conserving natural resources, this could sometimes become the governing criterion
for selection of voltage for transmission. The Bonneville Power Administration (B.P.A.)
in the U.S.A. has based the choice of 1150 kV for transmission over only 280 km
length of line since the power is enormous (10,000 MW over one circuit).
(8) In comparison to the % power loss at 400 kV, we observe that if the same power is
transmitted at 750 kV, the line loss is reduced to (2.5/4.76) = 0.525, at 1000 kV it is
0.78/4.76 = 0.165, and at 1200 kV it is reduced further to 0.124.
Some examples will serve to illustrate the benefits accrued by using very high transmission
voltages.
Example 2.3. A power of 12,000 MW is required to be transmitted over a distance of 1000
km. At voltage levels of 400 kV, 750 kV, 1000 kV, and 1200 kV, determine:
(1) Possible number of circuits required with equal magnitudes for sending and receiving-
The above situation might occur when the power potential of the Brahmaputra River in
North-East India will be harnessed and the power transmitted to West Bengal and Bihar. Note
that the total power loss incurred by using 1200 kV ac transmission is almost one-eighth that
for 400 kV. The width of land required is far less while using higher voltages, as will be detailed
later on.
Example 2.4. A power of 2000 MW is to be transmitted from a super thermal power
station in Central India over 800 km to Delhi. Use 400 kV and 750 kV alternatives. Suggest the
number of circuits required with 50% series capacitor compensation, and calculate the total
power loss and loss per km.
Solution. With 50% of line reactance compensated, the total reactance will be half of the
positive-sequence reactance of the 800-km line.
Therefore P= 2
and P= 2
Transmission Line Trends and Preliminaries 17
The dc alternative has become more expensive than the ac alternative by about Rs.130
Crores. In between line lengths of 600 km and 875 km for transmitting the same power, the
two alternatives will cost nearly equal. This is called the "Break Even Distance".
Three types of vibration are recognized as being important for e.h.v. conductors, their
degree of severity depending on many factors, chief among which are: (a) conductor tension, (b)
span length, (c) conductor size, (d) type of conductor, (e) terrain of line, (f) direction of prevailing
winds, (g) type of supporting clamp of conductor-insulator assemblies from the tower, (h) tower
type, (i) height of tower, (j) type of spacers and dampers, and (k) the vegetation in the vicinity of
line. In general, the most severe vibration conditions are created by winds without turbulence
so that hills, buildings, and trees help in reducing the severity. The types of vibration are: (1)
Aeolian Vibration, (2) Galloping, and (3) Wake-Induced Oscillations. The first two are present
for both single-and multi-conductor bundles, while the wake-induced oscillation is confined to a
bundle only. Standard forms of bundle conductors have sub-conductors ranging from 2.54 to 5
cm diameters with bundle spacing of 40 to 50 cm between adjacent conductors. For e.h.v.
transmission, the number ranges from 2 to 8 sub-conductors for transmission voltages from
400 kV to 1200 kV, and up to 12 or even 18 for higher voltages which are not yet commercially
in operation. We will briefly describe the mechanism causing these types of vibrations and the
problems created by them.
may not be designed to offer damping. In cases where they are purposely designed to damp the
sub-span oscillations, they are known as spacer-dampers.
Since the aeolian vibration depends upon the power imparted by the wind to the conductor,
measurements under controlled conditions in the laboratory are carried out in wind tunnels.
The frequency of vibration is usually limited to 20 Hz and the amplitudes less than 2.5 cm.
2.6.3 Galloping
Galloping of a conductor is a very high amplitude, low-frequency type of conductor motion and
occurs mainly in areas of relatively flat terrain under freezing rain and icing of conductors. The
flat terrain provides winds that are uniform and of a low turbulence. When a conductor is iced,
it presents an unsymmetrical corss-section with the windward side having less ice accumulation
than the leeward side of the conductor. When the wind blows across such a surface, there is an
aerodynamic lift as well as a drag force due to the direct pressure of the wind. the two forces
give rise to torsional modes of oscillation and they combine to oscillate the conductor with very
large amplitudes sufficient to cause contact of two adjacent phases, which may be 10 to 15
metres apart in the rest position. Galloping is induced by winds ranging from 15 to 50 km/hour,
which may normally be higher than that required for aeolian vibrations but there could be an
overlap. The conductor oscillates at frequencies between 0.1 and 1 Hz. Galloping is controlled
by using "detuning pendulums" which take the form of weights applied at different locations on
the span.
Galloping may not be a problem in a hot country like India where temperatures are
normally above freezing in winter. But in hilly tracts in the North, the temperatures may dip
to below the freezing point. When the ice loosens from the conductor, it brings another oscillatory
motion called Whipping but is not present like galloping during only winds.
with respect to a flat ground surface. Therefore, a gently sloping ground with this angle can
create conditions favourable to wake-induced oscillations. The conductor spacing to diameter
ratio in the bundle is also critical. If the spacing B is less than 15d, d being the conductor
diameter, a tendency to oscillate is created while for B/d > 15 the bundle is found to be more
stable. As mentioned earlier, the electrical design, such as calculating the surface voltage
gradient on the conductors, will depend upon these mechanical considerations.
20 Extra High Voltage AC Transmission Engineering
Damper Clamp
Conductor
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.2 (a) Stockbridge Damper; (b) Suspension Clamp (Courtesy: Electrical
Manufacturing Co., Calcutta).
Cushion Insert
Conductor
Cushion
Aluminium Alloy
Retaining Rods
Frame
There are a large number of types of spacers which keep the conductors apart. Most
modern spacers have some flexibility built into them to allow rotation of the conductor inside
them such as lining the clamps with high-strength plastic or rubber washers. Some spacers are
specially designed to act as dampers and may also take the form of heavy springs. The selection
of the spacers is also determined by the wind speed in the locality. Fig. 2.3 shows a spacer used
for a bundle conductor.
1. Of the following transmission voltages (given in kV) used in the world, which ones
1150.
2. The geography and civilization of any country can best be understood by a knowledge
of location of its rivers. In modern days, power development also depends on the
rivers. On an atlas, locate the following rivers in the countries listed. Note: Due to
international disputes and wars between nations some of the rivers may not be in the
countries given, but only in the general geographic area in an atlas.
(a)
Jhelum, Ganga; Yamuna, Bhagirathi, Alakhnanda, Gandak, Gomti, Tsang-Po,
Dehang, Brahmaputra, Padma, Hoogly, Narmada, Damodar, Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna, Kali, Sharavathi, Kaveri, Vaigai, Tamraparni, Irrawaddy, Salween.
(b) Canada and U.S
Saskatchewans, Winnipeg, Nelson, Peace (Finlay and Parsnip), Red, St. Lawrence,
St. John, Churchill, Ottawa, La Grande, Colorado, Mississippi-Missouri, Ohio,
Rio Grande, Delaware, Hudson, Mohawk, Niagara.
(c) Europe, including the U.S.S.R. and Siberia
Rhone, Rhine, Elb, Po, Seine, Ob, Volga, Dneiper, Lena, Yenesei.
(d) Other parts of the world
Congo (Zaire), Amazon, Itaipu, Orinaco, Makong, La Plata, Sikiang, Volta.
3. Using equations (2.1) and (2.2), draw on a graph the variation of P and I as the distance
of transmission is varied from 200 to 800 km for (a) 400 kV line, and (b) 750 kV line.
U se average values for r and x given in Table 2.1. Take P = 0.5 E2/Lx. Repeat for =
4. In the U.S.A., for transmitting a power of 10,000 MW over 285 km, a voltage of 1150
kV was selected. In the U.S.S.R., for transmitting a power of 5000 MW over 800 km,
the same voltage level was selected. Give your comments on the reasons this level is
most suitable and what the possible reasons are for such a choice. Discuss through%
line loses by comparing with other suitable voltage classes that could have been
found suitable.
5. Using the figures for power to be transmitted and distance given in Table 2.3, work
out dc alternative for India to evacuate these powers to load centres.
6. Write brief descriptions of (a) aeolian vibration, and (b) wake-induced oscillations.
Describe the measures taken to minimize the damage due to them.
2
Transmission Line Trends and Preliminaries
capacitive reactive power to suit variation of load from no load to full load, variable inductive
compensation will be required which takes the form of thyristor-controlled reactors (TCR)
which are also known as Static VAR Systems. Unfortunately, these give rise to undesirable
harmonics which are injected into the line and may cause maloperation of signalling and some
communication equipment. These problems and use of proper filters to limit the harmonic
injection will also be discussed in Chapter 12.
The following important and useful conclusions can be drawn for preliminary understanding
of trends relating to power-handling capacity of a.c. transmission lines and line losses.
(1) One 750-kV line can normally carry as much power as four 400-kV circuits for equal
distance of transmission.
(2) One 1200-kV circuit can carry the power of three 750-kV circuits and twelve 400-kV
circuits for the same transmission distance.
(3) Similar such relations can be found from the table.
(4) The power-handling capacity of line at a given voltage level decreases with line length,
being inversely proportional to line length L.
From equation (2.2) the same holds for current to be carried.
(5) From the above property, we observe that if the conductor size is based on current
rating, as line length increases, smaller sizes of conductor will be necessary. This
will increase the danger of high voltage effects caused by smaller diameter of conductor
giving rise to corona on the conductors and intensifying radio interference levels and
audible noise as well as corona loss.
(6) However, the percentage power loss in transmission remains independent of line
length since it depends on the ratio of conductor resistance to the positive-sequence
reactance per unit length, and the phase difference between Es and Er.
(7) From the values of % p given in Table 2.2, it is evident that it decreases as the system
voltage is increased. This is very strongly in favour of using higher voltages if energy
is to be conserved. With the enormous increase in world oil prices and the need for
14 Extra High Voltage AC Transmission Engineering
400 kV 750 kV
No. of circuits required 3 1
Current per circuit, kA 667/ 3 1.54
Resistance for 800 km, ohms
Loss per circuit, MW 2= 69 MW 2
= 77.4 MW
Total power loss, MW 77.4
Loss/km, kW 86.25 kW/km 97 kW/km
power require 220 m-of-right-of-way (R-O-W). An additional factor is the technological know-
how in the country. Two examples of similar situations with regard to available hydro-electric
power will be described in order to draw a parallel for deciding upon the transmission voltage
selection. The first is from Canada and the second from India. These ideas will then be extended
to thermal generation stations situated at mine mouths requiring long transmission lines for
evacuating the bulk power to load centres.
Quebec cities is 1100 km. The Hydro-Quebec company has vast ecperience with their existing
735 kV system from the earlier hydroelectric development at Manicouagan-Outardes Rivers so
that the choice of transmission voltage fell between the existing 735 kV or a future 1200 kV.
However, on account of the vast experience accumulated at the 735 kV level, this voltage was
difficult a problem as in more thickly populated areas. Plans might however change as the
development proceeds. The 1200 kV level is new to the industry and equipment manufacture is
in the infant stages for this level. As an alternative, the company could have investigated the
possibility of using e.h.v. dc transmission. But the final decision was to use 735 kV, ac. In 1987,
a 450 kV h.v. d.c. link has been decided for James Bay-New England Hydro line (U.S.A.) for
a power of 6000 MW.
10 Extra High Voltage AC Transmission Engineering
j 0.8175 p.u.
400 km Ir
Es ~
j 0.073
p.u.
When considering the line capacitance, one half will be concentrated at load end across
the load and the other half at the entrance to the line at the sending end, as shown in
Figure 2.1. Then, the receiving-end current is
Ir = j0.29 + j j0.217 p.u.
The sending-end voltage will be
Es = 1 + j j0.217) 0.8175 = 1.1774 + j0.49
= 1.2753
When line capacitance is omitted, the sending-end voltage is
Es = 1 + j j0.29) 0.8175 = 1.33
Note that in both cases, the sending-end voltage, that is, the generating station h.v. bus
voltage exceeds the IS limit of 420 kV.
Example 2.2. In the previous example, suggest suitable reactive compensation equipment
to be provided at the load end to maintain 400 kV (1 p.u. voltage) at both ends of line.
Solution. Since the load is drawing lagging (inductive) current, obviously we have to
provide capacitive compensating equipment across the load in order to reduce the line current.
Figure 2.1 (b) shows the overall arrangement. If Ic is the current drawn by this compensating
equipment, considering line capacitance, the total receiving-end line current will be Ir
j0.217 + j Ic, p.u., and the resulting sending-end voltage will be
Es = 1 + j j0.217 + j Ic Ic) + j0.49.
Ir j
jIc
1 p.u. ~
Now, since |Es| = 1 p.u. also, there results Ic = 0.374 p.u. The resulting rating of the
compensating capacitor is 374 MVAR.
When the presence of line capacitance is neglected, Ic = 0.447 p.u. and the required
compensation is 447 MVAR, which is of course higher than 374 MVAR by 73 MVAR.
Detailed discussion of line compensation for voltage control at the sending- and receiving-
end busses will be considered in Chapter 12. We note in passing that voltage control in e.h.v.
systems is a very expensive proposition. In addition to switched capacitors which provide variable