J = ~j and J*= J / Q ~ ,
<
we have either U 5 CQj(K) or K * Cj. (U*) 5 P* for some maximal
<
parabolic P * of J * Z Rsf(2). In the former case K* cj.(O) = P*,
a maximal parabolic. So in any event K* r SL3(4) is contained in a
maximal parabolic of 52$(2), which is not the case as a Levi factor of
such a parabolic is solvable or A8.
So octad involutions are not root 4-involutions. Similarly by 46.12,
the centralizer of a dodecad involution contains no SL3(4)-section, so
dodecad involutions are not root 4involutions. Therefore (1) holds. Then
(1) and 48.4 imply zCc(X) = rGfl CG(X) and therefore (2) holds.
Lemma 49.4: (1) G has three classes ty, 1 < j 5 3, of invodutions: the
octad involutions, the dodecad involutions, and the mot 4-involutions.
(2) If G = Col and ai : Hi -+ Efi is the isomorphism of amalgams
supplied by 46.12.4, then ai(t7 n Hi)= fy n Hi for i = 1 , 2 and j =
1 1,2,3.
(3) X E A is inverted by dodecad involutions and root 4-involutions,
/ but not by octad involutions.
(4) H is transitive on its root 4-involutions and if u is a root 4-
i involution in H then ICH(u)I = 215 . 3 . 5 .
Proof: First by Exercise 2.11, H* has five classes of involutions of type
a2, c2, cq, ad, and a:. We choose T E Sy12(H), let A = J(T), and
choose notation so that (AnQ)/(z) = [a, Q]for some a of type a4. (Thii
is possible from the proof of 46.12.) Then the members of A* are of type
a2 and aq. By 46.10, if j* E a&then j is not an involution. Thus
(a) If i is an involution in H then i E Q or i* E a2, c2, aq, or cq.
Next by Exercise 2.11:
(b) H has (at most) two orbits on involutions of type a4 with r e p
resentatives a and az, while H is transitive on involutions of
type cq.
(c) Each involution of type a2 and a4 is fused into A under H.
For ad-involutions this follows from (b). Similarly there is an invo-
lution of type a2 in A such that each involution in iQS (we use the
notation of Exercise 2.11) is fused into A under cH(;),so (c) follows for
a2-involutions from Exercise 2.11.
(d) H is transitive on its involutions v of type c2, each such involu-
tion is a root CinvoIution, and \CH(v)l = 215 - 3 5. -
I
282 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suzuki, and Hall-Janko a p e
Namely we may choose B as in 49.1, F the root As-subgroup centraliz-
ing E(CG(B)),and u E HnF a root Cinvolution inverting B. Then u* E
c2 and u centralizes K = C H ( B )with ~ Q$ = CQ(u)= 0 2 ( K ) * QG.
Next C H ( B ( u )contains
) X E A and each involution in uQ$ is fused to
u or u j under KQ, where j E C Q ( B X )- (z).Finally from 46.7, u and
u j are fused in C H ( X ) Thus
. each c2-involution of H is conjugate to the
root Cinvolution u. Further luHl = lc21X,where X = 48 is the number
of involutions in uQ. So ICH(u)l= ICH.(u*)llQ1/48= 215. 3.5.
We now adopt the notation of (2); then H = HI and Hz = NG(A)
M. Let a = a2, ( = a l l and M* = MIA. Now a(.zM)= a ( ~ ) = ~ f (M ~ )
is the orbit of octad involutions in A under M and similarly if d E A is a
dodecad involution then a ( d M )= dL is the orbit of dodecad involutions
in under M. Therefore by (c), all involutions of type a2 and a4 are
octad or dodecad involutions. Indeed H fl M has two orbits on those
i E A-Q of type ak for each k , one orbit octad and the other dodecad, so
(e) H has two orbits on involutions of type ak for k = 2,4, and in
each case one orbit consists of octad involutions and the other of
dodecad involutions.
Further as the pair a , C is an isomorphism of amalgams, a of type a2
or a4 is octad in G if and only if ((a) is octad in G. Similarly as a , (
is an isomorphism of amalgams and each involution of M is fused into
Hn M under M , once we show [ ( t ynH ) = iy n H for each j, the same
holds for M. Thus it remains to prove all involutions of H of type c4 are
dodecad, since by (d) the q involutions are root Cinvolutions.
Next each involution i inverting X centralizes a member of zG n
C G ( X ) ,so by 49.3, we may take i E H. But only involutions of type
c2 and c4 invert X* in H*, so to prove (3) it also suffices to show c4-
involutions are dodecad.
Finally observe that CG(d)= CM(d)has more than two orbits on
cG(d)nzG,so H has at least three orbits on d G n ~ ,
forcing involutions of
type c4 to lie in dG. Namely HnM has two orbits on dodecad involutions
in A, so CG(d)has two orbits on octad involutions in A. Further there
are octad involutions in CG(d)- A fused into Q - A under M.
. .. .Lemma 49.5: Let I be a root 4-subgroup of H and U = 02(1)
a root
4-subgroup of G. Then
5)NG(I)for each 1 # Uo 5 U.
(1) N G ( ~ O
(2) NG(I) = ( I x E ( N G ( I ) ) ) ( ~
where
) , E(NG(I)) G2(4), 7 in-
duces a field automo~phismon E(NG(I)),and I ( y ) r S4.
(3) The octad involutions in NG(I) are the long ~ootinvolutions
49. Groups of type Col 283
of E(NG(I)),the dodecad involutions are of the form uu for
u E U# and u a short root involution of E(CG(I)),and all
other involutions are root 4-involutions of G.
Proof: The argument is much like that of 48.3. First from the proof of
<
48.3 we may choose X E AH to centralize I and with U CR(X).Let
Y E Syls(I),so also Y E AH. Arguing as in the proof of 48.3, we have
R = CR(Y)* [R,Y ]with [Y,R] a Sylow 2-subgroup of L3(4) and CR(Y)
the "R" for CG(Y).Moreover U = CR(Yl)for some Yl of order 3 with
NG(E)n CG(U) = U x ( C R ( Y ) ( Yx~ C G ( Y Y ~ E )and )) CG(YYIE)
L2(4).Further for u E u#, CR(U)CG(YYIE)(~) ICH(U),where T E
NG(E)with E ( T )3 Dg and I ( T )2 S4.Then by 49.4.4, this containment
is an equality.
First CG(I)I: CG(Y).Let Kl = CG(I)fl NG(X).Then by 48.3 and
49.2, Kl = E ( K l ) ( a ) ,where E ( K l ) r SL3(4)and a induces an outer
automorphiim on E ( K l ) inverting X .
Now pick B and L as in 49.1 with X < L and I contained in the
root As-subgroup CG(L). Then by 47.3, as we saw during the proof
of 49.1, N L ( X ) = E(NL(X))(ao)with N L ( X ) / X 2 PGL2(9). Notice
C E ( N L ( X()a)) = D 2 Dl0 and by 47.2, K2 = CL(D)r As. Let KO =
(K1,K2),so that KO I CG(I).We will show CG(I)3 G2(4).
As a induces an outer automorphism on E(K1)inverting X , cu induces
a graph or field automorphism. As a centralizes an element of order 5
in D 5 E(K1),cu induces a graph automorphism.
Now K1 5 C G ( X Y ) and by 46.6.2, C G ( X Y ) is quasisimple with
C G ( X Y ) / X Yr U4(3).We saw during the proof of 48.3 that E ( K l ) ,and
hence also K l , is determined up to conjugation in C G ( X Y )and hence
also in CG(Y).Further by 48.8, K2 = E(CG(YD)),so KO = (K1,K2) is
determined up to conjugacy in CG(Y).Thus as C G ( Y )is determined up
to isomorphism independent of GI without loss of generality G = Col.
Let G act on A, the Leech lattice modulo 2, and set V = CA(U).Now by
Exercise 9.6, Cii(Y) = 0 and each u E U# inverts a conjugate of Y , so
dim(CA(u))= 12. Thus 0 # dim(V) 5 12. Further letting F = GF(4),
we have that as C V ( Y )= 0, Y induces an F-space structure on V pre-
served by KO.
Similarly Ci(X) = 0, so Kl is faithful on V . Then as dimF(V) 6 <
and a induces a graph automorphism on E ( K l )r SL3(4),V = Vl @V2,
where Vl is the natural FE(K1)-moduband V2 = Vla is dual to Vl. In
particular dimF(V)= 6 and V = CA(u)for each u E u#. Moreover Kl
is determined up to conjugacy in GL(V).

284 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suzulci, and Hall-Janko n p e
Next V = [V,Dl 63 Cv(D) with dirnF(Cv(D)) = 2. Thus
where L, E GLz(4) with [V,Dl L+] = 0 and [CV(D),L-] = 0. Now
L2(4) E K2 < L+L-, so as (a)X 5 K2 with CV(X) = 0, K2 is a
full diagonal subgroup of L+L-. Then as (a)X is contained in a unique
such subgroup, K2 is uniquely determined. Thus KO = (K1, Kz) is de-
termined up to conjugation in GL(V).
Finally K, = G2(4) < GL(V) is generated by subgroups K1 and K2
as above (cf. [A3]) so KOE K*, completing the proof that KO G2(4).
Next by 48.3 there is an involution y fused into U in CG(X) with
(y)I S4 and y inverting Y and inducing a graph-field automorphism
on E(K1). We pick y E NH(E) and let (u) = Cu(y). By the first
paragraph of this proof, (y)UCKo(z)= CH(u). In particular y acts on
(Kl,CH(U)) = U x KO and then on KO, and setting M = CG(u) and
K = UKo(r), we have CM(z) K. <
As 7 induces a graph-field automorphism on Kl, y induces a field
automorphism on KO G2(4). Then as G2(4) is transitive on its field
automorphiims, K is transitive on involutions in K - UKo, and each is
a root Cinvolution.
Next KO2 G2(4) has two classes of involutions: the long root elements
in zK0 and the short root elements v fused into K2 in KO, which are
therefore root Cinvolutions of G. Further, from 48.3 each member of Uz
is a root Cinvolution of CG(X). Thus all involutions in K are root 4-
involutions except those in zK and possibly involutions fused into VU#.
But CK(z) = CH(u) contains dodecad involutions, so these involutions
are dodecad.
It remains to show K = CG(u). Assume not. We have shown tGnK =
<
zK and CM(t) K , so K is the unique point of M / K fixed by z by 7.3.
Thus if M # K we can apply Exercise 2.10 to obtain a contradiction.
Namely by Exercise 2.10, M has a normal subgroup Mo with M = MOK
and Mo n K = KO. Then if V is maximal in the set U = U(Mo) of
Exercise 2.10, then as zK n V = 0, V is either (v) or the root group of
v in KOfor some short root element v of KO.But then CKo(V)/V does
not have one class of involutions, contradicting Exercise 2.10.2.
Lemma 49.6: IG( = 221 - 3 . 5 a7 .11.13.23.
Proof:Let G = Col . By 46.12.4 there is an isomorphism cri : Hi + H~~
i = 1,2, of amalgams, where H1 = H , Hz = M = NG(A), and A = J ( T )
for T E Sylz(H). By 46.13, CG(d) < M for d E A a dodecad involution.
I
I 49. Groups of type Col 285
Then by 49.4, G has three classes of involutions 9, <
1 j < 3, and u l
and a 2 induce isomorphisms ai : CG(ti) --+ Ce(ti), i = 1,2, such that
ai(tF n CG(ti)) =:i n Cc(fi) for each i , j. Finally by 49.5, there is an
isomorphism a3 : CG(t3) + CC(f3) with ~ x ~ ( t y n ~ = ~ f( ?t n~C)E)( ~ ) .
Therefore by the Thompson Order Formula 7.2, IGI = [el.
Then 22.12
completes the proof.
Lemma 49.7: Let X E A, Px E Sy13(NG(X)), and J = J(Px). Then
(1) J g E3a and J = C G ( J ) .
(2) NG(J) is the split extension of a group K with Z(K) of o d e r 2
inverting J and K/Z(K) E M12.
(3) K is 5-transitive on J n A of order 12.
Proof: The proof is much like that of 48.5. Let M = NG(X) and
M* = MIX. By 48.5, J(P5) 2 E35 and if Jo is the preimage of
J ( P 2 ) then (CG(X) n NG(Jo))/Jo 2 M11 with CG(X) n Nc(Jo) 4-
transitive on Y * n~J$ of order 11, where Y E AH centralizes X.
Now by a Frattini argument INM(Jo) : Cc(X) n NG(Jo)I = 2, SO as
Mll = Aut(Mll), NM(Jo)/Jo Z Z2 x Mi1. Let t be an involution
<
in NM (Jo) with It, NM(Jo)] J o Then t inverts X and as NM (Jo)
, is irreducible on J;, t either inverts or centralizes J$. As no involu-
tion has an ~ ~ subgroup
~ in/ its centralizer,
3 ~ it is the former. Then
I
: NM (Jo) n CG(t) = KOis a complement to Join NM(Jo) and as t inverts
j Jo,J~~E3s.~rtherforeach1#Po~Px,~Jo:CJo(Po)~>~Po~,~~
J = Jo.As CG(J) < CM(J) = J , J = CG(J), so (1) is established. Also
K = NG(J) n CG(t) is a complement to J in NG(J).
Next we may take z E KO and CJ(z) E Esl with AH n Cj(z) =
~ ~ n nU {X) ) 4 and AH n X Y = {X, Y) for some Y E
~ ( of~order
AH n CJ(z). SO by 49.3, A n CJ(z) = YNMn~(j)U {X). But from
48.5, each subgroup of J of order p is fused into Cj(z) under KO, so
A n J = yK0U {X) and y k H Y * is~ a bijection of yK0with Y * ~ o .
= I11, lA n JI = 12. Now KO is 4-transitive on
Therefore a s I Y * ~ O
A n J - (X) and J is weakly closed in NM(J), so NG(J) is transitive
on J n A. Hence K is 5-transitive on A n J. From 48.5, (t) is the kernel
of the action of KO on A n J and hence also of the action of K. Then
by Exercise 6.6.7, K/(t) M12.
In the remainder of this section let X E A and M = NG(X).
Lemma 49.8: M has five orbits Ai(X), 0 5 i < 4, on A, where
 286 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suzukz, and Hall-Janko Q p e
Ao(X) = {X) and
(1) Al(X) = A(X) is of order 25.5.11.13 = 22,880 with N M ( X ~=
)
E(NM(XX1)) edended by E4 and E ( N M ( X X ~ ) ) / X X % ~
U4(3) -
(2) A2(X) = {X2 E A : (X, X2) S SL2(3)) is of order 34. 5.7.11
13 = 405,405 with NM(X2) a complement to X in H n M,when
z E (XI X2).
.
(3) A3(X) = (X3 E A : (X,X3) E As) is of order 25 35 11-13 =
1,111,968 with NM(x3) z2 X J2.
(4) A4(X) = {X4 E A : (X,X4) E Ad) is of order 2.35 -11 = 5,346
with NM(X4) g A~t(G2(4)).
Proof: The proof is entirely analogous to that of 47.5 and 48.9, and is
left as an exercise.
Lemma 49.9: Define J as in 49.7 and let J 5 P E Sy13(G). Then
(1) J = ( P n A ) .
(2) G is transitive on triangles in A.
Proof: As NG(J) is 5-transitive on J n A, (1) implies (2). By 49.8, if
Y E A with (X, Y) a 3-group then [X, Y] = 1,so B = (Pfl A) is abelian.
Then as CG(J) = J < B, (1) holds.
Lemma 49.10: A is of diarneteF2.
Proof: This follows from 49.8, which says A(X, Y) # 0 for each y E A.
Lemma 49.11: (1) G is transitive on triples (Xo,X2, X3) from A with
Xz E A4(Xo) and X3 E A(X2) n A~(xo).
(2) (Xo, X2, X3) = K =" As is a root A6-subgmup of G, X3 E A3(Xo),
and NG(K) = ( K x CG(K))(T),where CG(K) 2 U3(3), K(T) 2 S6,and
CG(K) (7) G2 (2).
(3) x$-nx+nx,I #a.
Proof: Let X4 E A4(X), so that I = (X4,X) g Aq is a root A4-
subgroup and L = CG(I) r G2(4). Then A(X, X4) consists of the ten-
, ters Y of Sylow 3-groups of L and from the proof of 49.5, NL(Y) S Zp x
SL3(4), so L is transitive on A(X, X4) of order IL : NL(Y)I = 25. 5.13.
--
-- -
Thus I' = A(X) - A(X,X4) is of order 25 . 5 . 1 0 13. Pick X3 E I'
such that there is Xp E A(X, X4,X3). By 48.19, K = (X, X3, X4) is
a root As-subgroup of G, X3 E A3(X4), and CG(KX2) z4/31t2.
Let p be of order 4 in NK(XX3). Then P is faithful on XX3 so P in-
=
duces an automorphism on CG(XX3)/XX3 = D* U4(3) with I tions in CG((d,W)). Similarly i b ( ( u , W)) 2 Z3 x (Z2/(E4 x A5)) with
03(CD. (X2+)nCG(P)).Hence by Exercise 16.1.10, CG((P)XX3)E U3(3)
49. Groups of type Col 287
for suitable choice of p, as CAut(K)(I) fl NAut(K)(X3) = (7),where T is a
<
transposition in S g Aut(K), since T acts on some conjugate of /3 under
XX3. Then as lGz(4) : G2(2)1 = [I'llwe conclude that L is transitive on
I? and (2) holds. Transitivity of CG(I) on I' gives (1) and (3).
Lemma 49.12: Let I be a root A4-8ubgroup of G and V of order 7 in
CG(I). Then
(1) CG(V) =" Z7 x A7 and NG(V)/V S Z3 x S7.
(2) NG(E(CG(V))) is of index 2 i n PGLp(7) x S7.
(3) Let W be of order 3 in CG(E(CG(V))). Then W is fused into
(Q, Q9) and NG(W) r S3 x Ag.
Proof: By 49.1 we have a subgroup L1 x L2 of G with L1 a root
A5-subgroup of G containing I and J2 E L2. Further by 49.11, L1
is contained in a root As-subgroup K l and U3(3) CG(Kl) = K2 5
CL2(Kl)-Next by Exercise 16.5, there exists h E Lp with Kz flK$ =
K 2 L3(2). Then F = (K1, K!), and indeed CG(F) = C G ( K ~fl )
CG(K~= ) ~K2 fl ~ , =h K . Now S4 S < K with the involutions in S
in zG, HJ without loss of generaIity z E 02(S). Then a Sylow 2-subgroup
of S is contained in Q, so without loss of generality E = 02(S), and
<
then by 46.3, S (Q,Qg) with S n R = E. F'urther for W E Sy13(S),
by 46.3, S3 S So = (Q, 99) n N(W) is a complement to R in ( 9 , ~ ~ )
and NG(W) n NG(R) = So x KO,with KO = CG(WE) & As.iThen
So = Ns(W) and CG(S) = CG(WE) 2 As. Next CG(I) g G2(4) by
49.5, and lG2(4)I7 = 7, so we may take V 5 K. Then K = (V,S) so
F 5 CG(K) = CG(V) n CG(S) and we conclude F = A7 or As. But
taking U = 02(1), NG(U) fl CG(V) = ( I x X)(T) x V, where (T)I 2 S4
and X(T) =" S3.SO F E A7 and F V is strongly embedded in CG(V).
Then by 7.6, F V = CG(V). That is, (1) and (2) hold.
Now a 2-central involution d in KOis diagonal in the product U x Ul
of root 4-subgroups in KO,so by 49.5, d is a dodecad involution. Then
W 5 CG(d) = NG(A) n CG(d), where A = J ( T ) for some T E Sy12(G)
by 46.13, so if G = Col then W is the subgroup of order 3 discussed
in 26.4, and by 26.4, NG(W) E S3 x Ag. In particular by 46.12.4,
CG((d,W)) is determined up to isomorphism as is the fusion of involu-
fusion of involutions determined, so by the Thompson Order Formula
288 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suzuki, and Hall-Janko Q p e
7.2, ICG(W)I is determined and thus is 3 . IAgl. So ICG(W) : WKol = 9
and then as KOr As, CG(W) r Z3 x Ag.
We term the U3(3)-subgroup of 49.11 a mot U3(3)-subgroup of G.
We term the An-subgroups of G, n = 7,9, appearing in 49.12 as root
An-subgroups of G.
Let C be the closure of the set of all triangles of A and all squares
XoX1X2X3Xo with Xi+2 E A4(Xi) for each i.
Lemma 49.13: C = C4(A).
Proof: Let p = XoXlX2X3Xo be a square in A. We first observe that
the graph on A(Xo, X2) obtained by joining X to Y if X E Aa(Y) is con-
nected. This is because for K = (A(Xo, X2)), K = (NK(X), NK(Y)).
Thus the result follows from 34.7.
Lemma 49.14: A is &generated.
Proof: By 49.10 and 34.5 it suffices to show each 5-gon p = Xo Xg
is in C4(A). If X2 E Ai(XO) for i = 2 or 4, we do this by showing X; fl
X$~X; # 0 and appealing to 34.8. Namely if X2 E A4(XO)this follows
from 49.11.3. If X2 E A2(Xo) we will see it follows from 48.20. For by
49.8, NG(Xo)flNG(X2) is a complement to X2 in NG(X2) fl CG(z)when
z is the involution in (XO,X2). By 48.20 there is X E A(X2, X3) fl H.
NOW x ~x;nx,lnx,i.
Thus we may assume Xi+2 E A3(Xi) for each i. In particular K =
CG((Xo, Xz)) r J 2 and there is X E A4(Xo)nA4(X2)n (XOlX2). Then
M = CG((X,X2)) S G2(4) and M is transitive on A(XZ)- A(X) with
CG((X, W,X2)) = U(W) 2 U3(2) for W E A(X2) - A(X) by 49.11.
We produce Y E A such that for j = 0,2,3, Y # A3(Xj). Then for
<
0 5 i 4, we pick a geodesic pi from Xi to Y in A. Now p is in the
closure of the cycles qi = pi - p$l Xi+1Xi for each i, so it suffices t o
+
show qi E C4(A). But if d(Xj,Y) = 1 for j = i or i 1 then qi is of
length 4 and hence in C4(A), while if d(Xj,Y) = 2 then a t least one
+
k = j or j 1 is 0, 2, or 3, so the cycle qi of length 5 contains Xk, Y
with Y 4 A3(Xk), and hence qi E C4(A) by earlier reductions.
Thus it remains t o produce Y. If X3 E A(X, X2) let Y = X. Thus we
may assume X3 $4 A(X, 1 2 ) . In this case we let V = U(X3) and observe
that K n V contains an element of order 2 or 7. [ M : KI = z5 . 13 and
IVI = 25 33. 7, so lK n VI 1 IVI/IM : KI > 14. Therefore as maximal
subgroups of V of odd order are of order 21 and 27, either K n V contains
an element of order 2 or 7, or some Yo E A. In the latter case let Y = Yo.
If k E K n V is of order 7 then L = (X3,X2,Xo) 5 CG(k) and by
49. Groups of type Col 289
49.12, L is a root AT-subgroup. So L~ = L/02(L) E AT. Similarly if
k is an involution in K fl V then k E zG so we may take k = z and
I& : CQ(Xi)l = 4, so ICQ(L)I 2 8. If CQ(L) Z Q8 then L centralizes
Yo E AH with CQ(L) = [Yo,Q], and we let Y = Yo. Otherwise we may
take L 5 CG(E), so LRIR is a subgroup of CG(E)/R 2 As, so again
L* r A7.
Thus in anv case L* r A7. Then we may pick Y E A n L with (Xi*,Y*)
not isomorphic to As, and hence Y 4 A3(Xi). Namely representing L*
on (1,. . . ,7)we may take Xi* = (xi*),where x$ = (1,2,3), x; =. (4,5,6),
and xf, = (1,4,7). Then take Y* = ((4,5,7)).
Lemma 49.15: G Col.
Proof: As usual we construct a uniqueness system for G; then we appeal
to Theorem 37.7.
Let W be the subgroup of order 3 in (Q,Qg) discussed in 49.12.3.
Then by 49.12.3, K = NG(W) 2 S3 x Ag. Let G = Col and w a
<
corresponding subgroup of G. Then there is an isomorphism :K 4 I?.
Pick X E AK = K fl A and let = XC, so that E A ~ Then.
U = (G, K, A, A,) and 0 = (G, I?, A, AR) are uniqueness systems.
By Exercise 16.4, there exists an isomorphism a! : Gx 4 Gz. Now
K x E S3x (z2/(z3 x A6)). Let A(KX) be the subgroup of Aut(Kx)
permuting the root Csubgroups of KX. Then A(KX) = AutK(Kx) S
S3 x S3 x S6. Thus by Exercise 14.3.1, we can choose C so that C = a
on Kx.
Pick Y E A(X) n K and let = YC. Then P = Ya, GXYa = ezP,
and K({X, Y))C = K((R, P)), so a , C define a similarity of U with U.
Next Gxy is of index 2 in Aut(E(Gxy)) = NG(XY) = L, where
E(Gxy) 2 U4(3)/Eg is quasisimple. Now CL(Kxy) = CG(KXy) <
Z(Kxy) = 1, so
C A ~ ~ ((KxY)
G ~ ~= )1-
Therefore by 37.9, a,6 define an equivalence of U with U.
We now appeal to Theorem 37.7 t o complete the proof. By 37.7, it
remains to show AK is a base for A. Thus by 49.13 and 49.14, it suffices
-
to show that each triangle and each square p = Xo . -Xq with Xi+2 E
A4(Xi) for all i in A is fused into AK under G. But by 49.9, G is
transitive on triangles of A and by 49.5 and 49.8, G is transitive on
squares satisfying the hypotheses of p. Thus as AK contains triangles
and such squares, our proof is complete.
Remarks. The general structure of the the groups J2and J3was de-
termined by Janko in [J2].The uniqueness of Jzas a rank 3 permutation
290 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suzukz, and Hall-Janko Q p e
group on the cosets of U3(3) was proved by M. Hall and Wales in [HW].
Suzuki was the first to investigate Suz; see, for example, [Su]. Soon af-
ter, Suz was discovered to be a section of Col and much of the structure
of the two groups was determined by Conway and Thompson.
The general structure of Suz and Col was investigated in a systematic
way by N. Patterson in his thesis [PI, where Patterson also produced
uniqueness proof%for Suz and Col. To identify the groups, Patterson
appealed to a theorem of B. Stellmacher [St] on groups generated by a
class A of subgroups of order 3 such that for each distinct X , Y f A,
(X,Y) is isomorphic to Eg, A4, A5, or SL2(3). S. K. Wong also worked
on Suz and Col independently and he and Patterson published their
work jointly in [PWl] and [PW2].
Exercises
1. Let (V,f ) be a &dimensional orthogonal space of sign -1 over F =
GF(3), G = A(V, f ) the group of similarities of the space, and G =
PA(V, f). Let L = E(G). Prove
(1) L 2 ~ n ; ( 3 ) r u4(3), G = AU~(L), =
and GlL DB.
(2) Let z be an involution in G with [V, z] of dimension 4 and sign
+l. Then F*(CE(2)) = Z Q; and is of type U4(3).
(3) Let K = GF(9), K# = (C), C2 = i, and (vK, fK) a 3-dimensional
orthogonal space over K with basis X = {xl, x2, x3) with
f K ( ~ i , ~ j ) = O f ~ r a l jl, ifK(xi)=
# fK(xilxi) = 1 f o r i = 1 , 2 ,
and f K(x3) = [. Let T = TF be the trace from K to F. Take V to
be vK regarded a s an F-space. Then (V,To f K, is 6-dimensional
of sign -1, so we may take f = To f K .
(4) Let /3 = i1 be scalar multiplication on vKvia i and regard P E
G. Then CL(/3) = LK(r, - I ) , where LK = E ( A ( v ~fK)) , r
Q3(9) r L2(9) and T is the semilinear map T : xi ajxi H xi agxi
with X ~ T= -C(xl +
x2), X ~ = T <(x2 - xl), and x37 = x3.
(5) Let A be the set of G-conjugates of elements a E CC(z) such that
a2 E (Z) and Ca(a) 2 D8. Then G is transitive on A and for
-t,
each a E A, a is an involution, l is transitive on involutions in
a l l and Cz(a) S Mlo.
(6) E A.
(7) (P,CL(P)) = H has two orbits S1 and S2 on singular points of
V, where S1 = {Fv : v is K-singular) is of order 40 and S2 =
{Fv : fK(v) = zti) is of order 72. Further L~ has two orbits Sg,
e = &I, of order 36 on S2, where S$= {Fv : fK(v) = ~ i ) .
Exercises 291
(8) H has three orbits Lj, 1 < j < 3, on the singular lines of V,
where Ll = (1 : 1 is a K-singular point of vK)is of order 10,
t2={1:11nS11=2, 11nS;I=l, e = f l ) i s o f o r d e r 1 8 0 , a n d
1 L3 = (1 : Jln S$I = 2, c = f 1) is of order 90. Representatives
are K(xl +ixz), F ( x l + FiCx2, and F < x l + FCx2, respectively.
+
That is, x l ixz is K-singular, fK(<xj) = i, fK(i[x2) = -i,
+ +
f K ( ~ x l 4x2) = -i, and f K (<XI eiCx2) = 0.
I (9) Let L be the graph on the singular lines of V with 1 adjacent to
k if 1n k # 0. Then L3 is a connected subgraph of L.
(10) Up to conjugation there exists a unique automorphism y of E
of order 4 with 72 $4 i such that 03(Ci(X)) r l C(yi contains
,
31+2 , where X is the center of a Sylow %subgroup of L. Further
= =
Cz(7) U3(3) and C ~ ( 7 ) 1 ( 7 ) G2(2).
(Hint: See Section 2 in [A51 for some help.)
2. Let V be a Qdimensional unitary space over GF(9), L = SU(V) 2
i
SU4(3), L* = L/Z(L), and H the stabilizer in V of {U, u ~ }where ,
U is a nondegenerate line of V. Prove
(1) H = CL(z*),where z is the involution in L with U = [V,z].
(2) H has three orbits ril1 5 i 5 3, on the set r of singular points
1 of V.
1
3 (3) rl = (I' r l U) U (I' n uI) is of order 8.
+
(4) r2= {(u v) : (u) E I? n U, (v) E J?n u ~ is}of order 128 and
W + Wz is a singular line for W E r2.
, +
(5) I3' consists of the points (u v), where (u), (v) are nonsingu-
lar points of U,u', respectively, with (u, u) = -(v, v). M h e r
,
+
lrsl = 144 and W W z is a nondegenerate line for W E r3.
3. Let G = U4(3), Go the covering group of G, and G = G ~ / o ~ ( z ( G ~ ) ) .
i Prove
(1) Let M A ~ l E s lbe a maximal parabolic of G, M the preim-
age of M in G, and z = z(M). Then 2 = Z(G) and
) ) , Mo is the covering group of M.
M ~ / O ~ ( Z ( M ~where
(2) A Sylow 3-subgroup of the Schur multiplier of G is isomorphic
I to Eg.
(3) 03(M) = W is the dual of the MIW-module U(L, V) of 48.14.
(4) B = AU~(G) Aut(G) and N ~ ( M )has two orbits on points of
i
2 with representatives 21 and where N ~ ( z ~ ) / wS Z2 x S6
and ~ ~ ( 2?Z2z2 ) x Mlo.
!
(5) ~ / 2 2is the unique quasisimple group L such that Z(L) n Z3,
L/Z(L) 2 G, and L admits an involutory automorphism a! such
j that M(cu)/03(M) 2 Mlo.
i
292 Chapter 16 Groups of Conway, Suxuki, and Hall-Janko n p e
(Hink Use 48.14 and its proof; for example, note the role played
by M in the first paragraph of the proof of 48.14.)
4. Prove a Sylow 3-subgroup of the Schur multiplier of Suz is of order 3.
(Hint: Use Exercise 16.3.2 and 46.5.)
5. Let G = J2. Prove
(1) G has a subgroup K 2 U3(3).
(2) G is rank 3 on R = G / K with parameters n = 100, k = 36,1= 63,
X = 14, and p = 12.
Chapter
(3) For a E R with K = Ga, /3 E A(@),and 7 E I'(a),Kp E L3(2)
and Ky = C K ( t )for t an involution in K.
(Hint: Use 49.11.2 for (1).Then observe that if t is an involution in Subgroups of Prime Order
K then 02(CG(t))T)NG(CK(t))is not contained in K. Conclude
C K ( t ) = K-, for some 7 E R. Similarly observe that for P E in Five Sporadic Groups
Sy17(K), NG(P)is not contained in K and I r L3(2) is the
unique proper subgroup of K of index at most 36 containing P.)
6. (1) If X is a group with Z ( X ) 2 Z2 and X / Z ( X ) 2 Qg, prove
=
X z2 x Qg.
(2) Let S = Sp4(3). Prove
(a) S has a subgroup SL2(3)wrZ2. We have considered five of the sporadic groups in detail: M24, He, J2,
(b) S / Z ( S ) Z RZ(2) and involutions of type a2 in RZ(2) lift t o Suz, and Col. In particular we have characterized each of these five
I
involutions of S , while involutions of type c2 lift t o elements groups in terms of a hypothesis H(w,L ) for suitable w and L, sometimes
of order 4. with some extra conditions. That is, we have proved that there exists
(3) Let G = R6(2), G9 the covering group of G , and G = Go/ a group G satisfying hypothesis H(w, L ) and that G is unique up t o
0 2 ( Z ( ~ o ) )Prove
. G % Sp4(3),so a Sylow 2-subgroup of the isomorphism. We have also determined the order of G , and we have
Schur multiplier of G is of order 2. I
generated much information about its subgroup structure. In particular
7. Let G = ~ 8 + ( 2Go ) , the covering group of G , and G = G ~ / O ~ ( Z ( G ~ ) ) . we have determined most of the subgroups of G of prime order and their
Let M be the stabilizer of a point in the natural module for G , Mo normalizers in G.
the covering group of M, M = M ~ / O ~ ( Z ( Mand ~ ) )&
, f the preimage This information is summarized in five tables at the end of this c h a p
of M in G. Prove ; ter. In the case of M24 and J2 all the necessary facts have already been
(1) M is the split extension M = LA, where L Z As and A 2 EG4is established. Namely Section 21 describes all subgroups of M24 of prime
the natural module for L. Further H ~ ( LA) , % Z2. order and their normalizers. Similarly Section 47 contains the corre-
(2) M is the split extension M = LA, where , ! 2 As/Z2 is the sponding information for J2. However, some work remains to be done
covering group of As and A = [ o ~ ( M M ]) , Z2 x D:. 1 for Suz, Col, and He. We complete the discussion of the subgroups of
(3) Z(G)= Z ( M ) 2 Eq and M = M / ( Z ~ ~ where ~ ) , z E fr, y E A, prime order for these three groups in this chapter.
and X Z ( M ) ,y ~ ( are~ involutions
) of type c2 in G.
(4) z(&) = ( 1 , a2,b2,c2), where ~ z ( G and) ~ z ( G are)involutions of
type a4 in G and CZ(G)is of type c2 in G. I
50. Subgroups of SUXof prime order
i
(Hint: See Exercise 2.11 for the discussion of involutions in G. In
(2), imitate the proof of 8.17.) In this section we assume G is Suz. Further we continue the hypotheses
and notation of Sections 46 and 48. Fkom 48.7, G has order 213 .37. 52 .
I
-
7 . 1 1 13.
 294 Chapter 17 Subgroups of Prime Order
By 48.4.1, G has two classes of involutions. Their centralizers are
described in 46.1 and 48.3. The subgroups of G of order 5 and their
normalizers are described in 48.8. The normalizer of a subgroup of order
7 is described in 48.6.
According to Table Suz, G should have three classes 3 ~3B, , and 3 c of
subgroups of order 3. The class 3 4 is A and the normalizer of a member
of A is described in 46.6. The normalizer of a group in 3 c is described
in 48.18. Let X = ( 2 ) € A and Y = ( y ) E A ( X ) ; then ( x y ) E 3B.
To verify that N G ( ( X Y ) is
) as described in Table Suz, using 48.9.2, we
only need to show NG((xy))5 N G ( { X , Y ) ) . If not, xy = xlyl for some
X 1 = { x l ) E A and some YI = ( y l ) E A ( X 1 ) with { X , Y ) # ( X 1 , Y l ) .
Let M = C G ( X ) and M* = M / X , so that M* r U4(3) and y* = (xy)*
is a long root element of M*, Then x y E C M ( X 1 ) .But by 48.9, C M ( X 1 ) *
contains no long root elements unIess X 1 E A ( X ) or b2(x).
Suppose X 1 E A ~ ( xThen ) . by 48.9, C M ( X 1 ) *= C M ( z ) * ,where z is
the involution in ( X ,X I ) . Then z centralizes xy and X , so z centralizes
Y . Then Y E CA(x)(z) = CA(x,)(z), contradicting x y E C ( X 1 ) .
So Xl,Yl E A ( X , Y ) . But now from 48.9, x l y l 4 XY,contradicting
XY = XlYl.
So the normalizers of our three classes of subgroups of order 3 are
as claimed; it remains to show that each subgroup of order 3 is in one
of these three classes. So let B be of order 3. As M contains a Sylow
3-subgroup P of G we may take B 5 M. Now NG(X)* Z2/U4(3)
has three classes of elements of order 3 corresponding to elements with
Jordon block structure Jz, J?; 5:; and J3, J1 on the natural module for
SU4(3).Here J: indicates i Jordon blocks of size j.Elements of the first
two types are fused under M* into J ( P * ) = J(P)* and by 48.5, each
subgroup of J ( P ) of order 3 is in 3~ or 3B. Thus we may take B* of type
J3,J1. But then the three subgroups of order 3 in B X - X are fused in
M , so all such subgroups of order 3 must be in 3c, and our proof that
G has just three classes of subgroups of order 3 is complete.
Next we observe
Lemma 50.1: Let g E Col be of order 13. Then
- from the sign character for 2 2 x Mll on J n A, a is 3-central in N G ( J ) ,
- - - -0)CA(g)= 0, and
(2) g centralizes no element of order 11 i n Col.
Proof: By 23.3, Col has three orbits on the points of with stabilizers
Co2, Coa, and Mz4/E211. Hence, using, for example, 22.15, 13 does not
divide the order of the stabilizer of a point of A, so (1)holds.
Next the minimal dimension of a nontrivial GF(2)(g)-module is 12,
51. Subgroups of Col of prime order 295
so d is the sum of two irreducible (9)-modules and hence CGLIAl(g)
; G L ~ ( whose
~ ~ ~order
) , is not divisible by 11. Thus ( 2 ) also holds.
1 We have seen that the order of centralizers of elements of prime order
p < 11 in G are not divisible by 11 or 13, and by 50.1 there is no element
of order 13 11 in G, so elements of order 11 and 13 are self-centralizing.
Therefore the normalizer of a Sylow psubgroup P of G is a Frobenius
group with kernel P for p = 11 and 13; further Sylow's Theorem gives us
the order of that normalizer, completing the verification of Table Suz.
51. Subgroups of Gol of prime order
i In this section we assume G is Col and continue the hypotheses and
.
notation of Sections 46 and 49. By 49.6, G has order 221 ~ 3 ' .54 7 2 .11 .
13 23.
By 49.4, G has three classes of involutions and the centralizers of these
1 involutions are described in 46.1, 46.13, and 49.5.
We next consider the subgroups of order 3. First A = 3~ and the
normalizer of a member of A is described in 46.6. Next 3~ consists of the
elements ( x y ) ,where X = ( a ) E A and Y = ( y ) E: A(X). We argue as
1 in the previous section that NG((xy)) _< N G ( ( X , Y ) ) ,so NG((xy)) is as
described in 49.8.1. Namely if M = C G ( X ) ,M* = M / X , and xy = x l y l
with X I = ( 2 1 ) f A and Yl = ( y l ) E A ( X 1 ) then x y E C M ( X l ) . Now
if X 1 E A i ( X ) for i = 3 or 4 then (xy)* = y* E C M ( X 1 ) * % J2 or
G2(4). But then Y 5 C M ( X l ) whiie X n C M ( X 1 ) = 1, contradicting
x y E C M ( X 1 ) .Then we complete the proof as in the previous section.
The subgroups of type 3 0 are described in 49.12. Thus it remains
to show there exists a subgroup of type 34, and that each subgroup of
order 3 is in one of these four classes.
.
Let PH E Sy13(H). Then A n PH = { X I ,. . ,X4). Let a = x l . x4 -
with Xi = (xi). Then CQ(a) = ( z ) and CH.(a) r SU4(2), with a
inverted in H . F'urther if PH < P E Syl3(G) and J = J ( P ) then as a
is the product of generators of four members of A n J and since as a
module for N G ( J ) / J Mlz/Z2, J is an image of the module induced
so we can take a E Z ( P ) . Indeed z is a square in N G ( J ) n CG(a),so by
Exercise 16.6.3, C H ( a )E Sp4(3) x Z3.
Let T E Sylz(CH(a));by Exercise 16.6, T QswrZ2, so ( z ) = Z(T)
and hence T E S y l a ( C ~ ( a ) )We
. claim z is weakly closed in T with
respect to CG(a). Each involution in T - ( z ) is fused into Z 2 ( T ) under
C H ( a ) ,while if z # t E Z2(T) then To = CT(t) % Q8 x Q8.Thus if
296 Chapter 17 Subgroups of Prime Order
h E CG(a) with th = z then CT(t) = CTh (z) and conjugating in CH(a),
we may assume h E NG(To). Thii is impossible as (z) is characteristic
in To.
Therefore z is weakly closed in T. So by Glauberman's Z*-Theorem
[Gl], CG(a) = KCH(a), where K = O(CG(a)). Now z inverts K/(a) so
by a Fkattini argument CH(a)" S Sp4(3) is faithful on f i E Sylp(K)
for each prime divisor p of 1KI. However, if p # 3 then lPll < p4 with
equality only when p = 5, so Sp4(3) is not faithful on PI. That is, K =
03(CG(a)). Therefore as P 5 CG(a), 1KI = 35, and then as CH(a) is
faithful on K , K r 31+4. Therefore NG((a)) has the structure described
for a member of 3.4 and we take 3.4 = (a)G.
It remains to show G has just four classes of subgroups of order 3. First
from the structure of NG((a)), NG(J) f l NG((a)) is of order 24 . 3', so
) I But by 49.7, [ A n JI = 12 and 1 3 n~JI = 2)(:
I ( u ) ~ G (=~220. = 132,
so all 364 subgroups of order 3 of J are accounted for and hence the
subgroups of J of order 3 are in 3,4, 3 ~or, 3 ~ .
Next each element of order 3 in CG(a) is fused into J K under CG(a).
F'urther each subgroup of order 3 in J K / J is 3-central in N c- (. J ).,I J , and
hence is fused under NG(J) into CG(X). Then from the discussion in
Section 50, eafh of CG'(X) of order 3 is fused into J or to
a subgroup V with V* of type 3 c in M* = CG(X)/X 2 Suz. But all
subgroups of order 3 in VX-X are conjugate in CG(X) and from 49.12.3
each is in 3 ~ So. our treatment of subgroups of order 3 is complete.
Next we consider subgroups of order 5. First @(a) has three classes
of subgroups of order 5 permuted transitively by triality with centralizer
Z5 x A5. Thus H also has three classes, which we write as 5.4, sB,and
5c. We choose notation so that CQ(B) Q8D8 for B € sB.Then
by 49.1, there is a s u b p u p (L1 x L ~ ) ( Q with
) L1 "
A59 L2
a inducing an outer automorphism on L1 and L2 with B 5 L1, and
" J2,
Nc(B) ILlL2(a). That is, B has the normalizer described in Table
Col for a subgroup of type sB.
This leaves (z) = CQ(D) for D in 5.4 and 5c, so CH(D) 2 Z5 x
(A5lZ2)-
<
Let B J E Sy15(LlL2). Then J % Elz5. Now NL,(J) contains an
element of order 3 whose unique fixed point on J is B. Further J 2 P E
Sy15(G) and J = Cp(B). As the same holds for each B1 E 5B n J, we
conclude NG(J) is transitive on 5 8 fl J and n JI z 10 mod 15.
Next by 26.5 we may choose notation so that for D E 5 c , CG(D) %
Z5 X (A~wrZ2).Then we take J E Syi5(CG(D)) and a Sylow 2-group
of NG(J) n Nc(D) is isomorphic to Zq x D8 and fixes only the point D
51. Subgroups of Col of prime order 297
in J. So as in the previous paragraph, we conclude NG(J) is transitive
0 n 5 ~ n J a n d 1 5 ~ n J I rmod10.
5
Similarly 15AnJl 1 6, so as J has 31 points we conclude /!jBftJI = 10
and then as ING(J)nNG(B)I = 24.3-53, we have ING(J)I = z5-3.S4.
Then as I NG(J) n NG(D)I = z5 . 53 we get I J n 5 ~ = 1 15. This leaves
J n 5~ to be an orbit of NG(J) of order 6.
Now NG(J) n NG(D) contains an element of order 4 inducing scalar
action on J , so NG(J) induces a 2-transitive group of order 120 on the
six points of J n 5,4, which must then be PGLz(5). Therefore
Lemma 51.1: Let P E Sy15(G). Then
(1) J = J ( P ) E E125, NG(J) is the split extension of J by Zq x
PGL2(5), and J has the stntcture of a 3-dimensional orthogonal
space over GF(5) presented by NG(J)/J acting as its group of
similarities.
(2) J n 5,4 is the set of six singular points of 3 and IJ fl 5 ~ =
1 10
and IJ n 5 ~ =1 15.
(3) NG(P) is the split extension of P by Z4 x Z4.
Indeed an element of order 5 in P - J has one Jordon block of size 3
,
on J, J = J(P). Also NG(P) hap m o orbits on subgroups of order 3
-
in P J of length 25 and 100.
Next we choose A E S A n J to be centralized by z and z to act on P. As
NG(P)nC(A) 2 Zq, CH(A) S Z5 x SL2(5). Then by the Brauer-Suzuki
, Theorem(cf.12.1.1in[Go]),CG(A)=KC~(A),whereK=O(C~(A)).
Now z inverts KIA, so each element k E K of prime order p # 5 is in the
center of K. Further PK= P n K r 51+2, so PKis transitive on the five
subgroups of order 5 in P r-7 J distinct from A. As J has the structure of
, an orthogonal s p x e this says J n K = A~ contains subgroups D in sC.
But CG(AD) is of order 25 from the structure of CG(D), so K E 51+2
and NG(A) is transitive on subgroups of order 5 in K distinct from A.
In particular the orbit of NG(P) on P - J of length 25 is contained in
5 ~We . claim the orbit of length 100 is in 5,4 or 5 ~This
. will complete
I
our analysis of subgroups of order 5 by showing each such subgroup is
in 5.4, 58, or 5c.
So assume the orbit of length 100 is not as claimed. For each F in
this orbit, Np(AF) is transitive on the five points of A F - A, so as J
has the structure of an orthogonal space, F is not of type 5 ~ Thus . F
is in some fourth class, and FGn P = FNC('). We claim NG(F) 5
NG(P). By the Frobenius pcomplement Theorem (cf. 39.4 in [FGT]),
CG(F) = (L x F)A, where L = O51(CG(F)). Notice CL(A) = 1. Hence
298 Chapter 17 Subg~oupsof Prime Order
as A = [A,t] for t an involution inverting AF, Sylow psubgroups of L
are noncyclic for each prime divisor p of ILI. Thii forces p = 2,3. But
elements of order 2 and 3 centralize only subgroups of order 5 in 51
for I = A, B, C. For example, each subgroup of order 5 centralizing an
element of order 3 also centraliies an involution; we've seen the statement
for z, and it is easy to check for the other two classes of involutions.
So indeed NG(F) 5 NG(P) and hence F is contained in a unique
Sylow &subgroup of G. To complete the proof let T = Z2(P)F, so that
T &% 51+2 has a unique subgroup A in 5~ and five subgroups in 56 (those
in Z2(P) distinct from A), and the remaining twenty-five subgroups of
order 5 are conjugate to F under P. In particular as F is in a unique
Sylow 5-subgroup of G, J is the unique member of JGfixed by T. Also
the five members J' E ~ ~ c- {J) ( ~ are )the conjugates of J satisfying
NT (J') = A.
Next each D E T n 5~ is in 36 members of JG,so there are 5
35 E 50 mod 125 members of J~ containing a member of T n 5 0 but
not A. Finally N*(J~) = D $ Jh if and only if Njh(D)is one of
the 71 conjugates of A under NG(D) distinct from A. Then D 5
o~(cG(A~))and there are five such conjugates of J under CG((AD)~)
=
&xed by D, so there are 71 .25 25 mod 125 such members of JG.
Hence
-
But lJGl= lG : NG(J)I = 216 . 38 72 11 13.23 r 56 mod 125, a
contradiction.
This completes our discussion of subgroups of order 5. We next turn
<
to subgroups of order 7. By 49.12 and 26.2 there is L G with E(L) =
L1 x L2, L1 E L2(7), L2 Z A7, and L = E(L)(a) with a an involution
inducing an outer automorphism on L1 and L2. Further if Pi E Sy17(Li)
then NG(fi) 5 L. Let P = PlP2, so that P E Sy17(G); observe that
NL(P)/P r z6x 23.
Now ING(P) : PI r lG : PI r 2 mod 7, so ING(P) : NL(P)I zz 4
mod 7. On the other hand a subgroup Z of order 6 in NL(P) induces
scalar action on P and NG(P)/PZ 5 PGL2(7) with NL(P)/PZ of order
3 and NG(P)/PZ a {2,3)-group, so we conclude NG(P)/PZ r A*.
Therefore
Lemma 51.2: For P E Sy17(G), NG(P)/P r SL2(3) x 23.
In particular NG(P) has two orbits of order 4 on points of P , so Pl
and P2 are representatives of the conjugacy classes of subgroups of G of
order 7.
52. Subgroups of prime order in He 299
Next let I be a root A4-subgroup of G and S E Syl13(CG(I)). From
49.5 and the structure of G2(4), CG((u,S)) = US for 1 # u E U =
02(I). Hence by Exercise 16.6 in [FGT], either NG(S) 5 NG(I) or
' CG(S) 2 S x A5. The latter is impossible as no element of order 5 cen-
tralizes an element of order 13. This takes care of subgroups of order 13.
Let X E A and V E SylI1(CG(X)). Then CG(XV) = XV and V is
centralized by a dodecad involution d inverting X. From 46.13, (d)V =
1 CG((d)V). Therefore CG(V) = K(d), where K = O(CG(V)), and d
inverts K/V. In particular X 5 Z(K), so K 5 CG(XV) = XV. This
completes our discussion of subgroups of order 13.
Finally subgroups of order 23 can be handled using Sylow's Theorem.
52. Subgroups of prime order in He
- In this section G is He and we adopt the hypotheses and notation of
Chapter 14. By 42.13, IGI = 21°. 33. 52 73 .17.
By 40.6, G has two classes of involutions. The centralizers of involu-
tions are described in 39.1, 42.5, and 42.7.
By 42.16 there is X of order 3 in G with CG(X) Z A7/Z3 quasisimple
! and NG(X)/X c 2 S7. Thus xG= SA. By 42.16.2, the involutions in
CG(X) are in 2j3 while an involution v E NG(X) with CG((v)X) r
2 2 x S4 is in 2.4.
Next by 43.1.5 there is a subgroup L1 x L2 with L1 S4,L2 L3(2),
and involutions in L2 in 2 ~ Thus. if Y E Sy13(L1), then Y $ x G , so
we take yG= 3B. kt M = NG(Y) and K = Y(t) x L2, where t is an
involution in L1 inverting Y. We may take z to be an involution in L2;
then CH(Y) Z D8, so CM(z) 5 K and as tKis the set of involutions
in CK(Y), zM n K = zK, so z fixes a unique point of M/K. Thus if
M # K, we can apply Exercise 2.10. Now by the construction of 43.1,
t E 2~ and NG((t)Y) = NK((t)Y). Let U be maximal in the set U of
Exercise 2.10; as K has more than one class of involutions, U # 1, so up
to conjugation in K, U = (tz). But then condition (2c) of Exercise 2.10
is violated. So M = K and NM(Y) has the desired structure.
Next for P E Sy13(I$G(X)), 31+2 E P, and P E Sy13(G).As NG(X)/
X Z S7, there are three NG(X)-classesof subgroups of order 3 in P, and
X is fused into one of these classes in the centralizer of a 2~-involution,
so G has two classes of subgroups of order 3. Thii completes our analysis
of subgroups of order 3.
Next 42.14 supplies us with a subgroup K of index 2 in S5wrZ2.
Let Kl and K2 be the components of K and P E Sy15(K). Then
300 Chapter 17 Subgroups of Prime Order 52. Subgroups of prime o d s r in He

NK(P)/P S2 Z4 * D8, SO INK(P)I G 1 mod 5. But ING(P) : PI = In particular NG(P) has orbits of length 1,14,21,21 on the subgroups
lG : PI G 3 mod 5, so ING(P) : NK(P)I = 3 mod 5. Next NK(P) has of P of order 7.
a subgroup Z r 2 4 inducing scalars on P, so NG(P)/PZ PGL2(5).< I
Now Z is centralized by X E 3A and hence by 42.16.2, X Z is inverted
As NK(P)/PZ Z Eq and ING(P) : NK(P)I EE 3 mod 5, we conclude by a conjugate v of z. That is, NG(P) = PXY(v). Further subgroups of
NG(P)/P S Z4*SL2(3) or the multiplicative group of GF(25) extended order 7 centralizing invo1utions in 2B are in yB, while subgroups of order
by a field automorphism. The latter case is out as a Sylow 2-group is 7 in H are not inverted in H, so CG(Z) = O(CG(Z)). As CG(XZ) =
Z4 * D8. Thus X Z , X E Sy13(CG(Z)). As elements of order 5 don't centralize elements
1 of order 7, Cc(Z) has order prime t o 5. Finally as X doesn't centralize an
Lemma 52.1: For P E Syls(G), NG(P)/P 24 * SL2(3). element of order 17, CG(Z) has order prime to 17. Therefore NG(Z) =
In particular NG(P) is transitive on the points of P, so G has one class NG (P), and we take 7~ = zG.
of subgroups of order 5. This completes our analysis of such subgroups. Let W = Cp(v); then W(v) = CG(W(v)), so CG(W) = O(CG(W))(v)
Recall our subgroup L1 x L2; by construction in 43.1, L1 = (U, u h ) with v inverting O(CG(W))/W. Thus NG(W) 5 NG(ZW) NG(Z), <
for some root Csubgroup U of G. Then L2 5 CG(U) n cG(uh). Indeed and we set 7~ = wG.
if V E Sy17(L2) then NL,(V) = VX, where X E 3~ is faithful on V It remains to show G has just three classes of subgroups of order 7.
and VX = CG(S), where Sq 2 S with U = 02(S) and S contains a Now Z, V, W are representatives for the orbits of NG(P) on subgroups
<
member of uh. Therefore J = (S, LI) CG(VX) 5 CG(X) r A7/Z3. of P of order 7 of length 1,14,21, respectively, so it remains to show the
Further, from the structure of NG(U), NG(U) n CG(V) = VS, so from second orbit D * G ( ~of ) length 21 is in 7 ~Assume
. not; as D is inverted
the subgroup structure of A7 we conclude J X / X 2 As or L3(2). The in NG(P), D 4 ?B or 7C, so D ~ ~= D~ ( ~n P.) Elements of order 2,
former is impossible as the preimage of A6 in CG(X) is quasisimple 3 - 5 do not centralize members of DG, so NG(D) 5 NG(ZD) <_ NG(Z),
whereas X $ CG(V). Therefore J 2 L3(2). and hence each member of DZ# is in a unique Sylow 7-group of G.
Let M = CG(V) and M* = M/V. As U is weakly closed in a Sylow Therefore lpGlr 1 mod 49. But IpG(= lG : NG(P)I 5 22 mod 49,
2-subgroup of NM(U), that Sylow group is Sylow in M; notice it is completing our treatment of subgroups of order 7.
D8.similarly if Y E Sy13(S) then Y € 3~ and YV = CG(YV), so The normalizer of a subgroup of order 17 can now be determined using
Y E Sy13(M). Therefore \M*l = 23.3.7a.17b with a = 1 , 2 and b = 0 , l . Sylow's Theorem. This completes our discussion of subgroups of We of
But N = NM*(Y) S3 so 1= IM* : NI = 2b mod 3, and hence b = 0. prime order.
That is, IM : JVI = 1or 7. The latter is impossible as 72 does not divide
the order of A7. Therefore NG(V) = X V x J and we take vG = yB. Table MZ4
Notice the involutions centralizing V are in 2B and the subgroups of
order 3 are in 3 ~ .
Let Z E Sy17(J); then V Z q P E Sy17(G) and V Z admits the sub- Normalizers of Subgroups of Prime Order
group XY with orbits of length 1, 1, 3, 3 on the points of VZ. NG(VZ)
is not transitive on the eight points of V Z as Z(P) is not conjugate to V, 2A ~3(2>l~:
<
so NG(VZ) NG(P). As V and Z are the fixed points of X Y it follows 2B s5/E64
that Z = Z(P). Further there is i of order 3 in XY inducing scalars on 3A S6/Z3 = ~ 2 / &
VZ, so Cp(i) is a complement to V Z in P and P 2 7f+2. By a F'rattini 38 S3 x L3(2)
argument, NG(VZ) = P(NG(VZ) fl NG(V)) = PXY. By Sylow's The-
=
orem, ING(P) : PI = IG : PI 4 mod 7, so as NG(VZ) = P X Y , we I 5A Z2/(Dl0 x -44)
7A s 3 X (23/27)
conclude
11A Zl0/Z11
Lemma 52.2: Let P E Sy17(G). Then P 2 and NG(P) is the split 23A Zi1/Zz3
extension of P by Z3 x S3.
Chapter 17 Subgroups of Prime Order 52. Subgroups of prime order in He
Table Jz Table He
G = J2; [GI = 27 3 3 . 5 2 . 7 G = He; IGI = 21°. 33 52. 7 3 . 17
Normalizers of Subgroups of Prime Order Normalizers of Subgroups of Prime Order

Table Col
G = C o l ; 1GI = 221 .3' . 54 . 7 2 e11 + 13.23 Table Suz

Normalizers of Subgroups of Prime Order G = S U Z ; [GI= 213. 37 . s 2 . 7 . 1 1 . 1 3

Normalizers of Subgroups of Prime Order
 List of symbols List of symbols
ci ( A )
C(l)
A1 C ( 4 1 m(v)1A,, eY 1 &I
Symbol eY
si(~)t~n,h$,~:,~$,
H(w1L ) page xi C0l
Aut ( X ) 1 Cog,Co3,2A
a*, AutG(H),CG(H),NG(H),Sn, S y m ( X ) ,An, Alt(X) 2 I Mc
Fix(S),G y ,G ( Y ) ,xG 3 HS
4 % 4 1 uL 4 Suz, J2
PG(V) 6 Fl,F2,F3, F5,F7, F24
r(G13) 7
$
P ( A ) ,w~(P), end@),k e ~ ( ~ ) r
N~

K ( A ) ,s t ~ ( s ) 8 (T), I ( P ) D(P),
, [PI, Bas, Basi, @(A)
LinkK ( s ) 9 [PIs1 degs(p)
SJ,EI 3) 10 bash)
GL(V),GLn(F),S L ( V )1 SLn ( F ) ,r ( V ) 13 1 An(x),ASn(x),A<n(x)lA ( X ) ,A(x,y>,Cn(A)
Pr(V)1PGL(V)1GLn(q),SLn(q),PGLn(q),Ln(9) 14 K ( A ) ,A(K)l Ln
@(GI 21 %A1 4 1 9 ( ~ 1 x )
z p , Eprn 1 [ ~ l Y l[XI
l YI 22 Fzy,Fp
D8, Q 8 , DgQr 1 mp(G),Inn(H) 23 AF~~FIDF
Op(G)lOn(G),O(GI1MG(Q, 2') 24 G J ,Pj 1 JJ1A(3)
F(G),F*(G),E(G),A wr B 26 F ( A )3 G ( A )
WQ),O(Q) 31 3(@), r(@)l C(P), A(P, i )
M(Vi.9.. . ,Vn;V),L(Vll lVniV)lMn(V)lLn(V)lO(Vla) 36 1

VIU 37 r(a)l r'i(a)l (ri)

ue1 Rad(f )1 R ( x ) 43 A(X),J ( X )
L(e),0 48
par(e)le, 49 :
Eu 50
go 51
HlIH2I -..IHn 70
S(v, k, t)1D ( X ,X ) 78 $
Im(X) 79
M22 82
M23 84
M24 85
Cn(u> 86
M12, M11, Mlo, M91 Ma 89
% 90
vc 91

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 Index

adjacent, 4 faithful, 196

algebra, 37 components of a group, 26
algebra, commutative, 37 connected component, 4
algebra, symmetric, 37 Conway group, 67, 71, 72, 74, 76,
amalgam, 195 116, 128, 130,290, 293
collinearity graph, 197 Conway, J., 67, 68, 108, 121, 139,
completion, 196 140, 170, 171, 174,290
faithful completion, 196 Curtis, R., 105
free amalgamated product, 196 cycle, 176
geometric complex, 197
morphism, 195 derived form, 41
rank, 195 degree, 42
residually connected, 199 hyperbolic subspace, 43
singular subspace, 43
Baby Monster, 68 subhyperbolic subspace, 43
basic relation, 178 diagonal orbital, 5
bilinear form, radical, 43 distance, 4
binary Golay code 41, 71 dodecad, 88
extended, 90 dodecad involution, 255
Brauer, R., 66
Brauer-Fowler Theorem, 26, 66 elementary abelian pgroup, 22
Buekenout, F., 17 extension, 25
Burnside, W., 66 split, 25
extraspecial group, 22
central product, 23 width, 22
centralizer, 2
chamber, 6 faithful, 2
chamber system, 8 fiber product, 15
nondegenerate, 8 fibering, 185
Chevalley, C., 66 field automorphism, 13
clique, 8, 185 Fischer, B., 67, 68
clique complex, 8, 185 Fischer groups, 67,69
code, 40 Fitting subgroup, 26
word, 40 flag, 6
(m,n), 40 flag complex, 9
distance, 40 form, 36
doubly even, 40 %form, 44 -
even, 40 alternating, 36
minimum weight, 40 symmetric, 36
perfect, 40 Frattini subgroup, 21
weight, 40 free amalgamated product, 196
collinearity graph, 197 free product, 196
complement, 25 Fkenkel, I., 72
completion, 196 Frobenius, 66
 Index Index 313

F, type, 172, 173 Hall, P., 32, 66 diassociative, 47 Parker loop, 63, 72, 142, 144, 170
fundamental groupoid, 180, 191 Hall-Janko group, 69, 74, 135 diassociative cocycle, 53 path, 4
Harada group, 68, 69, 74 even automorphism, 58 basic degree, 181
Galois, 65 Moufang, 47 end, 176
Harada, K., 68, 174
general linear group, 13 parameters, 49 origin, 176
Held, D., 68, 212, 238
generalized diagon, 8 power map, 49 T-gon, 183
Held group, 26, 68, 69, 74, 174, 212,
generalized Fitting subgroup, 26 symplectic, 48 reduced, 182
293
geometric complex, 9 Lyons group, 68, 69, 73, 74 trivial, 182
root 4-subgroup, 225
basic diagram, 11 Lyons, R., 68 Patterson, N., 140, 290
Higrnan, D., 17,67, 140
coset, 10 permutation rank, 4
Higrnan, C.,67,68, 140, 238
direct sum, 11 MacKay, J., 67, 68, 238 permutation representation, 1
Higman-Sims group, 67, 69, 74, 119,
geometry, 6 Mathieu, E., 77, 94 Phan, K., 249
131, 140
coset. 7 Mathieu group, 26, 65,69, 74, 77, pointwise stabilizer, 3
direct sum, 7 82, 84, 85, 94, 212, 238, 293 pregroupoid, 179
inner automorphism, 23
edge transitive, 6 2-local geometry, 96, 99 inversion, 179
invariant relation, 175, 176
flag transitive, 6 McLauglin group, 67,69, 71, 74, morphism, 179
basic, 178
rank, 6 118, 128, 130, 140 primitive, 3
kernel, 176
string, 11 McLauglin, J., 67, 140 projective geometry, 6
involution, 18
truncation, 206 Meierfrankenfeld, U., 70 projective plane, 7, 71
%central, 19
global stabilizer, 3 Meurman, A., 72
isometry, 36
Golay, M., 94 Miller, G., 94 quadratic form, singular vector, 43
Golay code, 35, 41, 71 modular function, 72 quasiequivalent, 2
Golay code module, 91 Janko groups, 66, 67,69, 70, 73, 74,
76, 290, 293 module, core, 42 quasisimple, 26
graph, 4 monomial, 36
closed subset. 176 Janko, Z., 32,66, 70
Monster, 35, 63, 68, 69, 70, 72, 74, Quillen complex, 76
closure of cycles, 178 142, 169, 174
coset, 5 large extraspecial %subgroup, 23, 71
Leech, J., 108, 121 Monster type, 172, 173 rank 3 group, 5
covering, 75, 175, 185, 191, 192
Leech lattice, 67, 71, 108 parameters, 5
cycle, 176 n-linear form, 36
coordinate frame, 116 regular representation, 3
deletion, 178 n-simplex, 185
mod 2, 116 regular normal subgroup, 3
edge transitive, 4 n-skeleton, 185
shape, 111 representation, 1
fundamental group, 180 Norton, S.,68, 70, 170, 174
Leon, J., 68 residually connected, 10
insertion, 178
Lepowski, J., 72 residue, 8
invariant relation, 176 octad, 85
linear representation, 1 Ronan, M., 105
morphism, 4 involution, 255
link, 9, 185 root Ar-subgroup, 269
n-generated, 182 collinear, 99
local bijection, 185 root As-subgroup, 269
simply connected, 175, 185 coplanar, 99
triangulable, 182 local subgroup, 66 root As-subgroup, 279
local system, 187 O'Nan group, 68 root A,-subgroup, 288
Griess algebra, 35, 70, 72, 142, 151, O'Nan, M., 68
1 fia loop, 46, 47 root 4-involution, 260, 269
associator, 49 orbit, 3 root 4-subgroup, 260, 269
standard basis, 162 orbital, 4
Griess, R., 68, 70, 169, 170, 174 central isomorphism, 50 root Jz-subgroup, 280
coboundary, 49 paired, 4 root U3(3)-subgroup, 288
groupoid, 179
cocvcle.
- . 48 Rudvalis, A., 67
Hall, M., 67, 290 commutator, 49 Paige, N., 94 Rudvalis group, 67,69,73,74
 Index
Segev, Y., 70, 75, 210 t-transitive, 3
self-paired orbital, 4 Thompson group, 68,69, 74
semilinear transformation, 13 Thompson, J., 32, 66, 68, 70, 140,
sextet, 91 174, 290
simplex, 8, 185 Thompson Order Formula, 19
dimension, 185 3-transposition, 67
simplicial complex, 8, 184 Timmesfeld, F., 32
covering, 185 Tits, J., 17, 70, 72, 170, 171, 191
F-homotopy, 187 Todd, J., 94
fundamental group, 186,191 Todd module, 92
graph of, 8, 185 totally singular subspace, 7
link, 185 transitive, 3
local system, 187, 188 transvection, 14
n-skeleton, 185 triangulable, 182
star, 185 trio, 97
vertex, 184 type Col, 250, 258
simplicial map, 185 type He, 219
Sims, 67,68, 140 type Jz, 250,258
Smith, P., 69 type J3, 258
Smith, S., 105, 170 type L5(2), 219
special linear group, 13 type Mz4, 219
split extension, 25 type Suz, 250,258
star, 8, 185 type U4(3), 244
Steiner system, 70, 71, 78
block, 78 uniqueness system, 198
extension, 78 amalgam, 199
Extension Hypothesis, 79 base, 200
independent subset, 78 equivalence, 199
point, 79 geometry, 199
residual design, 78 morphism, 200
Stellrnacher, B., 290 similarity, 199
string diagram, 11 unitary group, 128, 241
string geometry, 11, 204
collinearity graph, 205 )
vertex, 4
line, 205
plane, 205 Wales, 67
point, 205 Wales, D., 290
string ordering, 11 Ward, 45, 66
strongly embedded subgroup, 20 Witt, 71, 94
Suzuki group, 67, 69, 71, 74, 76, 135, Wong, S., 290
- 290, 293 wreath product, 26
h&&i, M., 67, 290
symmetric form, 36