Hvac Class I

CONTENTS
High-rise building
Heating
Natural Ventilation
Mechanical or forced ventilation
Types of Air conditioning systems
Criteria For Selecting of Airconditioning Systems.
Types of Drawings to be prepared for the airconditioning projects
Detailed Load Calculation for a room.
Approximate method of Load Calculation.
Approximate Tonnage For Different Spaces.
Priliminary Planning For Air Conditioning of a 20000sq Ft Office
AC Systems: Central Vs Floor-By-Floor
Variable refrigerant flow systems & Automation
Indoor Air Quantity Control Of Vav Air Handling Units
Water Supply For Cooling / Air-Conditioning / Humidification Purposes
Stairwell Pressurization
DX AIR CONDITIONING FOR OFFICE BUILDINGS
HOTELS AND AIR CONDITIONING
AIR CONDITIONING OF MULTIPLEXES AND AUDITORIUMS
AIR CONDITIONING IN HOSPITALS
References:
Blue star guide to air conditioning
Environmental control systems –Fuller Moore
Air conditioning - Lulla
sukirtha suresh Page 1

HVAC SYSTEM COMPONENTS
1. ENERGY SOURCES
ELECTRICITY AS AN ENERGY SOURCE
OIL AS AN ENERGY SOURCE
SOLAR AS AN ENERGY SOURCE
2. HEAT PUMP

3. 3. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Terms
1. Air conditioner
2. Air-cooled
3. Ambient temperature
4. Cfm
5. Chilled water system
6. Centralised AC
7. Compressor
8. Condenser
9. Dehumidification

A STUDY ON
1. HIGH RISE BUILDINGS_____________________________________
A high-rise is a tall building or structure.
Although the exact definition is immaterial, various bodies have tried to define what 'high-rise'
means:
 The International Conference on Fire Safety in High-Rise Buildings defined a high-rise
as "any structure where the height can have a serious impact on evacuation"
 The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines a high-rise as "a building having
many stories".
 Massachusetts General Laws define a high-rise as being higher than 70 feet.
 Most building engineers, inspectors, architects and similar professions define a high-
rise as a building that's at least 75 feet.
2. HEATING_________________________________________________
Heating systems may be classified as central or local. Central heating is often used in cold
climates to heat private houses and public buildings. Such a system contains a boiler,
furnace, or heat pump to heat water, steam, or air, all in a central location such as a furnace
room in a home or a mechanical room in a large building.
The system also contains piping or ductwork to distribute the heated fluid, and radiators to
transfer this heat to the air. The term radiator in this context is misleading since most heat
transfer from the heat exchanger is by convection, not radiation. The radiators may be
mounted on walls or buried in the floor to give under-floor heating. When so mounted it is often
referred to as "radiant heating."
All but the simplest systems have a pump to circulate the water and ensure an equal supply of
heat to all the radiators. The heated water is often fed through another heat exchanger inside
a storage cylinder to provide hot running water.
Forced air systems send air through ductwork. During warm weather the same ductwork can
be reused for air conditioning. The forced air can be filtered or put through air cleaners.
Contrary to fiction most ducts cannot fit a human being as this would require a greater duct-
structural integrity and create a potential security liability.
The heating elements (radiators or vents) should be located in the coldest part of the room
and typically next to the windows to minimize condensation. Popular retail devices that direct
vents away from windows to prevent "wasted" heat defeat this design parameter. Drafts
contribute more to the subjective feeling of coldness than actual room temperature. Therefore,
rather than improving the heating of a room/building, it is often more important to control the
air leaks.
The invention of central heating is often credited to the ancient Romans, who installed a
system of air ducts in walls and floors of public baths and private villas. The ducts were fed
with hot air from a central fire. Generally, these heated by radiation; a better physiologic
approach to heating than conventional forced air convective heating.
3. NATURAL VENTILATION___________________________________
Ventilating of a building results in air exchange between inside &the outside at various rates (5
to 500 air changes per hour)
N atural ventilation is the ventilation of a building with outside air without the use of a fan or
other mechanical system. It can be achieved with operable windows when the spaces to
ventilate are small and the architecture permits. In more complex systems warm air in the
building can be allowed to rise and flow out upper openings to the outside (stack effect) thus
forcing fresh cool air to be drawn into the building naturally though openings in the lower
areas. These systems use very little energy but care must be taken to ensure the occupants'
comfort. In warm or humid months, in many climates, maintaining thermal comfort via solely
natural ventilation may not be possible at times.
FUNCTIONS OF NATURAL VENTILATION

Both involve the movement of air at a relatively slow rate.The motive force can be thermal or
dynamic (wind)
1.SUPPLY OF FRESH AIR -to provide sufficient 2. MOVEMENT OF AIR

oxygen, to dilute odours, eg., body and food &to • Building cooling which enhances
dilute to acceptable levels the concentration of people cooling
CO2 produced by occupants and combustion- • People Cooling by evaporation &
governed by type of occupancy ,no. & activity of convection.
the occupants
• Cooling of body by convection only

Physiological cooling (people cooling)
• Cooling of the body is by supply of fresh air & movement of air past skin.
• By directing air stream of substantial velocity at the body surface by table top or ceiling
mounted fans, it provides no air exchange but generate an air movement.If there is no
proper air exchange, fans may prove futile as only warm air is circulated which may not
aid evaporative or convective cooling .
• Air exchange is enhanced by Passive Ventilative cooling.
• The supply of cooler air inside increases the cooling of the body by convection. ‘cause the
temperature diff. bet. Room air & skin is increased.
• Movement of air past the skin surface accelerates heat dissipation in 2 ways
1. Accelerates evaporation
• For eg, 30deg DBT & 25deg WBT will give an ET of 27deg C with still air (less than .1
m/s) & 22 deg C with a 7.5 m/s air velocity.Therefore the upper comfort limit at 40% RH is
30 deg C with still air but 36 deg C with a 1 m/s air velocity. In very low humidities(below
30%) this cooling effect is not great as there is unrestricted evaporation even with very
light air movement.In high humidities (above 85 %) the cooling effect is restricted by by th
high vapour pressure preventing evaporation, but greater velocities will have some effect.
I t is most significant in medium humidities (35 to 60 %)
2. Increases convective heat loss- convection is increased ‘cause the warm layer of air next to
the skin is exchanged more frequently
VENTILATIVE COOLING
a. Removing or exhausting warm building air & replacing it with cooler outside air to cool by
convection
b. Directing moving air across occupant’s skin to cool by a combination of convection &
evaporation.
• The replacement of warmer inside air with cooler outside air is the source of building
cooling which in turn increases the body cooling by convection ( which increases with the
temperature difference room air & the skin). In addition, the air motion generated by the
ventilation process further increases bodily heat in 2 ways-by evaporation & again by
convection. (here convection is increased ‘cause the warm layer of air next to the skin is
exchanged more frequently.
• Depends on the introduction of outside air
• Provision for air for air movement depends also on the winds at macroclimate &
Microclimate level.
• By passive ventilative cooling strategies.
1. Stack effect (thermal)
2. Wind –driven ventilation (which depends on config. of buildings , rooms & openings.

4. MECHANICAL OR FORCED VENTILATION_____________________
"Mechanical" or "Forced" ventilation may be used to control H umidity or odors. Kitchens

and bathrooms typically have mechanical ventilation to control both. Factors in the design of
such systems include the flow rate (which is a function of the fan speed and exhaust vent size)
and noise level.
If the ducting for the fans traverses unheated space (e.g. an attic) the ducting should be
insulated as well to prevent condensation on the ducting. Direct drive fans are available for
many applications (these save the owner the costs of maintaining/replacing drive belts).
Heat recovery ventilation systems employ heat exchangers to bring the fresh air
temperature to room temperature. Ceiling fans and table/floor fans are very effective in
circulating the air in the room. Paradoxically, because heat rises, ceiling fans may be used to
keep a room warmer.
1. In mechanical Ventilation the air is moved by motor driven fans which may be
a) propeller type or axial flow fans.
b) Impeller type, centrifugal or tangential flow fans.
2. The installations can take the following forms:
a) An exhaust system – removing the used air & letting fresh air find its way
through grilles & openings (room under reduced pressure)
b) A plenum system – supplying air into the space & forcing out used air through
grilles (slight overpressure in room )
c) A balanced system – both supplying & removing air. The most dependable, but
most expensive, system used when combined with warm air heating as it
permits partial recirculation
Mechanical cooling by refrigeration is based on cyclic methods.
A. VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION

• It is less expensive
• Has the added capability of functioning as a source of heat (heat pump) by reversing
the cycle.
1. A large amount of heat must be added to change a liquid into gas.the same amount of
heat (heat of condensation) is released when the gas condenses back into s liquid.
2. The boiling/condensation temperature of any material varies with pressure. When P is
reduced the boiling point/vaporization point is also reduced.

B. ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION
• It is expensive
• Is suitable when there is a low-cost source of heat available( gas flame or waste heat
from industrial process) & is the system typically used in conjunction with active solar
collectors to create “solar air conditioning”
• It requires no compressor pumps.
1. This cycle depends on the same 2 phenomena as vapour Comp. refreig. Plus the
following.
2. Some liquids (for eg. Lithium bromide or ammonia) have a strong tendency to absorb
water vapour. Once saturated with water. These absorbers can be regenerated by
heating to evaporate the water.
REFRIGERANTS
The first air conditioners and refrigerators employed toxic gases like ammonia and methyl
chloride, which could result in fatal accidents when they leaked. Thomas Midgley, Jr.
created the first chlorofluorocarbon gas, Freon, in 1928. The refrigerant was much safer for
humans but was later found to be harmful to the atmosphere's ozone layer. "Freon" is a trade
name of Dupont for any CFC, HCFC, or HFC refrigerant, the name of each including a number
indicating molecular composition (R-11, R-12, R-22, R-134). The blend most used in direct-
expansion comfort cooling is an HCFC known as R-22. It is to be phased out for use in new
equipment by 2010 and completely discontinued by 2020. R-11 and R-12 are no longer
manufactured in the US, the only source for purchase being the cleaned and purified gas
recovered from other air conditioner systems. Several ozone-friendly refrigerants have been
developed as alternatives, including R-410A, known by the brand name "Puron".
5. TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS_____________________

6. TYPES OF DRAWINGS ______________________________________________`
The following types of drawings are required to be prepared for the airconditioning projects
• HVAC ducting, designing & lay out
• Piping schematics, design & layout
• Plant room layout
• Electrical SLD drawings, layout & GA Drawings
• Process & Instrumentation diagrams
• BAS/BMS (Building Management System) & Instrumentation circuit diagrams & wiring
diagrams based on system logic
• Well integrated shop drawings.
coordination of HVAC requirements with other services and utilities like
• Civil/structural drawings including 3D related functionalities
• Architectural drawings
• Interior layouts including lighting layout, reflected ceiling plans etc.
• Equipment layouts
• Other mechanical & electrical & coordination services. For example
coordination with different agencies which can be super imposed on the basic
drawings. For example drawings for civil/piping/fire alarms etc.
7. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS_____________
1. WINDOW ACS, VERTICOOLS OR NON-DUCTED SPLITS?

At lower tonnage levels, airconditioning choice is limited to Window ACs, Verticools or
Nonducted splits.
2. WINDOW ACS ARE USEFUL WHEN: (1 TON - 3 TON)
The space to be airconditioned is one or more discrete cubicles .Each cubicle has a window
opening out into the open .Constant fresh air entry is not essential .Certain amount of noise is
acceptable in the airconditioned space
3. NONDUCTED SPLITS ARE USEFUL WHEN:
Aesthetics and low-noise level are important .The space to be airconditioned is a few adjacent
cubicles There are basically four types of nonducted splits Viz: Floor cum Ceiling Mounted
Split, Wall Mounted Split, Hide away Split and Verticool Split Ideal for Showrooms,Small
offices & Residence.
4. VERTICOOLS OR NONDUCTED PACKAGED ARE IDEAL WHEN:
The space to be airconditioned is one large room .Aesthetics and low-noise level are important
Ideal for open layout Banks, Offices & Showrooms.
5. DUCTED SPLITS OR PACKAGED ACS?
At intermediate tonnage levels (between 5 Tons and 50 Tons), there is a wide choice of
products that can serve the purpose, each having its own advantages and disadvantages.
While small capacity central plants can also be considered, ducted systems are generally
preferred due to ease of installation and the 'ready-made' nature of these products. Ducted
systems can either be Packaged ACs or Ducted Splits. There are other factors that govern the
choice of product.
Pros and cons of Packaged ACs: ( 5 TR upto 5000 sq ft.)
They need a separate plant room to operate from. Only the ducting runs into the conditioned
space; while the condenser is housed in the outdoor unit and both evaporator and compressor
are housed in the Indoor unit. Constant fresh air change is of prime importance.
Pros and cons of Ducted Splits:
The Indoor unit is mounted between the false ceiling and the roof, above the conditioned
space. The indoor unit houses the evaporator and blower fan. The compressor is in the
outdoor unit. They are ideal for spaces where no plant room is available for Packaged ACs.
No real estate is wasted on a ducted split indoor unit. Fresh air change is also possible when
using ducted splits.

6. AIR-COOLED OR WATER-COOLED PACKAGED ACS?
Packaged ACs - use either air-cooled or water-cooled condensers. Water-cooled condensers
are more efficient than air-cooled condensers. As a thumb rule, therefore, if there is plenty of
good quality water available at the site, a water-cooled Packaged AC is preferred.
Having said that, good quality water in plenty is not exactly our strength in most parts of the
country. Hence, practical difficulties may force the use of an air-cooled condenser.
Besides, water-cooled Packaged ACs require more real-estate to house external components
like the cooling tower and pumps, while the air-cooled condenser requires very little space and
is easy to install. The external components also increase the initial investments on water-
cooled systems. It must be added, however, that this investment is amortised very quickly, due
to the enhanced efficiency of the water-cooled system.
7. PACKAGED AC OR CENTRAL PLANT__________________________________
Advantage of Packaged AC
No operator required .Comparatively short installation time Do not require large roof spaces as
in Central Plant .Multiple units can be used for different floors of a building giving better
control. Investment can also be made in phases / storey by storey.
Advantage of Central Plant / Where to use Central Plant
Life of Central Plant is higher .Where the control points are more than 50 eg. For hotels
Central Plant is ideal solution. When close control environment is required When uneven loads
are required like 65% humidity etc. Central chilled plants are economical beyond 80 TR(282
KW) capacity. Central DX Plants for capacities larger than 20 TR.
8. DETAILED LOAD CALCULATION FOR A ROOM__________________________
HEAT GAIN CALCULATION

A room of size 5m X 5 m with height 2.5 m is located o an intermediate floor of a large building
with only one wall exposed to the sun at the south.All other walls are adjoined to the other
rooms kept at the same temperature.
Inside air temperature Ti = 20 deg C

Outside air temperature ,To =26 deg C
Incident radiation I =580 Watt/sq.m
Absorption of the surface,a=0.4
Surface conductance, f0 =10 Watts/ sq.m
Ventilation rate = 3 air cganges / hour
No. of bulbs = 3 nos. 100 watt bulbs.
No. of people = 4 people, 140 Watt / person
In the exposed wall, 1.5 m height of glazing & remaining opaque.
U value of glazing = 4.48 W/ sq m.deg C
U value of concrete = 1.35 W/ sq. m.deg C
Solar gain factor, ө =0.75
For opaque surfaces or direct solar gain,Ts=To +(I Xa) / f 0
Step 1
Heat loss due to conduction ,Qc = U1A1 X ∆ T + U2A2 X Ts
=(5X1.5X4.48X6) + ( 5X1 X1.35 x (49.2-20))
=398.7 Watts.
Step 2
V=ventilation of air in m. cube /sec
Volumetric specific heat of air =1300 watts
Heat loss due to ventilation /convection, Q v = 1300 X V X ∆ T
= 1300 X ( 3X 5X5X2.5) X 6 /3600
= 406.25 Watts
Step 3
Heat gain due to solar radiation ,Qs = QS1 + Q S2

= 5 X 1.5 + 580 X 0.75
= 3262.5 Watts
Step 4
Internal Heat gain,Qi = 4X140 + 3X100
= 860 Watts
Step 5
Heat gain due to evaporation, Qe= 0
Step 6
Qi + Qs +Qc + Qv + Qm + Qe =0
860 + 3262.5 + 328.7 + 406.25= - Qm
Qm = - 4927.45 Watts approx =-5 KWatts
The air conditioning should be capable of removing 5 KW.
5 Kwatts= 5 X 1000 X 3.412 btu/ hr

= 17060 btu /hour
= 17060 btu/hr divided by 12000 btu/hr/ton
= 1.42 tons
9. APPROXIMATE METHOD OF LOAD CALCULATION_______________________

Room floor area =5 X 5 sq m =25 X 10.76 Sq ft = 269 sq ft
Approx. tonnage = 269 / 200= 1.35 TR for AHU & condensing units
note:
multiply cfm or cubic feet/min. by .00047 to get m.cube/sec
multiply watts by 3.412 to get btu/ hr
multiply KW by .284 to get Ref. ton.
10. APPROXIMATE TONNAGE FOR DIFFERENT SPACES____________________
Banks public Space 150 sq ft./ ton

Single storeyed 150 to 250 sq ft. ./ ton
offices
Double storeyed 200 to 300 sq ft. ./ ton
Operating rooms sq ft. ./ ton
Hospitals 100% fresh air 40 sq ft. ./ ton
30% fresh air 80 sq ft. ./ ton
stage 50 sq ft. ./ ton
Auditorium
Public area 10 people ./ ton
Guest rooms 150 to 200 sq ft. ./ ton
Hotel Eating spaces 100 to 150 sq ft. ./ ton
Conference rooms 100 to 150 sq ft. ./ ton
Computer rooms 80 to 120 sq. ft/ton
Factories with ligh t equipment 100 to 150 sq ft./ton
11. PRELIMINARY PLANNING FOR AIR CONDITIONING OF A 20 000 SQ FT. OFFICE___

The air quantity per ton varies from 300 cfm per ton to about 500 cfm per ton for high heat
sensible applications.400 cfm /ton may be used to estimate space required for supply air &
return air.
Office space floor area =20 000 sq ft.

Approx. tonnage = 20 000 / 200= 100 TR
Use a central DX Plant with 2 independent 50 TR condensing units. Each condensing unit to
have an independent cooling coil in a common 100 TR AHU or 2 X 50 TR AHU’s
The total air quantity for the 100 TR =100 X 400 cfm
= 40 000 cfm

The supply air duct will have a min. cross sectonal area of = 40 000cfm/ 1500 fpm
= 26 sq ft
1500 fpm=largest velocity permissible from point of view of noise
The Return air space sectional area = 1 ½ times that for supply air
= 1 ½ X 26 sq ft
= 40 sq ft.
Therefore space for AHU for
passsage of supply air & return air
to the air conditioned space = 40 +
26 =66 sq ft
The rooms for AHU

Upto 30 TR 12’ X 10’
30 TR to 60 TR 12’ X 15’
60 TR to 100 TR 18’ X 15’
12. AC SYSTEMS: CENTRAL
VS FLOOR-BY-FLOOR______
Modern office buildings come in all
shapes and sizes. Two sided,
pyramid shaped, round,
rectangular, tall like the 452 meter
Petronas Towers in Malaysia or our
own shorter 107 meter World Trade
Centre in Mumbai. But all of them
have one common feature HVAC
systems, which are also available
in a wide variety such as chilled
water, direct expansion, ice
storage, packaged, air cooled,
water cooled, constant air volume,
variable air volume, central, floor-
by-floor centrifugal, screw, absorption or reciprocating.
CENTRAL PLANT
Plant room: A central plant will require plant room space on the ground floor or in the
basement to house water chilling machines, condenser water pumps, chilled water pumps,
condenser/chilled water piping and electric panels. The plant room size will depend on the size
of the plant. These plant rooms require a minimum clear height of 4.3 to 4.9 m to accomodate
equipment, pipe headers and cable trays. If the system has ice/chilled water thermal storage,
huge tanks are required to be accommodated. A direct fired absorption system will require fuel
storage tanks and space to accomodate fuel handling equipment. A steam fired absorption
machine will require space to accommodate the boiler.
AHU: In addition, each floor has to house the air handling system consisting of fan section,
cooling/heating coil section, filter sections and electrical panels. These AHU room sizes can
vary from a room of 3 x 3 m to 6 x 4 m depending in the size of the plant. A shaft is needed to
house chilled water piping, condenser water piping (if cooling tower is on the terrace) and
power/control cables. Each AHU room must be provided with drainage and fresh air
intake.The air handling capacity of the AHU which will depend on the floor area and the
cooling load to be handled, will determine the duct size leaving the fan outlet. If this size is too
large to permit a reasonable false ceiling height it may be desirable to consider two smaller
AHUs on each floor, provided, a second shaft can be fitted into the floor layout.

AIR COOLED CENTRAL PLANT
 If an air cooled central plant is envisaged, adequate space is required on the terrace to
place the chilling machines and chilled water pumps. The electrical panel should
preferable have IP65 rating. Normally
space is also allocated for standby chilling
machines and pumps. Consideration must
be given to the noise of the chillers and
whether this will affect adjacent buildings.
 Access path to plant rooms and
AHU rooms.
 In case of a breakdown, the
machine may have to be shifted to a
service shop for repair. The building design
must provide this space.
 The structure should be designed to
take the weight of equipment in position
and along this access path. Adequate load
bearing beams and columns must be
available for lifting and shifting of such
equipment.
 If the plant room is in the basement
adequate drainage facilities are a must, as
the water in the system may have to de
drained in case of a major shutdown. In
multi storey buildings this water volume can
be very large, creating a serious drainage
problem. Isolating valves are normally
recommended to avoid such problems.
Owner's Needs –
single or multiple
The user profile of

multi-story office
buildings can vary to a
great extent. The
complete building may
have either a single
owner or multiple
owners. A single
owner normally has a
preference for a central
plant as the quality of
air conditioning is far
superior. In addition, the
owners can opt for an intelligent building by incorporating a Building Management System.
This will enable the owner to derive benefits of optimal utilisation of the air conditioning plant.
A multiple owner facility requires a system which provides individual energy billing for which
a floor-by-floor air conditioning system using packaged units or split units is most suited.
Another important requirement is the normal working hours of the user/users. Some users
may have different timings. Some areas such as computer rooms may need 24 hour air
conditioning. Due to such multiple requirements many engineers prefer a combination of a

central plant and packaged units/split units. Such systems offer high flexibility in meeting the
requirement of different working hours and special design conditions.
Standby of Redundancy
An office complex generally requires a standby cooling machine to ensure that air conditioning
is always available. A central plant system can easily accommodate a standby packaged
chiller with pumps in the same plant room. Air handling units are normally not provided as
standby, as the breakdown rates are insignificant. In a floor-by-floor air conditioning system
using packaged units and splits it is not always possible to provide a non-working standby unit.
Normally such units are installed in multiple and are distributed over the air conditioned space.
Therefore whenever a unit suffers a breakdown, air conditioning is inadequate causing user
complaints.
Cooling Medium - Air or Water

A decision on water or air cooled system will have an important bearing on plant room space
requirements and whether enclosed or open. Availability of water is a basic aspect which
determines the type of system, whether air cooled or water cooled. Water cooled systems
consume much less power than air cooled systems. The quality of water also plays a very
important role. A water management system consisting of either a water softening plant or a
reverse osmosis plant may have to be provided to control the quality of water used.
In water cooled systems, the chilled water circuit is normally a closed loop, while the
condenser water circuit is an open loop, due to the use of a cooling tower. When using cooling
towers, operating aspects like maintaining water level in the cooling tower basin, regulating the
bleed-off and controlling make up water quality, call for regular checks. It is also important to
keep the system clean of algae and bacteria.
The air cooled system, on the other hand, consumes 20% to 25% more
power.(appropriate in places like Bangalore where temperatures are moderate.) However, the
heat of the system is rejected to air which is available in abundance. On the whole, air cooled
systems are much easier to operate. Air-cooled condenser coils can be easily cleaned,
periodically, on the air side.
Architectural Features and Space for HVAC

The architectural design of he building is an important aspect that must be studied before
finalising the system selection. The following aspects of the building design can help the
engineer to determine the right selection.
 Plant room space in basement with adequate height of 4.3 to 4.9 metres for water
cooled systems, or open space on terrace or ground level for air cooled chillers.
 Clear height available above false ceiling for running ductwork.
 Space available for installing AHUs near shafts.
 Access space above false ceiling of ac area or passages for mounting split unit coolers
and accessible space for condensing units.
 Possibility of locating fresh air intakes on building facia above false ceiling level to
facilitate fresh air intakes for split units. (not to be placed near toilets.)
 Space for shafts to carry chilled water and condenser water pipes.
 Availability of drain lines in peripheral area or core area to facilitate drainage from split
unit coolers.
FLOOR-BY-FLOOR SYSTEM (WATER OR AIR COOLED)

THE WATER COOLED, floor standing packaged AC is the type that can be most conveniently
located in a separate room adjoining a shaft in the core of a new building. The shaft houses
the condenser water piping connected to a common building cooling tower on the terrace. The
largest packaged unit available in India today is 15 tons which can handle an area of approx
300 sq.m. A larger floor area can be handled with multiple units as long as the building design
can 15ccommodate additional shafts close to the units for the condenser lines. Multiple units
can also help reduce the supply air duct sizes and thus increase the false ceiling height which
all architects and clients just love. Aesthetically, the higher the false ceiling height, within
economic limits of course, the better the acceptability of an office. Low heights increase the
feeling of claustrophobia among office staff.
AIR COOLED SPLITS
Where water availability is a problem, air cooled splits can be used. However, the building
design must accommodate:
 A two feet high indoor cooling unit with proper access for maintenance.
The unit can be ceiling suspended or sitting on a loft. The floor-by-floor building height
must be adequate for mounting such a unit and still leave enough space below for a
descent false ceiling height. A drain line with proper slope is a must from each unit to a
floor drain.
 An outdoor condensing unit with safe and proper space for maintenance.
This unit should be not more than 20 metres horizontally from the indoor unit and vertically not
more than 10 metres higher than the indoor unit. Shorter distances help improve cooling
capacity and longer distances reduce capacity. Figure illustrates a typical air cooled split unit
installation. The largest single piece air cooled split unit available in India today is 8.5 tons
capable of cooling 160 sq.m. approximately. Larger floor areas can use multiple units which
can also help in reducing duct sizes.
The power consumption of water cooled packaged machines can vary from 1.0 kW per ton to
1.2 kW per ton and the power consumption of air cooled splits varies from 1.3 kW to 1.6 kW
per ton. The type of compressors used in these machines are either hermetic reciprocating or
scroll. The part load efficiency of such units is lower than their full load efficiency.
Level of Comfort

The quality of air conditioning and the control on the design parameters is much superior in
central AC system. Such systems are normally provided with higher efficiency filters and it can
handle the required quantity of fresh air with an in-built capacity of absorbing latent load. This
results in a high relative humidity at full load as well as part load.
Most modern offices have an open-plan concept. The cabins are always laid out in the
peripheral area and the variation of load is always much higher compared to the variation in
the core area. Increasing usage of computers and changing work place also calls for inbuilt
flexibility in design. Such variations in peripheral and core air conditioning load can very well
be handled by a central plant with a VAV system.
As the peak time depends on wall orientation, the sum of the peaks is always higher than the
instantaneous block load. Therefore it is advisable to have a variable air volume system
whenever individual comfort conditions are important. VAV system design is based on block
load calculations, as the VAV units allow the system to borrow air from areas with low load. By
incorporating VAVs with variable speed drive on air handling units, it is possible to achieve
excellent savings in power, which can be as high as 30 - 50% Even though the initial cost of
the plant increases by 7% - 10% due to VAVs and variable speed drives, the pay back is
normally less than 2 years.
Indoor Air Quality

It is recommended to have a minimum standard ventilation rate of 15 cfm per person in office
areas. Indoor air quality is considered acceptable if the required rates of outdoor air are
provided for the occupied space. As human occupants produce carbon dioxide, water vapour,
particulates, biological aerosols, etc. the carbon dioxide concentration has been accepted as
an indicator of indoor air quality. Comfort (odor) criteria are likely to be satisfied if the
ventilation rate is set so that 1000 ppm carbon dioxide is not exceeded.
It is possible to control indoor air quality in a central plant by designing the main air handling
system to cater for the required outdoor air treatment. Further it is possible to incorporate
strategies which are desirable with increased ventilation rates:
 Increased recirculation with high efficiency filters
 Heat recovery devices
 Automatic carbon dioxide monitoring for improved control.
 Improved air distribution.
Combined variable air volume technology and automatic CO2 control enables a system
that already responds dynamically to temperature and humidity to also respond dynamically to
indoor air pollutants.
From the air quality perspective, infiltration only occurs at the bottom and top few floors. In
the center of the building infiltration effects are minimal, and therefore it is advisable to have a
well sealed building and control the air distribution.
In a floor-by-floor unitary system the common practice is to provide fresh air openings
near the equipment. However, to maintain acceptable indoor air quality it would be advisable
to install a separate air unit which can supply treated fresh air to each packaged/split unit.
Central Plant Systems have advantages as they

• Offer Greater Variety of Equipment
• Have Better Part Load Performance
• Are better suited to BMS
• Have a longer life
• Easier to Provide for Redundancy(standby)
• Can Provide Better Indoor Air Quality
• Are Preferred By Prestigious Owners-Quality
Floor-by-floor packaged systems have advantages of

Lower First Cost
Packaged and split units have much lower first cost than a central system. However, the life
expectancy of floor-by-floor system is much lower at about 12 to 15 years only.
Faster Installation
Easy to install and less time consuming than a central plant. Since standard size units are
readily available, replacements can be carried out very fast.
Individual Ownership
Each tenant can own his air conditioning plant, operate it at his convenience and pay the
individual power bills. Therefore, when a building complex has a multiple owner profile, a floor-
by-floor system is preferred.
CASE 1
• Number of Storeys Basement, ground + 32 floors
• Air conditioned area 38,089 sqm (4,10,000 sq.ft)
• Floor to floor height 4.1 m (13.5 ft.) with 2.75 m (9 ft.) false ceiling height.
• User profile Multi users Multi users
Installed AC system
• Central plant 4 nos R-11 centrifugal chillers total capacity 2200 Tr

34 air handling units
4 chilled water pumps
4 condenser water pumps
3 cooling towers
(one chiller and one pump each type act as standby).
• Present cost of the AC plant Rs. 9 crores Rs. 9 Crores or

or with 0.9 kW/ton) chillers Rs. 54,500 per Rs. 54,500 per ton or
2 2
ton or (excluding power wiring Rs. 2363/m Rs. 2363/m (Rs. 220/sq.ft.)
(Rs. 220/sq.ft.) and civil work)
• Annual power bill Rs. 2.27 crores or

2
for air-conditioning Rs. 596/m (Rs. 55.40/sq.ft.)
• Electricity Rate Rs. 4.32 per unit.

2
• Annual power consumed per unit area Units/m 138.26 (12.81 per sq.ft.)
CASE 2
• Number of Storeys Ground + 9 floors
• Air conditioned area 5,202 sqm (56,000 sq.ft)
• User profile Multi users
Installed AC system
• Air cooled split units with hermetic, recip 50 nos 7.5 Tr split units

compressors total capacity 375 TR
• Present cost of the AC plant Rs. 1.12 Crore or

(excluding power wiring and civil work) Rs. 30,000 per ton or
2
Rs. 2153/m (Rs. 200/sq.ft.)
• Annual power bill for air-conditioning Rs. 44 lacs or

2
Rs. 846/m (Rs. 78.50/sq.ft.)
• Electricity Rate Rs. 5.00 per unit.

2
• Annual power consumed per unit area Units/m 169.2 (15.71/sq.ft.)
13. VARIABLE REFRIGERANT FLOW SYSTEMS & AUTOMATIO ___N
These revolutionary airconditioning systems combine the discrete AC products (like high-wall
mounted & cassette indoor units) with the centralized cooling solutions of Central AC plants.In
a variable refrigerant flow ( VRF) system, the central cooling plant is like the outdoor unit of
split AC products, operating as a condensing unit.While in discrete systems each indoor unit is
driven by one compressor & its associated refrigerant circuit, in a VRF system a single
compressor drives multiple indoor units. The refrigerant flows through ‘ smart’ valves to
different units. The valves are automatically controlled so as to allow only the necessary
volume of refrigerant to flow in through each indoor unit. Rooms with less heat load at a point
of time will need less refrigerant flow & hence a lesser load on the system.VRF systems -30%
more efficient than conventional central plant systems.They are more versatile since indoor
units in a VRF system can be a convenient mix of various types – high-wall mounted, cassette
or any other & capacities down to 1 TR in multiples-to suit each room & application ( villas,
offices, hotels & classrooms)
14. INDOOR AIR QUANTITY CONTROL OF VAV AIR HANDLING UNITS

For an office environment, the minimum amount of fresh air is specified air is specified to be
20 CFM per person.In Southeast Asia, it is not common to modulate the outdoor air dampers.
If a designer wishes to meet the ASHRAE Standard 62 with VAV AHU using fixed fresh air
dampers, it will be necessary to size the fresh air inlet to allow the required CFM of fresh air
per person at minimum fan speed. When the fan is running above the minimum speed the
amount of fresh air being introduced will be more than the specified requirement. Cooling this
additional fresh air wastes energy.A cost-effective way to measure the amount of fresh air
should be introduced and a way to modulate fresh air dampers to ensure that the required
amount of fresh air is being introduced, even at part loads on the VAV AHU.
Calculating the percentage of Fresh Air in Supply Air.
1. Using Temperature
2. Using Carbon Dioxide (CO2) by CO2 Sensing Technology , Using Multipoint CO2
Sensing
3. Fresh Air Damper Control Strategy
Fresh Air Damper Control Strategy_______________________________

• A control signal to achieve a return air CO2 level of 800 ppm. This is called a demand
strategy (DCVCS).
• A control signal to achieve the required fresh air CFM based on occupancy level. This is
called occupancy based ventilation control strategy (OBVCS).
• A minimum damper position.
Because there is some interdependence between the three inputs, the "Select Maximum"
function should add a time delay before switching. In other words, an input must be the
maximum of the three for duration of time before the input takes control of the Fresh Air
Damper.
Demand Controlled Ventilation Control Strategy (DCVCS)_____________

The ASHRAE Standard requires an occupancy based ventilation control strategy (OBVCS).
However, a demand controlled ventilation control strategy (DCVCS) can be used to
supplement the OBVCS to save energy.
A typical office has fixed hours with minimal occupancy outside of those hours. The air
conditioning system is operated for an extended period before and after typical occupancy to
accommodate workers who come in early or leave late. For example, an office may be in
operation from 09.00-17.00 while the air conditioning system operates from 08.00 - 18.30.
Introducing extra fresh air ventilation between 08.00 - 09.00 and 17.00 - 18.30 will waste
energy. During this period, the DCVCS can be used to provides the minimal level of fresh air
ventilation based on the actual requirements at that time. If DCVCS is not used, the OBVCS
must assume an occupancy level. Since this assumption must be based on worst-case
conditions, energy will be wasted.
Occupancy Based Ventilation Control Strategy (OBVCS)______________

. The Desired Fresh Air CFM is calculated by multiplying the CFM / person Requirement
by the occupancy level. The CFM / person Requirement is typically a constant such as 20,
based on the usage of the space (20 is the value prescribed by ASHRAE for office areas).The
occupancy level can be manually entered or automatically changed based on a time schedule.
15. WATER SUPPLY FOR COOLING / AIR-CONDITIONING / HUMIDIFICATION PURPOSES______
Water supply shall not be used for any heating, cooling or humidification purposes except
with the approval of the Water Authority. Uses of mains (fresh or salt) water may be given
for cooling / air-conditioning / humidification purposes to meet the following requirements:
(a) closed circuit cooling systems for any purpose where operational losses are negligible
and no water is rejected to waste;
(b) cooling systems involving no loss through evaporation and where all the water is re-used
after cooling for an industrial process; (The normal trade requirement must not be less
than that required for air-conditioning/cooling purposes at peak load);
(c) evaporative cooling systems essential to an industrial process, whether this be for
cooling or for air-conditioning purposes and provided that system losses arise from
evaporative only;
(d) evaporative cooling/air-conditioning/humidification systems for essential purposes other
than industrial processes provided that system losses arise from evaporation only;
(e) humidification essential to an industrial process(e.g. the spraying of a fine mist in textile
weaving plants).
The use of mains water in evaporative type plants for essential purposes other than industrial
process is limited to those cases where the cooling / air-conditioning / humidification system
is absolutely necessary. An example of such case is the use of mains water for the
evaporative type air-conditioning system to serve those areas in hospitals, such as the
operating theatres, intensive care units, mortuary etc., where air-conditioning is essential for
operation requirement. Other examples are the provision of evaporative type cooling system

for cold storage purpose or laboratory testing; and air-conditioning / humidification system
for major computer facilities, art gallery or testing laboratory. The type of evaporative plant
used should be of an enclosed design from which wastage of water by splashing is prevented
16. STAIRWELL PRESSURIZATION_____________________________

 Stairwell Pressurization Systems have been designed and installed in multistory buildings
in Indian cities to protect from smoke in case of fire.
 Fire safety is a critical design factor in tall buildings. Smoke is recognized as the major
killer in fire situations. Building fires produce both smoke and heat. The most common
cause of death is from the inhalation of carbon monoxide. In building fires, smoke often
flows to locations remote from the fire, threatening life and damaging property.
 Stairwells and elevator shafts can become smoke logged thereby blocking evacuation and
inhibiting fire fighting. Once inside a protected route, people in a building should be able to
make their way to a final exit and safety in the open air. BS - 5588 Part-4 1978 states "It
is the smoke and toxic gases, rather than the flame, that will in the first instance
inhibit this movement and the exclusion of the smoke and gases from the protected
routes is thus of great importance"
 Smoke management therefore assumes particular significance in high rise buildings
because the time necessary for evacuation may be greater than the time for the
development of untenable smoke conditions on stair cases.
 Earlier most combustible material in building's were based on wood, paper or cotton which
were varieties of the same basic substance cellulose. Its products of combustion are
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and water.
 Today strong acids such as hydrochloric began to appear routinely in smoke as
chlorinated materials such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) find increasing use. Similarly with
the appearance of large amounts of nitrogen in plastics, nylon prompted worries about a
possible appearance of hydrogen cyanide in smoke.
 Smoke being a silent killer, needs to be managed. Thus its prevention, mitigation and
containment should be an essential part of any HVAC design. The protection and
pressurization of stair towers and egress lobbies are of fundamental importance to the
building occupants.
One or more escape staircases
connecting to the outdoors at ground level
should be maintained sufficiently free of
smoke to enable mass evacuation.
During emergency when some doors
open, the pressure reduces. The minimum
allowable pressure difference is that where no
smoke leakage occurs during building
evacuation. In this case the smoke control
system must produce sufficient pressure
difference to overcome forces of wind, stack
effect or buoyancy of hot smoke.
Designing these systems is complicated

because an intermittent loss of effective
pressurization occurs when occupants enter
and leave stairs during evacuation. Therefore,
the pressurization system should have a
supply air fan with sufficient capacity to
provide effective pressurization system should
have a supply air fan with sufficient capacity
to provide effective pressurization to prevent
smoke entry when doors are open. Opening
of exterior stairwell door results in the largest

pressure drop. This is because the air flow through the exterior doorway goes directly to the
outsides while air flow through other open doorways must also go through other building paths
to reach outside. The increased flow resistance of the building means that less air flows
through the open door ways than would flow through the exterior door. Thus, the exterior
stairwell door is the greatest cause of pressure fluctuation due to door opening and closing.
Also it is necessary to determine or assume the number of doors that may be open
simultaneously during an emergency. This number will depend largely on the building
occupancy.
If there is a lobby, that separates the staircase from the accommodation area and the lobby
has doors to lifts and toilets, the lobby should be separately pressurized. The lobby pressure
should be equal to or slightly below the pressure in the staircase, (not below 5 Pa).
In calculating the air supply needed for the pressurization system two major assumptions have
to be made:
 That the leakage areas of doors, lift doors, windows that have been used in the
calculation will apply to the components when the building is completed.
 That there are no unidentified leakage areas out of the pressurized spaces.
To allow for these assumptions British standard 5588 recommends that an allowance of
25% be added to the calculated value of supply air.
Apart from this, it also recommends to add another 15% to take care of any leakage from
sheet metal ducting.
The fan should be selected accordingly and the total pressure against which the fan has to
work is the summation of resistance of air distribution system and emergency pressurization
level.
Plan for Air Venting

The arrangement for release/escape of the pressurizing air from the building should be
considered, and an appropriate venting method should be adopted. If the building has
openable windows on each floor, it is possible that the leakage through the window cracks will
be sufficient to allow satisfactory venting of pressurizing air. Or else special vents should be
planned and provided on all sides of the building.

Air Distribution
There are two types of air distribution systems,

single injection and multiple injection.
In the single injection system the pressurizing air is supplied to the stair tower at one location.
The most common injection point is at the top of the building.
A single injection system can fail when a few doors are open near the air supply injection
point. All of the pressurizing air can be lost through these open doors and the system will than
fail to maintain positives pressure across the doors farthest from the point of injection.
Because of this reason BS 5588 recommends that a single supply entry point is not to be used
unless the building has three floors or less. ASHRAE however suggests that with careful
analysis such system can be used up to eight floors.
Single injection with bottom air entry is prone to failure. Since the exterior door is opened must
of the time, some of the air will short circuit the system by directly flowing out of the open
doorways. The limitation of a single injection system can be overcome by a multiple injection
system. Either the fan can be located at ground level or it can be on roof. The supply air duct
can be located in a separate shaft or it can be routed in the stairwell itself.
In this case care has to be taken that the duct should not interfere with the evacuation
passage. The air supply to the pressurized staircase should be evenly distributed throughout
the whole height of he staircase. The air outlet grilles should be located not more than three
storeys apart. Better would be if the air is injected at each floor. This will present loss of
pressurization through a few open doors.
Air intake Location

The supply air intake should be separated, from
various exhaust shafts and roof smoke and heat vents.
Open vents of elevator shafts or other building openings
that may expel smoke during a fir should be located
remotely from the intake air location. This separation
should be as great as possible or else smoke will be fed
in. One approach could be to locate all inlets on one
side of the building and smoke outlets on the other side.
However with any stair tower pressurization system,

there is a potential for smoke feedback into the stair tower. Therefore the capability of
automatic shut down in such events should be considered.
Single or Two Stage System

A pressurization system designed to work only in an emergency is called a single stage
system. Alternatively a continuously operating low level of pressurization can be achieved by
way of normal ventilation, with provision of attaining higher pressure level during emergency
-maintain the system periodically so that the system operates when called for. On the other
hand a two stage system is always in running condition
17. DX AIR CONDITIONING FOR OFFICE BUILDING______________

DX Systems
Table 1 DX vs Chilled Water
Type Sat. suction Sat.discharge Capacity hp Bhp/TR

temp temp
(° F) (° F) (TR)
DX 45 105 123 104 0.845
Chilled Water 35 105 99 103 1.040
For a 100 ton system the saving in power when translated into real money value per annum
will be:-
(1.04 - 0.84) x 100 x 0.746 x 10 x 300 x 0.5 x 4/ - Rs. 89,520/-
(Based on 10 hours/day use, 300 working days a year, Rs. 4/- per unit, an annual diversity
figure of 0.5 and ignoring motor efficiency)
Water Cooled or Air Cooled

 Any ac system is just a pump - a heat pump. It pumps our heat from the space to be
cooled and rejects it into an adjacent ambient space. This heat rejection can be through
water or air. Both the central and packaged systems can be water cooled or air cooled.
 The water cooled systems reject condenser heat into water which is re-circulated through
their condensers and a cooling tower. The recirculation rate being 4 gpm/TR. This
recirculation results in.evaporation and bleed losses which call for make up water. The
make up water rate can be taken as 4 gph/TR.
 Air cooled systems on the other hand do not need water. In such machines heat rejection
is to the atmosphere directly through an air cooled condenser. The air cooled condenser
have to be generally kept very close to the evaporator units and for smaller sized
equipment the length cannot exceed 15 feet whereas for larger systems it may go upto 3
to 4 times this figure.
 In the case of water cooled equipment the cooling tower which is the final heat rejection
point may virtually be at any distance from the cooling equipment.
The economics of a water cooled system vs an air cooled system shown in Table below
can be summarized as under:

 At peak load conditions air cooled machines consume over 30% more power than
water cooled units.
 Compressor capacity drops by over 10% for air cooled machines compared to water
cooled.
 The paucity of good quality soft water makes it imperative to opt for air cooled systems
in most installations.
Table : Water vs Air Cooled
Type Sat. suction Sat.discharge Compressor Bhp Bhp/TR

temp temp Capacity
(° F) (° F) (TR)
Water Cooled 40 110 82 82.0 1.00
Air Cooled 40 130 69 94.7 1.37
For a 100 ton plant:

The increased annual power cost of an air cooled system equals:
(1.37 - 1.00) x 100 x 0.746 x 10 x 300 x 4/- x 0.5 or Rs. 1,65,000/-
(In actual practice the above figure will come down by half because the off peak disparity
between air cooled and water cooled head pressures is lower. Motor efficiency has been
ignored ).
Annual cost of water for a water cooled system at, say, Rs.300/- per 1200 gallons equals :
Variations in System Capacity

The system passes through a complete series of operating conditions and capacities, the
operating conditions and capacity being highest when the space temperature is highest, and
lowest when the space temperature is lowest. However, during most of the running cycle, a
well-designed system will operate very nearly at the design conditions.
Capacity Control
The importance of balancing the system capacity with the systems load cannot be over-
emphasised. Any time the system capacity deviates considerably from the system load,
unsatisfactory operating conditions will result. Good practice requires that the system be
designed to have a capacity equal to or slightly in excess of the average maximum sustained
load. This is done so that the system will have sufficient capacity to maintain the temperature
and humidity at the desired level during periods of peak loading. Obviously, as the cooling
load decreases, there is a tendency for the system to become oversized in relation to the load.
 In applications where the changes in the average system load are not great, capacity
control is adequately accomplished by cycling the system on and off. In such a case,
assuming that the cycling controls are properly adjusted, the relative length of on and off
cycles will vary with the load on the system during periods when the load is heavy, "on"
cycles will be long and "off" cycles will be short whereas during periods when the load is

light, "on" cycles will be short and "off" cycle will be. This is true also of large installations
where the size of the equipment renders cycling the system on and off impractical.
 In some installations, the refrigerating capacity of the system is adequately controlled by
controlling the capacity of the compressor only.
 Since the flow are of the refrigerant must be the same in all components, any change in
the capacity of any one component will automatically result in a similar adjustment in the
capacity of all the other components. Therefore, increasing or decreasing the capacity of
the compressor will, in effect, increase or decrease the capacity of the entire system.
However, it is important to note that with this method of capacity control the operating
conditions of the system will change as the capacity of the system changes.
Where it is desired to vary the capacity of the system without allowing the operating
conditions of the system to change, it is necessary to control both the evaporator capacity
and the compressor capacity directly.
Some of the more common methods of controlling evaporator and compressor capacities
are considered .
Evaporator Capacity Control

 Probably the most effective method of providing evaporator capacity control is to divide the
evaporator into several separate sections or circuits which are individually controlled so
that one or more sections or circuits can be cycled out as the load decreases. Using this
method, any percentage of the evaporator capacity can be cycled out in any desired
number of steps or combinations.
 Another common method of varying the evaporator capacity is to vary the amount of air
circulated over the evaporator through the use of "face" or "face-and-by-pass" dampers.
Variable speed blowers can also be used for thus purpose. Also in some instances,
dampers and multi-speed blowers are used together in order to provide the desired
balance.
Refrigerant piping
If one were to generalise one might say that vertical lines with refrigerant should not exceed
three or flour floors. Beyond such heights it becomes uneconomical because of loss of
capacity due to pressure drop.
A multiple compressor installation can be piped to have common piping for all the
compressors, say 2 or 3 at the most. While installing a common system with multiple
compressors it is necessary to plan for liberally sized equalizers on the compressors it is
necessary to plan for liberally sized equalizers on the compressor lines to ensure that no
compressor crankcase is starved of oil. Some designers are allergic to putting compressors in
parallel. piping the compressors individually to separate coils - one each for each zone as in
the sketch in Fig. 2 This kind of "cross piping" in a single AHU gives the system the advantage
of being able to follow load variations better and have some flexibility in the case of a
compressor failure.
Vibration
Use of a DX system in an office building pr-supposes that the structure will have generally
more mechanical equipment, and this equipment would be spread out all over the structure
and in most cases it will be adjacent to critical areas.

[
Table : Cost Comparison Between 120 ton Central DX and Chilled Water Plant
Item Chilled Water system DX System

(Rs.) (Rs.)
Compressor 3,00,000/- 3,00,000/-
Condenser 2,70,000/- 2,50,000/-
Chiller 3,00,000/- ---
Coils(Chilled water/DX) 1,80,000/- 2,00,000/-
Ref.pipes and refrigerant 1,00,000/- 2,50,000/-
Cooling tower 2,00,000/- 2,00,000/-
CDs pump 50,000/- 50,000/-
CDs piping 2,00,000/- 2,00,000/-
Chiller pumps 50,000/- -----
Chiller piping 3,00,000/- -----
AHUs 2,00,000/- 2,00,000/-
Ducting, grills and diffusers 4,00,000/- 4,00,000/-
Switch board 1,10,000/- 1,00,000/-
Cabling 60,000/- 50,000/-
Plant room same same
AHU room same same
Total 27,20,000/- 22,00,000/-
OPERATING COST
Likely to be 0.1 kW/tr
Less for the DX plant Datum 36,000/- p a.

Saving in power cost =
0.1 x 120 x 10 x 300 x 0.5 x 2/- = Rs. 36,000/-
If one were to capitalize the above saving of Rs. 36,000/- per annum even at an 18% rate -
The answer would be
In other words the DX plant is 5.2 + 2.0 - 7.2 lakhs lower in cost than the chilled water plant.
Some Examples:
THE RESERVE BANK OF INDIA, COCHIN
The Reserve Bank of India, Cochin is a typical RCC frame

structure. The building is a simple multi-story office
building. The building is a four storey structure with each
floor having approximately

5000sq.ft. of office space. The
total cooling load is 120 ton. The
RBI has been building such air-
conditioned spaces at regular
intervals. All such buildings had
been fitted with chilled water
systems. A central chilled water
system had been originally
proposed, for the Cochin building
as well. An analysis of cost
revealed that a lot of money was being spent on the chillers and allied equipment. With a view
to restrict cost without diluting design criteria a search for alternate systems was initiated.
The compact layout and single owner usage prompted consideration of the central DX system.
A cost analysis of the two ac systems viz., chilled water and DX was made and results are
given in the Table.
Equipment for this building is schematically shown in the Figure..

DATA SOFTWARE AND RESEARCH CENTRE (DSRC) ON
PYCROFTS GARDEN ROAD, CHENNAI
The Data Software and Research Centre (DSRC) on

Pycrofts Garden Road, Chennai has five floors air-
conditioned with multiple split units. Each floor is 4000 sq.ft/
and requires 20 tons of cooling.
Each floor has been divided into tow equal halves and has
four, 5 TR split units, two for the front half and two for the
rear half of each floor. The top floor has its ceiling exposed to
sun and larger fenestration. Additional cooling for the floor
has been installed by using 7 ½ TR units in place of 5 TR
units.
Even to a very casual reader it must be obvious that the

buildings in the two real life examples are similar. Why then
do they have two vastly different systems? Table below
explains.
Table : Features of the Two Types of DX System
Attribute Central system Split units

(RBI Cochin) (DSRC Chennai)
System Ownership One owner and must be Multiple owners can
purchased at one time buy their own plants.
Capital cost Rest with the sole owner Each owner is responsible
Power and operating Are billed as single whole Each zonal plant can have an
costs and must be shared by all users electric meter fitted on its power
on some basis like a per mains - and there after each owner
sq.ft.rate. This is sometimes pays for his usage directly.
problematic
Plant life Generally 15 to 20 years Generally 10 to 12 years
Working hours Must be the same. The full plant Can be diverse, as every zone is
is 'on' or 'off' and the entire independent. Each zone can have
building will be fully cooled or diverse hours of usage as required
not at all by individual owner
Impact of the ac system Minimal, as the heat rejection Facade is marred. Since heat
on the building equipment is centrally located, rejection equipment, like air cooled
elevation generally on the roof top condensers must be close to the
indoor units, making it necessary for
their placement on almost every
Floor, exposed to free air
Movement. (water cooled
Packaged units can be an
exception)
Plant operator Required for at least 2 hours/day Can be dispensed with, after some
minor automation
Plant maintenance Generally 1 man day per week Generally 1 man day per

Week
Capital cost/tr (in Rs.) 30,000/- to 40,000/- 30,000/-
Minimum total system 80 - 100 TR (or 15,000 to 10 - 15 TR (or 1500 to 2000 sq.ft)
size for economy 20000sq.ft.)
Maximum size of 2 x 125 - 250 TR 3 x 15 = 45 TR
system configuration for (OR)
effective usage. 6 x 7.5 = 45 TR
Disadvantages of a DX System
A careful reading of the above would lead one to formulate a listing of the disadvantages
of a DX system. These are:
 As the system has a larger spread, the refrigerant pipes traverse long lengths - hence
their pressure testing and protection are critical.
 One cannot have a zone within a zone. As an example in a general office, air
conditioned by a DX system - if there is a cabin or two - these cabins cannot have
individual independent controls.
 The refrigerant expands directly in the path of the cooling air and hence its choice has
to be limited to those which are benign.
 In case there is one small area, say a server room, which needs 24 hour AC then
indifference to this need it becomes necessary to run the full AC system
Newer technology has found ways to combat the above weaknesses if not fully at
least substantially.
 Pipe material and fittings selected carefully, laid expertly and tested to a stringent level
reduce the chances of a leak.
 Variable air volume components can be fitted on to DX systems thus affording good
control of conditions within a zone. Generally such a fitment on the whole system
means a large increase in cost. In a limited mode, like for instance just one cabin to be
zoned out in a full floor - one can install a VAV diffuser for the cabin. Such a device
has a motorised damper fitted on the air outlet and the damper operates automatically
in response to a thermostat. In other words the diffuser admits or restricts supply air to
the cabin in response to the command of a thermostat. Such devices cost about
Rs.15,000/- for a 400 cfm size diffuser.
 For small areas within full scale offices like tele-communication rooms or server /
computer rooms, where it is necessary to have 24 hour air conditioning - it is possible
to have independent split, ancillary AC units exclusively for these areas. These
ancillary units can be switched on after office hours. Today one can buy packaged or
split units which are fitted with high EER scroll compressors and such units can handle
long lengths of piping even upto 100 feet and are fitted with pump in the drain pan so
that disposal of the coil condensate also can be arranged with ease.
Conclusion
There is an increasing demand for office space. Modern offices are smaller, compact and
filled with a lot of service needs when compared to the older, classical office.
Air conditioning is central to the success of such office planning Ducted DX systems are an
economical way of airconditioning such offices. Offices as small as been a thousand sq.ft. Can
use split / packaged units. Such units when used in multiple can air condition offices upto a
few thousand sq.ft. When the total office space to be air conditioned is , say, 15,000 to 20.000
sq.ft. And does not need excess compartmentalisation then one can use a central DX system.
Costs will be nearly comparable to the figure indicated above but the system will be more
rugged and "centralised". In case there are one or two vital rooms in these large spaces which
need air-conditioning over extended hours, then one can use additional ancillary units for air
conditioning such spaces after office hours.

18. HOTELS AND AIR CONDITIONING___________________________
Mumbai the commercial capital of India, with a large population of over 12 million, is in need of hotel
rooms to meet the growing business and tourist traffic. Currently Mumbai has over half a dozen new
hotels in the 5-star and 4-star category, either in the construction or planning stage. This article should
be of interest to new owners, consultants and contractors involved in the HVAC systems of hotels.
Expecting in the case of low budget suburban and rural hotels, all the other hotels provide air
conditioning facilities in the guest rooms and most of the public spaces, as a mater of course. There are
several types of hotels which have typical characteristics. Table 1 shows some of the features of the
better quality product.
Some aspects of design

In low budget hotels, 3-star and lower, window and split units for the guest rooms is a general norm with
packaged units for the restaurant and public spaces wherever required. For hotels of say 70 rooms and
over, it is generally a centralised system with chilled water produced at a central space and distributed
to the various rooms and spaces for cooling through appropriate air handling and fan coil units. These
central air-conditioning plants present considerable scope for design and innovation. Some of the
aspects are discussed here.
Table 1 Types of Hotel
Type Avg persons Per Room Features
Luxury 1.2 to 1.3 Large rooms & public areas multiple
5-star restaurants, Function areas.
Convention Hotels 1.5 to 1.7 Large number of rooms, large lobbies,
convention halls and meeting rooms,
multiple restaurants.
Resort 1.8 to 2.4 Spacious public spaces, clustered rooms
with or without kitchenettes and leisure
facilities.
3-star Hotels 1.5 to 1.8 Limited public areas, smaller rooms with
adequate Decor, one or two multi-cuisine
restaurants.
Guest Rooms
A hotel means guest rooms. All other areas are the to support a comfortable say for the guest.
Nearly 60% of the air conditioning goes to guest rooms. The air conditioning needs to provide.
 Comfortable room temperature and humidity.
 Personalised control over the room environment.
 Adequate ventilation for good air quality in the room and also the toilet.
 Equipment of low noise level
 Easy maintenance.
Comfortable room temperature rules between 20 deg. C to 24 deg. C db and a humidity of anywhere
between 50 to 65% rh. Typically a guest room has large external window which by and large, influences
the room load. The guest room profile displays the overwhelming influence of the east and west facing
rooms. Chopping of the prominent peaks could bring about healthy savings in the cooling load.Human
comfort is not a mere metabolic heat-balance. Even in an otherwise perfectly balanced environment,
some subjects were found complaining and restless because there is no room thermostat to control and
monitor their environment. It is for this reason that a personalised room control thermostat is an
indispensable though psychological element of comfort.
Ventilation to the guest rooms is a much debated design parameter. The minimum requirement is 15 cm
per person to maintain minimum indoor CO--- concentration and odor perceptions of 80% of visitors.
This does not take into account the emission of radon and formaldehyde from building construction
materials. This also does not consider the pollution level of the outside air. These two items are
imponderable. With a profitable occupancy of two persons per room, a ventilation rate of not less than
40 cfm seems to meet the need. The toilet ventilation by way of exhaust needs 6 to 8 air changes, being
a private toilet, and that would be anywhere from 40cfm to 60 cfm. Ventilation air for the room varies
therefore from 40 to 60 cfm. In addition, the guest room corridor is also supplied with pre-conditioned

outside air, to simplify ducting and distribution. The fan coil unit is a universal selection for a guest
room. Units need to be selected for achieving a design goal of NC 30-35 in the room.
Public Areas
Public areas can be-divided as shown in the table below
Table Types of Public Areas
24-hour spaces Lobbies, front office, coffee shop
Food outlets Restaurants

Function spaces Banquets, Ball Rooms, Meeting rooms
Back of the house Administration, Kitchens, Laundry, Store etc.
24-hour space
Lobbies are characterised by varying occupancy and outside air ingress. It is always desirable to have
an airlock or a revolving dour to minimize uncontrolled outside air entry. Variation of he ventilation air
according to the occupancy could result in substantial energy savings. This could be through
modulation of he ventilation air damper through an IAQ sensor or a small packaged heat recovery
device. Such steps pay back in 8 to 15 thousand operating hours which means 12-20 months period in
a 24-hour operating hours regime. 24-Hour coffee shop is similar to a lobby without the problems of
outside air ingress.
Food outlets
Food outlets have typically high lighting loads, food odour, (particularly Asian Cuisines) display kitchens
and varying occupancy. Odour control land a display kitchen demand large amount of ventilation air,
even when make-up kitchen hoods are used.Recirculation systems have been found to be wanting in
exercising a desired odour control even with ventilation rates of over 25-30 cfm per person. 100%
outside air circulation with a supply and return fan and an air-to-air heat recovery system would present
a viable and economic alternative. In Russia, such a system is mandatory.
The bar is another area where the occupancy is highly varying and where tobacco smoke control is a
demanding design need. A once-thru' systems is an ideal solution. The major problem in adopting such
systems is an ideal solution. The major problem in adopting such systems is the larger air handling unit
space to accommodate a return fan and a heat exchanger and openings for outside air intake and
exhaust.
Function Spaces
Heavy and varying occupancy, very high lighting loads and relative humidity control are the design
characteristics to reckon in banquet halls, ball rooms, board rooms and meeting rooms. Because of
short time occupancy, the ventilation air could be 15 cfm per person to control body odours but it is
desirable to have lower space dry bulb temperature of say 70-72F to offset higher mean radiant
temperature due to dense occupancy and also to reduce latent load.
A system of variable speed drive could be a standard design to cope with varying occupancy. In such a
system, an IAQ sensor should monitor and control the ventilation air quantity.
Health Clubs are very low occupancy areas where a variable volume system will optimize the plant
utilisation. Where a gymnasium form part of the club, it is preferable to have a separate air handling
unit.
Back Of The house

These areas are administration, kitchen and laundry. More and more hotels are going in for air-
conditioning of kitchens and laundries. An ideal system would have been 100% outside air with heat
recovery but problems are faced in a heat recovery equipment because of grease in the kitchen and lint
in the laundry.
 Independent supply and exhaust systems for the kitchen hoods.
 A re-circulating system for the remaining kitchen with 10 to 12% ventilation air.
 The kitchen in the net will remain under negative pressure.
The load density is in the region of 80-100 BTU per sq.ft. While maintaining a space temperature of 27-
29 deg. C db. Likewise in a laundry, the exhaust air from the tumbler dryer and flat work ironer could
have independent supply and exhaust system while a recirculation system similar to a kitchen will
maintain a space temperature 27 ± 1 deg.C . The load density in a laundry is more on account of hot
body radiation and steps to minimise
Refrigeration Equipment
Electricity is one of the major expenses in a hotel and the specific consumption varies from 50 to 100
kwh per available room. It depends on the location, building envelop, class of service, efficiency of the
plant and machinery and of course the energy management. A median figure is about 60-65 kwh. At the
current average rate of Rs. 4.5/kwh the electricity charges range from 3% to 15% of the room rental
Of the specific consumption, as much as 45-50% is consumed in the air conditioning and allied plant.
Out of this 40 to 50% goes towards the refrigeration plant while the remainder is contributed by, pumps,
cooling towers, air handling unit, etc. It is for this reason that selection of the main refrigeration plant
assumes importance what with the variety of plant now available in the country.With shortage of
electricity and ever increasing tariffs, vapor absorption systems gained ground. These systems also
merited 100% depreciation as they are listed as energy saving equipment. With changes in the rules of
administered price mechanism for hydrocarbons, it has become necessary to assess the plant
selections almost every year.
Almost every hotel has 100% captive generators which rust on their foundations since they are called
upon to run not even 300 hours in year Most of the engines are 2-stroke high speed (1500 rpm)
turbocharged and after cooled units which are cheaper Slower speed engines using cruder oils will be
slightly more expensive but the cost of generation (fuel cost) is much more economical most of the
State Electricity Boards and Public Utilities are eager to allow captive generators to be put to beneficial
use.
This gives the hotelier considerable advantage

 In keeping the generating sets in good working order.
 Produce power at much lower cost than the utility and substantially reduce the power bill.
Advent of natural gas in Mumbai and Delhi has added a new dimension to the equipment selections.
When the availability of natural gas and its price get stabilized, natural gas could be a prime fuel for not
only he air-conditioning but also heating loads, kitchens and laundry equipment.
19. AIR CONDITIONING OF MULTIPLEXES AND AUDITORIUMS______________
AIR CONDITIONING OF MULTIPLEXES

Having all the entertainment facilities such as food courts, shopping malls, super markets,
restaurants, theatres, video games parlour, bowling alley and discotheque under one roof is becoming
common. A Multiplex is a building complex which provides all these facilities. In a tropical country like
India, comfort air conditioning of entertainment centres is inevitable. The first fully air-conditioned
Multiplex in India was launched in Ahmedabad four years ago, and after that another five or six
Multiplexes have sprouted in Ahmedabad alone. Throughout the country more than a 100 Multiplexes
are under construction or already complete and more than 500 are at various stages of planning.
System Design and Selection

Designing the HVAC system for a Multiplex is a complex task as the design must satisfy a specific
set of requirements which are unique to each area. The inside design conditions like temperature & RH,
noise level, ventilation or fresh air level and flexibility in operation play a vital role in selecting the high
and low side equipment.
The different areas in a Multiplex can be broadly classified from the design point of view into
critical, semi-critical and non-critical areas as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 : Classification of areas in a Multiplex
Critical Areas Semi-Critical Areas Non-Critical Areas

(22 ± 2°C) (24 ± 2°C) (26 ± 2°C)
Theatres & Projector Food Court, Restaurants, Atrium, Lobbies and

Rooms Entertainment and Shopping Areas Passages
AIR CONDITIONING OF AUDITORIUMS

The movie theatre industry was the first to recognize and realize the benefits of comfort air conditioning.
Five decades back, in India, if a common man wanted to experience the comfort of air conditioning the
only way to satisfy this desire was to buy a ticket for a matinee show in the city. Cities as big as Madras
(Chennai now) had only one or two air conditioned theatres – as a matter of fact one of the earliest air
conditioned theatres in the city “Minerva” is still cooled by its original, 50 year old air conditioning
system.
Air conditioned movie theatres and auditoriums are characterized by several special considerations in
their system design which include:
 Cooling load calculation
 System type determination
 Air distribution
 Foyer air conditioning
Load calculation considerations.

Occupancy.
1. The single largest factor in such applications is the heat load from people.
2. What should be the design occupancy of an auditorium?
3. In performance auditoriums which include halls used for live shows, conferences and meetings,
the seating capacity may not be the design occupancy, since the occupancy becomes a
function of the usage pattern.
4. In the auditoriums of educational institutions, it could range from almost daily to, a low of, just
15 to 20 days in a year.
5. For the former usage pattern, occupancy may vary from virtually 0 to 100% whereas, for the
latter pattern of usage, virtually 100% occupancy is to be expected.
6. Maximum possible seating capacity should be used as a starting point and provision then made
to allow for standing (in aisles) if permitted by local fire codes.
7. On this number a designer can then apply a diversity factor. A diversity of 0.9 is generally
safe.In movie theatres in the big cities which have more than three daily shows, houseful shows
during weekends are to be expected, hence full seating capacity is to be taken as the load
factor. With evening shows also being full and outside relative humidity being higher in the
evening, generally the peak load occurs at 8 p.m. (Auditoriums for movies are unique as they
do not have a stage, and design occupancy is generally – the seating capacity).
Ventilation. 5 cfm / person is an often repeated benchmark for fresh air. The figure has been valid for,
“no smoking” auditoriums for a long time. The latest ASHRAE codes which are driven by IAQ
considerations call for 15 cfm / person. If one were to consider that most auditoriums are never full all
the time then one can take the liberty of saying that 5 cfm / person based on the full seating capacity
does give acceptable IAQ most of the time. This indication must not be read as suggesting that
ASHRAE figures need not be implemented. For prestigious auditoriums designed to international
standards it is imperative to follow ASHRAE standards.If the 15 cfm / person figure is adopted and the
fresh air quantity works out to a figure greater than 2 air changes / hour, then it is advisable to positively
exhaust the air quantity in excess of 1½ air changes / hour and use it for heat recovery from the fresh
air intake to the air conditioning system in order to conserve energy.
It is also advisable to flush the auditorium with 100% fresh air, periodically. To make this possible, fresh
air intakes must be oversized. Flushing can be done at off-peak times or at times when outside ambient
conditions are low.
Solar and Transmission gain. The fabric gain in an auditorium is mostly from the sun-exposed roof
since few auditoriums have windows for natural light and hence solar gain is virtually out of reckoning.
Sunexposed roofs must be insulated – a minimum of 3” thick, foil-faced fibreglass may be applied to get
a value smaller than 0.1 Btu/hour/sq. ft/°F. The attic space, if not used as a return air plenum, must be
sealed and left “hot and stratified”. (This presupposes that the insulation is on the main sun-exposed
roof membrane)

For acoustical purposes, most wall areas are insulated and panelled which help to improve the thermal
value of the wall and reduce the heat flow into the structure – the total reduction due to this treatment
does not appreciably alter the total heat load of the auditorium.
Stratification. While calculating heat loads, the whole auditorium is reckoned as a single zone. On the
other hand, in applications where the auditoriums are taller than 9 m and use side-wall grilles one can
appreciate that a large volume of the auditorium does not participate in the air movement, and tends to
become a stratified hot pocket. A designer can use this to select a smaller air conditioning system in
which the plant capacity can be safely reduced by 40% to 50% of the heat load of the hot stratified
pocket. (Generally the volume, 1.5m higher than the side wall grille up to the roof can be considered as
the stratified zone for giving credit to the heat load – see calculations in the example)
Storage Effect. In general, the mass of the structural elements and furnishings per person is
higher than in most other applications. This is an opportunity to use storage effect to advantage – to
downsize the air conditioning plant.
Based on the above factors the pulldown load is also very high. For plants which are used
infrequently (less than 3 hours at a time) one can select a plant 10% smaller than design and meet the
pulldown needs by operating the plant for 2 hours before usage and lower the temperature to say 1.5°C
below design. During usage, the operating conditions are restored and the precooled mass absorbs
some of the heat load.
Inside Conditions. It is normal to aim at holding inside conditions to 23/24°C and RH between
40% and 60%. With good wide seats, at 900 mm centre lines, which keep the occupants far apart and
with ceiling heights greater than 7.5 m it is often surprising to note that 25°C is also not uncomfortable.
This is perhaps, because the influence of the occupants, around a subject by way of radiation

temperature, gets diluted. (A person’s skin temperature is close to 35°C as against a brick wall which
may be at 25°C.
Outside Design Conditions. The outside conditions used in the heat load should be taken at the
time of the day when the peak load occurs. For movie houses featuring noon shows and matinee
shows, the general outside design conditions used commonly become applicable. For performance
auditoriums – with one show a day – generally the 8 p.m. load is the peak load.
Heat Load Calculations. Some handbooks give simplified curves and procedures for estimating
heat loads of the auditorium. One only needs to know outside design conditions, numbers of seats, cfm
/ person and the inside conditions. This data is keyed into a set of curves to get the auditorium heat
load. The heat load for the foyer and other spaces cannot be calculated by this method. These curves
are based on conditions in the US where generally the time between shows is larger than in India, due
to which benefits of “fresh air flushing” and storage get lost.
System Determination
With the cooling load determined one has a fix on the plant capacity. The plant capacity can be met
by various types of systems:
 Central chilled water system
 Central DX system
 Package equipment system
 Storage cooling system
Central Chilled Water Systems. In this case the major advantage is that the chilled water plant is
remote located (with only AHUs being close to the hall). This feature reduces noise transmission into
the hall, and allows one to centralize the services of the whole complex. The chilled water system may
be air-cooled or water-cooled. This system is more expensive.
Prime candidates for using such systems would be convention centres like the Vigyan Bhavan at
Delhi or the Raffles Convention Centre at Singapore – structures which house such facilities are
massive, with less external walling when compared to internal floor space. Such structures have internal
service cores which tend to use only small areas – AHU rooms are also located hereabouts, by virtue of
these being small, land locked, away from external walls – making them eminently suitable for a chilled
water system.
Central DX Systems. This type of system is well suited for such applications as the auditorium is
basically a single zone. By locating the equipment properly and providing for the usual acoustic
attenuation, the noise of the plant can be “kept” within limits. For large auditoriums, it is normal to use
multiple DX systems with each system being, say, a minimum 60 tons. Each system will need to have
two independent refrigeration circuits and each system may have a common AHU with two cooling coils
or ideally two AHUs with a cooling coil each. Generally these systems may have to be water cooled –
so that the heat rejection equipment like cooling towers, can be remote located from the plant. These
systems are not as expensive as the chilled water system, as they do away with the need of chillers,
chiller pumps and chilled water piping.
Prime candidates for using such systems are very large auditoriums, when built in exclusive
buildings. This can be seen in the example of the APTDC auditorium detailed later – where 4 x 80 ton
systems cool the auditorium and each 80 ton system has 2 x 40 ton independent refrigeration circuits.
Large indoor auditoriums calling for, say, 1500 tons of cooling could be economically cooled with 10 x
150 ton plants each with 2 x 75 ton DX circuits.
Packaged Equipment Systems. With large capacity, reliable, factorymade equipment being freely
available at unmatchable costs, one can use such equipment also for this application. Multiple package
units / ductable splits can be used well. Factory-made comfort equipment – with cooling coils which are
only 3 rows deep – theoretically does not meet the “adp” needs of the application, but in practice such
equipment has been used with the ensuing, higher relative humidity never posing any serious problem.
These systems are generally the most economical, particularly, if used properly with limited ducts. Use
of multiple units can be made to bring in an additional advantage of grouping them together to form
“zones” – say one set of equipment for the stage, another set for the front half, yet another set for the
rear half, etc. With this kind of zoning one can operate the stage plant only during rehearsals, likewise
the stage plant and the front half area plant may be run to cool only a partially-filled auditorium.
Prime candidates for using such systems are small 30 / 40 ton capacity halls used by educational
institutions. This, of course, gets stretched, to such systems being used even for large assembly areas
like marriage halls, community centres, etc. Generally one feels comfortable using such systems for
halls which do not have a continued, long-duration occupancy, such as marriage halls.
Storage Cooling Systems. On specific applications, such as temple halls, churches etc. where
one needs cooling only for, say, three hours a day and even that, only once a week, storage systems
can be used. Thermal storage systems can be as simple as the “ice storage” ones, or as sophisticated

as “eutectic salt in custom containers”. Costs will dictate the use of low-end systems, but with ice
systems using direct ice melt, one may need to have an AHU with a larger-than-normal coil bypass
area. (Simple ice melt systems are the ones where, as in dairy milk coolers – ice is formed on bare pipe
coils, in the “a/c off” mode and in the “a/c on” mode the ice melts and ice water at 0°C is pumped to the
AHUs. Since this water is very cold, the dehumidified cfm is reduced and is nearly half of the normal
design cfm. The cold air from the AHUs is discharged very carefully into the unoccupied high zones of
the auditorium, through high-induction outlets and ceiling fans below the outlets mix this with room air
and blow it across the occupants. These systems are very cost-effective for applications which need
cooling for say 3 to 4 hours only in a week.
Air distribution
With a given set of equipment and layout and a fixed seating arrangement the air distribution
system should aim at the following:-
Draft. There should not be any occupant areas which get greater than 25 fpm air movement –
pockets of “drafty seats” will render maintenance of comfort conditions impossible.
Direction of air flow. Over the anatomy of a person in the seats should ideally be on the face and
neither on the nape of his neck nor his ankles.
Acoustics. The SA and RA outlets should be kept as distant from the mike as possible and they
should also be as far away as possible from the ears of the audience. In such detailing – the source of
noise and the receiver of noise are rendered distant from one another.
Duct velocities. Ideally duct velocities at starting points should not exceed 1200 fpm – but if the
AHU rooms are not very close to the hall and the first SA point is 20 m away from the AHU discharge,
then one can go up to 1500 fpm for performance auditoriums and movie theatres. (Recording stations
are totally different and will not permit velocities higher than 1000 fpm).
Stage cooling. It is not unusual for a stage to have around 500 kW of lighting – the high cfm for
the high load is best discharged from air outlets high above the stage. Small 12” diameter collars
(preferably without diffusers)are the best form of discharge. The centre lines of these or even smaller
diffusers must be, say, a maximum 3 m in both directions. With such a discharge pattern one may have
any number of vertical backdrop screens erected but will still have cooling – behind and in front of any
screen.
Foyer air conditioning

Foyer air conditioning should ideally be effected by an independent system which permits:
Independent operation. Foyers may work longer hours or shorter hours than the main auditorium
– depending on the nature of use, the auditorium is designed for. This permits diverse usage patterns
and finally results in energy-saving by judicious usage.
Cross contamination. Foyers are generally used for serving food and sometimes allow smoking –
separate a/c systems for the foyer restrict cross contaminating the two spaces with odour and this can
also be extended to noise control. Separate a/c systems for the two areas ensure greater “privacy”
between the two, i.e. the foyer and the hall.
Safety. Separate a/c system also automatically compartmentalizes the foyer and the auditorium.
This separation brings in an element of safety in case of a fire situation. Foyers in cinema theatres,
where usage is restricted to say 15 minutes, every three hours or so – one may just have an exhaust
system with plain propeller fans which exhaust, say 70% of the FA taken for the auditorium, through the
foyer positively – at points of continued occupancy. Additional local recirculation fans (ceiling fans) can
be installed. This detail renders an unconditioned foyer “comfortable”.
Example 1 – Using a Central Chilled Water System.

A modern auditorium 18m x 18m x 10m high, for 300 people, at the Electronics Technopark
needed about 35 tons of cooling – the cooling was integrated with the building’s chilled water system
with a 35 ton chilled water AHU. A conventional single- skin AHU with 3 x 18” diameter simple, forward
curved fans on a common shaft, was installed in the basement below the projector room. A masonry
shaft from the AHU room, rising up through the projector room, permitted the installation of an
uninsulated duct within. This duct rises to the rooftop and just a single 4ft x 4ft square diffuser
discharges the entire 35 tons of cooling that is needed for the total space. Return air is collected
through openings in the pelmet all around the auditorium at the lintel level (See Figure 4).

Example 2 – Using a Central DX System.
The recently c o m p l e t e d APTDC
auditorium at Hyderabad uses a DX system for
cooling – the auditorium is part of a complex at
Shilparaman with air conditioned conference
rooms, exhibition halls, dining complexes and
showcase areas for arts and crafts – the
auditorium is a circular area with an RCC roof.
The planning was carried out for a 3000- seat
occupancy with large foyers and ancillary
spaces. A cooling load of 320 ton was
estimated to be met by 4 x 80 ton plants serving
separate areas as under:
 1 x 80 ton plant for the foyers, both on
the ground and first floors – (approx 40 ton
each) These two multilevel foyers were put on a
common plant as both foyers are virtually
contiguous with very large connecting stair
cases.
 1 x 80 ton plant for the 1000 odd seats,
below the balcony
 2 x 80 ton plants for the rest of the
space viz. the stage, the front portion of the hall
and the balcony space.
Un-insulated duct work was installed in
masonry risers for air distribution. Duct insulation was confined to:-
– Acoustic insulation for the first 6 m of duct run from the AHU and
– Thermal insulation for the tail ends of the duct.
Example 3 – Using Packaged Units.

A 1000 seating auditorium, as part
of a recreation complex, in the Sri
Shivasubramaniam Nadar College of
Engineering, Kalavakkam – needed 110
tons of cooling. As the college
auditorium would work only 15 / 20 days
in a year, it was necessary to use
simple, reliable equipment. 7x15 ton air-
cooled packaged units were installed
with the air-cooled condensers installed
just outside the AHU room, which was
virtually over the stage. The stage has
an RCC roof and is part of a multi-
storeyed complex which houses all the
club rooms etc. The stage space fronts
on to a light weight, industrial building structure, which houses the auditorium and foyer. The foyer is not
air conditioned and insulated ducts from the AHU room enter the attic space over the false ceiling of the
auditorium. A set of 4 diffusers in the middle – high portion of the false ceiling cool about three-fourths
of the seats – the balance seats which have a lower false ceiling and are more remote from the centre
have small diffusers located, copy book style, to cool these “remote” seats. Return air is collected
through a 600 mm wide RA grille in the false ceiling just above the curtain. (See Figure).

Example 4 – Using Ductable
Splits.
A 400-seat simple auditorium,

is just 28m x 12m. The
auditorium located at the MOP
Vaishnav College of Women
nd
at Chennai, is on the 2 floor
and is covered by a light
asbestos cement sheet
insulated roof. The roof
extends down over the
corridor as a “lean to roof” to
form the foyer along the full
length
Simple 7.5 ton air cooled split
a/c units are suspended in the
corridor and blow air, virtually
directly, into the auditorium
through a single sidewall
grille. An adjacent grille brings
back RA to the a/c units and the foyer has a false ceiling and the triangular cross-sectioned volume over
the false ceiling acts as a RA plenum. To lengthen the SA duct run from the a/c unit to the SA grille –
the unit is made to discharge air, apparently, away from the auditorium, but a couple of bends reverse
the air back into the auditorium. The grille mounting height is nearly 4 m and the grille has horizontal
front slats with the top one-third slats angled 30° upward, the middle third kept horizontal straight and
the lower third angled 30° downward to evenly reach air for the 12m throw. None of the seats are drafty
and noise has never been a problem despite the short distance between the a/c unit and the supply air
grille. (See Figure 6).
Conclusion
This article will have served its purpose if it helps young engineers to understand the various
factors that must be considered in the
design of an air conditioning system
for an auditorium, whether it is part of
a movie theatre, a concert hall or a
school/college. ASHRAE Application
Handbook is a very good source of
further study and an entire chapter is
devoted to air conditioning of places of
assembly. Engineering catalogues of
manufacturers of “Heat exchange
wheels” will facilitate selection of such
equipment to reduce energy
consumption where fresh air quantities
are kept in line with ASHRAE
ventilation standards. Young
engineers are encouraged to
constantly strive to reduce energy
consumption by studying more recent
methods of achieving this by use of CO2 sensors for fresh air damper control and introduction of Ozone
to help reduce fresh air requirements.
provided with matching non standard stringtype supports.
20. AIR CONDITIONING IN HOSPITAL__________________________

 Hospital operating theatres in which air is filtered to high levels to reduce infection risk and the
humidity controlled to limit patient dehydration. Although temperatures are often in the comfort

range, some specialist procedures such as open heart surgery require low temperatures (about 18
°C, 64 °F) and others such as neonatal relatively high temperatures (about 28 °C, 82 °F).
 HVAC system in a hospital assumes high significance due to its sensitive relationship with the
health of the patients, caregivers and visitors. HVAC system is also important as the cost of its
operations affects the cost of healthcare in a significant way. focuses on Three important issues in
hospital HVAC design: Indoor Air Quality (IAQ), energy recovery and system reliability.
Twin Views of a Hospital Facility

While designing a hospital HVAC system, designers have to hold twin views of the facility: One from the
functional point of view and the other from the HVAC point of view. Both views, of course, are inter-
related.
seven categories of areas:
1. Surgery and critical care (operating room, delivery room, etc.)
2. Nursing (patient rooms, intensive care unit, etc.)
3. Ancillary (radiology, laboratories, etc.)
4. Administration (offices)
5. Diagnostic and treatment (examination room, therapy room, etc.)
6. Sterilisation and supply (steriliser room, equipment storage, etc.)
7. Service (kitchen, laundry, etc.)
The functional requirements dictate the HVAC requirements.
 Temperature and humidity
 Ventilation
 Pressure relationship with surrounding spaces
 Air cleanliness level
 Air distribution
 Operating hours
 System reliability
Proper understanding of both functional and HVAC views of each and every space is the
foundation for a successful HVAC design.
Hospital IAQ challenge

Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) is critical in hospitals. In the hospital context, IAQ aspect is more than just
the promotion of comfort. In many cases, proper IAQ is a factor in patient recovery and in some
instances, it is the major treatment.
Table 1 shows temperature and humidity requirements for four most critical areas of a hospital.
While temperature and humidity requirements are important in hospitals, it is the issue of cross
contamination and bacterial concentration that assume critical importance in HVAC design. The
fundamental reason behind this is the presence of airborne pathogens that can create havoc by
infecting healthy people, and complicating recovery of patients.
Table 1 : Temperature and humidity requirements in hospitals

Standards ASHRAE HTM Singapore ASHRAE HTM Singapore
Room Temperature (°C) Relative Humidity (%RH)
Operating Theatres 17~27 15~25 19- 21 45~55 40~60 50~60

Intensive Care Unit 24~27 - 22-23 30~60 - 55~65
Wards (airconditioned) 24 - 22~23 30~60 - 55~65
Isolation Ward 24~27 - 22~23 30~60 - 55~65
Airborne Pathogens
Pathogens are any disease-causing microorganism, which fall into three major taxonomic groups:
Viruses, bacteria, and fungi. The single most important physical characteristic of airborne pathogens is
their size, as it directly relates to the filtration efficiency and their ability to stay airborne.

Strategies for Maintaining Hospital IAQ
The strategies available for controlling the spread of airborne pathogens include dilution through
ventilation, filtration, ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI), air purging and isolation through
pressurisation control.
Increased ventilation rates reduce the overall concentration of pathogens. ASHRAE recommends
ventilation rates in accordance with ASHRAE Standard 62, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality.
Each project, however, may have specific ventilation rate requirements that may differ from ASHARE.
Table 2 shows ventilation rates for four most critical areas of a hospital.
Table 2 : Ventilation requirements in hospitals

Standards ASHRAE HTM Singapore
Room Minimum no. of air changes/hour
Operating Theatres 15 20 20
Intensive Care Unit 6 15 15
Wards (airconditioned) 4 - 15
Isolation Ward (air-conditioned) 6 - 15
 For one of the hospitals, the concept of air purging was employed for maintaining IAQ in private air-
conditioned wards. Under this arrangement, once the patient is discharged, the foul air trapped
inside the room is purged by simply opening the windows and stepping-up the speed of the toilet
exhaust fan (2-speed fan). The foul air is extracted out of the room through the toilet and discharged
externally. The room air is completely replaced with clean and fresh air before the next patient
moves in.
 During the purging mode, air-conditioning to the room is shut off to avoid condensation. With this
arrangement, IAQ in the room is improved without additional equipment since every attached toilet
and bathroom is provided with a mechanical ventilation system.
 There is a direct relationship between the filtration efficiency and the size of pathogens that need to
be arrested.
 Proper pressurisation, to prevent exfiltration/ infiltration of pathogens, is an absolutely essential
strategy for many of the critical areas in a hospital.
 But, there can be significant energy penalties for increasing ventilation to maintain the required
pressurisation levels.
In addition to ventilation, filtration and pressurisation, air distribution assumes an important criteria
for maintaining the IAQ.

Design of an Operating Theatre
HVAC system design for an operating theatre starts with a reminder of the following key objectives:
– To control the concentration of harmful bacteria;
– To prevent infiltration of less clean air into the operating theatre;
– To create an air flow pattern that carries contaminated air away from the operating table;
– To provide a comfortable environment for the patient and operating team;
– To ensure uninterrupted operations;
– To save energy.
The operating theatres are categorised as 'general' and 'ultraclean'. Ultra-clean OTs, used for
procedures, such as, organ transplant, orthopaedic surgery, neurosurgery, etc., where bacterial
contamination is relatively more critical.
Table 3 : Design parameters for operating theatres
Design parameters General Ultra-clean
1.Temperature 20±1 °C 20±1 °C
2.RelativeHumidity 55±5% 55±5%
3.Bacterialcount <35 cfu/m3 <10 cfu/m3
4.Supply air velocity at the operating table 0.38 m/s 0.38 m/s
5.Fresh air (no recirculation) 20 air changes/hour 20 air changes/hour
6.Total number of air changes 20 air changes/hour >300 air
7.Pressurisation +25 Pa changes/hour
8.Filtrationefficiency 99.997% at terminal +25 Pa
9. Supply air discharge area 2.4m x 1.8m 99.997% at terminal
2.8m x 2.8m
Table 3 shows basic design parameters for HVAC design of an OT.
 Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram for HVAC system for a general OT. The system used is CAV
(constant air volume) type. The fans, both on the supply and exhaust side, however, are provided
with Variable Speed Drive (VSD).
 The VSD basically helps to maintain the flows against varying static (filter clogging, etc.) and also
for set back for unoccupied hours. The supply air passes through an energy wheel before treatment
by a dedicated set of AHUs. The treated air is supplied through terminal HEPA (99.997% efficient)
filters.
 The return air is collected from the adjacent rooms. In addition, the practice of collecting return air
from the OT itself in the past was prone to infiltration of outside air when the OT doors were
opened for any reason.
 OTs are provided with relief dampers for maintaining positive pressure.
 The humidity is maintained by using heaters.
 Unlike general OT, an ultra-clean OT allows recirculation of air within the OT. The return air for
these OTs passes through 80- 90% efficiency filters before passing through 99.997% efficient
terminal HEPA filters and discharged vertically to provide a laminar downflow pattern. The low
turbulence downward airflow combines the effect of both, air dilution and room air displacement.
 Besides operating theatres, the others areas of the hospital, which require similar control of the
aseptic conditions are the postoperative recovery rooms, ICUs, burn wards, isolation units. Other
areas, which require high rates of ventilation and pressurisation control are radiology department,
laboratories, infectious disease and virus laboratories, autopsy rooms and animal quarters.
Energy Recovery
In today's competitive world, saving lives and
providing high quality medical services are not
the only parameters for the success of a
hospital. Energy efficiency is a major factor in
hospital's financial well-being and eventually
its affordability for the patients. Energy
efficiency is a broad term, which includes
strategies such as using efficient chillers
within their most optimum performance zone,
using variable speed drives for pumps and air
handling units, maximising areas with natural
ventilation, etc. One of the strategies,

however, is to recover waste energy. Energy recovery has been found to be an effective way of saving
energy cost and the following discussion pertains to the practices that have been successfully used for
hospitals in Singapore.
An energy analysis of a 800 bed hospital (120,000 sq. m gross floor area, 2 basements, 9 storeys)
showed that the energy cost for HVAC system was about 50% of the total energy cost of the hospital
(Fig 2). The total energy cost included, besides HVAC, cost for other systems, such as, lighting, power
(medical equipment, office, etc.), lifts, fire, sewage, gas, etc.
For the same hospital, it was calculated that about 70% of the total HVAC cost was due to the chiller
plant - chillers, pumps and cooling towers. The high concentration of energy in the chiller plant
necessitates consideration of using a heat pump system for recovering condenser heat for heating
domestic water. Such a system was recently used for a hospital where two heat pumps were coupled to
the condenser water circuit from the chillers. With this arrangement, the waste condenser heat is
reclaimed to generate sufficient hot water for the whole hospital. Boilers are not required as a result.
For the same hospital, it was identified that operating theatres (total 14 in number, 2 ultra clean and rest
general type) alone contributed about 200 TR air-conditioning load, which was slightly less than 10% of
the overall load (2250 TR). Again, it shows that energy recovery from the operating theatres is also an
important area to focus on as part of the overall energy efficiency efforts.
Energy recovery wheel or enthalpy wheel, which can recover both sensible and latent energy, has been
used for the operating theatres. The wheel, installed upstream of supply air AHU, recovers energy by
allowing transfer of heat (sensible and latent) from the outdoor air to the exhaust air. To get an idea of
the performance just in terms of the sensible energy, the outdoor air can be expected to cool from 32°C
to 26°C when passing through the wheel and transferring energy to the exhaust air (typically at about
21°C).
System Reliability
HVAC system reliability in hospital context is a very important issue. Unreliable systems can lead to
highly undesirable situations, such as, cross-contamination, high temperature, high humidity, etc. Apart
from selecting reliable equipment and following proven practices, providing standby HVAC equipment is
a crucial element of the overall system reliability.
While deciding the extent of standby HVAC equipment, one invariably has to strike a balance
between ensuring required level of system reliability and keeping the capital cost down. The following
discussion provides insight on the practices used for ensuring system reliability for chiller plant and air-
handling system for hospitals in Singapore:
Table 4 : Chiller plant configuration for n+1+1 reliability
Item Data
Background Information – 800 bed hospital
– 2 basements, 3 storeys podium and 6 storeys
tower block (total 9 storeys)
– gross floor area: 120,000 sq. m
(approx.)
Key input data/considerations – estimated block load: 2250 TR
– estimated night load: 600 TR
– peak chiller efficiency: at about 70%
– configuration desired: n+1+1
Chiller configuration used – 6 x 750 TR water cooled centrifugal chillers
– 6 sets of matching pumps and cooling towers
Chiller Plant
Chiller plant is the heart of an HVAC system. The configuration adopted for the chiller plant
(chillers, pumps and cooling tower), as elaborated in Table 4, for one of the recently constructed
hospitals in Singapore is n+1+1. The objective behind this arrangement is to ensure 100% system
availability in the event when one piece of equipment (chiller/pump/cooling tower) is under preventive
maintenance and one more piece of equipment is under breakdown.
With the above arrangement, at the most 4 chillers will be working with 2 chillers remaining as
standby.
Air Handling System

The reliability of air handling system is critical for areas like operating theatre (OT), intensive care
unit (ICU), radiology lab, etc. The standby provision ranges from 100% standby AHU to merely
providing a standby motor.
NEW VENTILATION GUIDELINES FOR HEALTH CARE FACILITIES
Table 1 : Ventilation rate changes for selected rooms
Location Air Movement Minimum Air Minimum Total Air

Relationship to Changes of Changes per Hour
Adjacent Area Outdoor Air per
Hour
Patient Room - 2 6 (4)
Labor/Delivery/Recovery - 2 6 (4)
Labor/Delivery/Recovery/ Postpartum - 2 6 (4)
Airborne Infection Isolation Room In 2 12
Emergency – Triage/Waiting In 2 12
Radiology – Waiting In 2 12
Procedure Out 3 15
ENERGY-EFFICIENT HVAC SYSTEMS FOR HEALTH CARE FACILITIES

A modern hospital is like a 5- star hotel, in fact it offers much more by way of encompassing a
wider spectrum of human needs. While a hotel caters to the physical needs such as shelter, food,
recreation and other amenities, a modern hospital goes far beyond that in catering to the medical and
psychological needs, supplemented by physical needs.
From an engineering perspective, a hospital requires all the building utilities and engineering
services that a hotel requires, and in addition requires medical gases, expensive, environment-sensitive
medical equipment and specifically engineered facilities for the optimum functioning of various medical
departments.
For the HVAC engineer, a hospital offers the challenge to design and build a suitable system that
will be adequate (but not over-designed and hence expensive), economical (both in capital and
operating costs), easily maintainable (with minimum downtime) and use ‘state-of-theart’ technology
available in HVAC systems and equipment.
Just like a 5-star hotel, a modern hospital consumes a lot of energy, and both have ‘zonal’ air
conditioning loads. This article addresses three areas where a good HVAC system can be designed to
reduce the energy consumption :
1. Variable chilled water flow

2. Pre-cooling of outside air
3. Gas fired vapour absorption chillers.
Table : Zonal loads in a hospital and hotel

Round-the-clock Day-time Variable
(24 hrs) (12 hrs.) (6-18 hrs.)
Hospital Patient rooms OPD Operating rooms
ICUs Consulting
Casualty dept. rooms
Clinical labs.
Hotel Lobby & Front Office, Back-of-house Specialty -
Guest rooms Shopping arcade restaurants
Coffee shop Banquet rooms
Conclusion
HVAC system design for a hospital is a challenging undertaking. It involves deep appreciation of
the relationship between the performance of HVAC system and the health of patients, care givers and
visitors. So, IAQ is of prime importance. Besides IAQ, energy recovery and system reliability demand
special attention. A well-rounded HVAC design would adopt without compromise all the proven
practices and principles for these three pillars of hospital HVAC design.

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CONTENTS

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1. HIGH RISE BUILDINGS_____________________________________

A high-rise is a tall building or structure.

FUNCTIONS OF NATURAL VENTILATION

1.SUPPLY OF FRESH AIR -to provide sufficient 2. MOVEMENT OF AIR

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"Mechanical" or "Forced" ventilation may be used to control H umidity or odors. Kitchens

A. VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION

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5. TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS_____________________

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7. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS_____________

1. WINDOW ACS, VERTICOOLS OR NON-DUCTED SPLITS?

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8. DETAILED LOAD CALCULATION FOR A ROOM__________________________

HEAT GAIN CALCULATION

Inside air temperature Ti = 20 deg C

For opaque surfaces or direct solar gain,Ts=To +(I Xa) / f 0

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5 Kwatts= 5 X 1000 X 3.412 btu/ hr

9. APPROXIMATE METHOD OF LOAD CALCULATION_______________________

10. APPROXIMATE TONNAGE FOR DIFFERENT SPACES____________________

Banks public Space 150 sq ft./ ton

11. PRELIMINARY PLANNING FOR AIR CONDITIONING OF A 20 000 SQ FT. OFFICE___

Office space floor area =20 000 sq ft.

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The rooms for AHU

12. AC SYSTEMS: CENTRAL

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The user profile of

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Cooling Medium - Air or Water

Architectural Features and Space for HVAC

FLOOR-BY-FLOOR SYSTEM (WATER OR AIR COOLED)

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AIR COOLED SPLITS

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Indoor Air Quality

Central Plant Systems have advantages as they

Floor-by-floor packaged systems have advantages of

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• Number of Storeys Basement, ground + 32 floors

• Air conditioned area 38,089 sqm (4,10,000 sq.ft)

• User profile Multi users Multi users

• Central plant 4 nos R-11 centrifugal chillers total capacity 2200 Tr

• Present cost of the AC plant Rs. 9 crores Rs. 9 Crores or

• Annual power bill Rs. 2.27 crores or

• Electricity Rate Rs. 4.32 per unit.

• Number of Storeys Ground + 9 floors

• Air conditioned area 5,202 sqm (56,000 sq.ft)

• User profile Multi users

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• Present cost of the AC plant Rs. 1.12 Crore or

• Annual power bill for air-conditioning Rs. 44 lacs or

• Electricity Rate Rs. 5.00 per unit.

13. VARIABLE REFRIGERANT FLOW SYSTEMS & AUTOMATIO ___N

14. INDOOR AIR QUANTITY CONTROL OF VAV AIR HANDLING UNITS

Calculating the percentage of Fresh Air in Supply Air.