Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Direct all correspondence to: Karen Callan Stoiber, Department of Educational Psychology, Uni-
versity of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, P.O. Box 413, Milwaukee, WI 53201.
107
108 Stoiber, Gettinger, and Goetz
During the past decade, inclusion, or the integration of children with and without
disabilities, has emerged as a major systems-level change affecting early child-
hood programs across America (Salisbury, 1991; Tomlinson et al., 1997). At the
same time, the beliefs of individuals involved in the change process have become
a major research focus (Abelson, 1986; Alexander & Dochy, 1995; Olson &
Astington, 1993). It is important to understand the beliefs of parents and practitio-
ners in that beliefs influence both the process of change and standards of practice.
Although conventional research on innovation in early childhood education has
focused mainly on practice, the beliefs of parents and practitioners are also key
personal and sociopolitical elements that deserve investigation.
The issue of inclusion is being discussed widely within educational groups, at
professional meetings, and in professional journals as well as in a variety of com-
munity, state, and national forums (Vauglm, Schumm, Jallad, Slusher, & Saumell,
1996). The public attention being given to inclusion is exemplified by the fact that
several professional organizations have issued position statements to clarify impli-
cations for their members. Considerable polarity is evident in these position
statements, ranging from endorsement of full inclusion practices in which no
classes are designated as self-contained for special education students (Association
for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 1991), to concerns about the impact of inclu-
sion on the education of all children (American Federation of Teachers, 1993;
Council for Learning Disabilities, 1993). The debate sun'ounding inclusion will
influence how the concept of inclusion is perceived within public circles, educa-
tional systems, and community programs.
Noticeably absent in these discussions on inclusion is consideration of the
beliefs of parents and educators (Peck, 1993; Vaughn et al., 1996). Recent perspec-
fives on educational innovation suggest that for "systems change to be effective,
the change process must be participatory"(York & Tundidor, 1995, p. 32). Consis-
tent with this perspective is the view that the voices of those directly involved in
change should be heard because they provide valuable "inside" perceptions and
information. To the extent that inclusion promotes significant change in early
childhood practices (Peck, Odom, & Bricker, 1993), it is imperative to focus on the
beliefs among both parents and early childhood practitioners.
individuals' values about what is ethically right and what constitutes "best practices"
related to educating children. The core perspectives category is perhaps best reflected
in the belief that children with disabilities have the right to be educated in classrooms
with typically developing children and that inclusion is considered "best practices"
for educating all children (Berryman & Berryman, 1981; Eiserman et al., 1995). The
core perspectives category is grounded in research documenting the importance of a
positive perspective toward integration of children with disabilities on successful
implementation of inclusion (Hanline, 1985; Moeller & Ishii-Jordan, 1996; Odom &
McEvoy, 1990). In addition, this belief category attempted to tap beliefs toward
inclusion practices for all children--those with and without disabilities, and was not
conceptualized to reflect differences in beliefs as a function of differences in a child's
disability.
Expected outcomes of inclusion constitute the second dimension. The expected out-
comes dimension is consistent with the view that beliefs not only permeate perceptions,
but also influence educational practices and outcomes (Ames & Ames, 1989; Schom-
mer, 1994). The expected outcomes category is similar to the construct of expectations.
Belief expectations and expected outcomes both reflect what one believes will happen
or result from a situation or event (Moeller & Ishii-Jordan, 1996; Stoiber & Houghton,
1993). Previous research examining parents' and educators' expectations has shown
that expectations are, in fact, linked to behaviors. For example, Stoiber and Houghton
found that parents who had realistic expectations for their parenting role and their
child's behavior were likely to have children who demonstrated positive coping skills.
Similarly, research on teachers' expectations has shown that positive expectations for
students' learning are linked to higher student achievement (Moeller & Ishii-Jordan,
1996; Schommer, 1994). The dimension of expected outcomes, therefore, is empiri-
cally-based on evidence that expectations influence adult and child outcomes (e.g.,
behaviors, development, practices, etc.). Unfortunately, the few studies that have exam-
ined expected outcomes related to inclusion (Eiserman et al., 1995; Vaughn et al.,
1996), have not clarified what factors affect practitioners' outcome beliefs.
Classroom practices dimension reflects thinking about how inclusion impacts on
classroom life and actual instructional practices. Researchers have shown that beliefs
determine the ways teachers structure their classroom environments, respond to chil-
dren, or adapt instructional approaches and materials (Anders & Evans, 1994; Borko,
Davinroy, Flory, & Hiebert, 1994). The classroom practices category also stems from
discussions in the literature on adaptations, barriers, facilitators, and other environmen-
tal indicators related to day-to-day functioning in inclusive environments. Researchers
using focus groups and interview methodologies have found that pragmatic issues, such
as time and classroom management skills, affect the implementation of inclusion
(Vaughn et al., 1996; York & Tundidor, 1995). Hence, the dimension of classroom
practices attempts to capture beliefs related to how inclusion works in the "typical day"
of inclusive educators.
beliefs. Hence, a primary purpose of the present study was to develop a measure of
parental and early childhood practitioner beliefs that demonstrated sound psycho-
metric properties. In addition, our study had four research questions:
1. How do situational and experiential factors affect parents' and early childhood prac-
titioners' beliefs related to inclusion?
2. How do parents' and early childhood practitioners' beliefs related to inclusion differ?
3. What are early childhood practitioners' perceptions regarding amount of accommo-
dation and level of preparation for differing types of disabilities?
4. What are early childhood practitioners' perspectives on barriers to, and preferred
methods for improving, inclusive practices?
METHODS
Participants
A total of 415 parents and 128 early childhood practitioners participated in the
study. Participants were recruited from 10 early childhood inclusive programs (30
classrooms) in Wisconsin. A geographical sampling plan was used to solicit
involvement, and to ensure representation from the four state quadrants (Northern,
Southern, Eastern, and Western regions) and from diverse communities (urban,
rural, suburban). An early childhood consultant from the Wisconsin Department of
Public Instruction assisted in identifying specific sites that approximated the ethnic
distribution of children attending early childhood programs in Wisconsin. All pro-
grams that were contacted agreed to participate, which included four half-day
kindergartens (for 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds), three Head Starts, two itinerant sup-
ported day care centers, and a university-affiliated private preschool program. The
racial-ethnicity of children in the 10 programs were: 52% European-American,
33% African-American, 10% American Indian, 3% Latino, and 2% Asian. In
terms of characteristics of children with disabilities, the following percentages of
disabilities occurred in the 30 classrooms: 41% speech/language delays, 17% cog-
nitive disability, 14% behavioral disability, 10% physical disability, 7% other
health impaired, 6% learning disability, and 5% hearing or visual disability or
other disability type.
Parents. Parents who had young children attending the 10 early childhood
inclusive programs were asked to complete a brief survey of their beliefs about
inclusion. Of the 415 parents who completed the survey, 150 were parents of
children with disabilities, and 260 were parents of typically-developing chil-
dren (five parents did not provide this information). The majority of parents
reported having a middle income level (64%), 31% reported low income, and
5% reported having a high income. Most parents lived in urban communities
(48%), 33% lived in suburban, and 18% lived in rural areas. In terms of educa-
tion, 68% reported some college education and 32% had received a high school
diploma or less. Seventy-five percent of parents were married, 18% were sin-
gle, and 7% were divorced. Parent participants had the following number of
children: one - 19%; two - 41%; three - 27%; four or more - 13%.
112 Stoiber, Gettinger, and Goelz
Measures
A primary purpose of this study was to develop a measure of beliefs about inclu-
sion that could be used with parents and early childhood practitioners. Two
versions of the My ThinkingAbout Inclusion (MTAI) scale were constructed. First,
a brief scale containing 12 items was developed. Second, an extended 28-item
scale, which included the brief 12-item scale, was constructed. Both versions con-
rained (a) a demographics section that requested participants to provide relevant,
descriptive information about themselves; and (b) an inclusion beliefs section. In
the present study, parent participants completed the brief MTAI whereas practitio-
ners completed the comprehensive MTAI. The demographics section used with
parents elicited information about their education level (high school education or
post high school education), community (urban, rural, suburban), family income
level (high, middle, or low), marital status, number of children, and whether their
child attending the early childhood program had a disability. On the demographics
section for practitioners, participants reported their training (special education,
regular education, paraprofessional, related service staff), education level (high
school, undergraduate, or graduate degree), and years of experience.
The beliefs section of the MTAI survey was cons~'ucted by reviewing the litera-
ture on parents' and practitioners' views, attitudes, and concerns related to
inclusion or mainstre~lming. It should be noted that the majority of this literature
has focused on mainstreaming because inclusion--the practice of fully integrating
children with disabilities---is a policy that was rarely discussed and described prior
to 1990 (Vaughn et al., 1996). To construct MTAI, questions were either adapted
from previous mainstreaming-oriented measures or developed by the first two
authors to reflect three belief domains related to inclusion: Core Perspectives,
Expected Outcomes, and Classroom Practices. For example, the item "In general
mainstreaming is a desirable educational practice" (Berryman & Berryman, 1981,
p. 7) was adapted to "Inclusion is not a desirable practice for educating most typi-
cally developing students." When item adaptations were made, they were done
(a) to use language consistent with the concept of inclusion, Co) to tap types of
beliefs, and/or (c) to specify effects of inclusion not only for children with disabil-
ities but also for typically developing children. A preliminary version of MTAI
was piloted and reviewed by 50 early childhood practitioners (special educators,
regular educators, paraprofessionals, and support service personnel) and 10 par-
ents. The authors altered the scale based on comments regarding the importance,
face validity, appropriate wording for parent use, and clarity of specific items. In
Beliefs About Inclusion 113
Figure 1. My Thinking About Inclusion Scale: (28-item Total Scale; alpha .9051)
Core Perspectives (12 items; alpha .8040) Parent X E.C. Prac. X
* 1. Students with special needs have the right to be educated in the 1.82 1.48
same classroom as typically developing students.
*2. Inclusion is NOT a desirable practice for educating most typically 2.28 1.74
developing students. (R)
*3. It is difficult to maintain order in a classroom that contains a mix of 2.53 2.12
children with exceptional education needs and children with
average abilities. OR)
*4. Children with exceptional education needs should be given every 1.75 1.67
opportunity to function in an integrated classroom.
*5. Inclusion can be beneficial for parents of children with exceptional 1.95 1.76
education needs.
*6. Parents of children with exceptional needs prefer to have their child 2.62 2.49
placed in an inclusive classroom setting.
7. Most special education teachers lack an appropriate knowledge
base to educate typically developing students effectively. (R)
8. The individual needs of children with disabilities CANNOT be
addressed adequately by a regular education teacher. (R)
9. We must learn more about the effects of inclusive classrooms
before inclusive classrooms take place on a large scale basis. (R)
10. The best way to begin educating children in inclusive settings is
just to do it.
11. Most children with exceptional needs are well behaved in
integrated education classrooms.
12. It is feasible to teach children with average abilities and exceptional
needs in the same classroom.
Expected Outcomes (11 items; alpha .8506)
"13. Inclusion is socially advantageous for children with special needs. 1.87 1.49
"14. Children with special needs will probably develop academic skills 2.72 2.50
more rapidly in a special, separate classroom than in an
integrated classroom. (R)
"15. Children with exceptional needs are likely to be isolated by 2.42 2.04
typically developing students in inclusive classrooms. (It)
* 16. The presence of children with exceptional education needs 1.75 1.55
promotes acceptance of individual differences on the part of
typically developing students.
17. Inclusion promotes social independence among children with
special needs.
18. Inclusion promotes self-esteem among children with special needs.
19. Children with exceptional needs are likely to exhibit more
challenging behaviors in an integrated classroom setting. OR)
20. Children with special needs in inclusive classrooms develop a
better self-concept than in a self-contained classroom.
21. The challenge of a regular education classroom promotes academic
growth among children with exceptional education needs.
22. Isolation in a special class does NOT have a negative effect on the
social and emotional development of students prior to middle
school. OR)
23. Typically developing students in inclusive classrooms are more
likely to exhibit challenging behaviors learned from children
with special needs. (It)
Classroom Practices (5 items; alpha .6378)
*24. Children with exceptional needs monopolize teachers' time. (R) 3.89 3.66
114 Stoiber, Gettlnger, and Goetz
addition, the pilot aimed to ensure that the surveys were self-explanatory so that
they could be distributed without instructional assistance. Feedback from both the
practitioner and the parent pilot groups indicated that demographic information on
ethnicity should not be asked, hence it was omitted in the final MTAI survey. To
complete the survey, participants indicated their degree of agreement for belief
statements using a 5-point scale (1 = Strongly Accept, 2 = Agree, 3 = Undecided/
Neutral; 4 = Disagree; and 5 = Strongly Reject). Figure 1 displays the 28-item
scale, grouped by belief domains.
A "Pragmatics" section was also included in the comprehensive version of the
MTAI. Practitioners were presented with a list of 12 disability profiles (see Table
1) and asked to "indicate the ease that you believe each of the following types of
disabilities can be accommodated in an inclusive classroom setting" (1 = No or
Beliefs About Inclusion 115
Procedure
The administration of the survey was completed using the following procedures.
First, potential site participants were contacted by the researchers, given an expla-
nation of the project, and offered an option to accept or decline (all sites accepted).
The researchers held a meeting with a contact person from each early childhood
program during which the surveys and procedures for their administration were
116 Stoiber, Gettlnger, and Goetz
described. Practitioner survey packets were provided to the program contact per-
son with a letter describing the study, consent forms, and envelopes to ensure
confidentiality. The number of classrooms involved at each participating site
ranged from 1 to 6, with a total of 30 classrooms. Practitioner surveys were admin-
istered by having the contact person distribute them during a staff meeting to
individual early childhood practitioners. Participants remained anonymous, and
completed surveys were returned to the researchers by the contact person. Intact
faculty groups, rather than a random sampling of early childhood practitioners
within a program, were used to provide for a more broad representation of partici-
pants. Each contact person was given 15-20 parent survey packets per classroom
in her program (each containing a survey, consent form, and envelope) to distrib-
ute to families. Classrooms serving more families were given a greater number of
surveys (i.e., 20 vs. 15). Parent surveys were distributed either through par-
ent-child conferences or by sending them home with a child. Parent surveys were
returned to the classroom teacher in a sealed envelope. Based on the number of sur-
veys that were distributed, a 92% return rate occurred for practitioners and an 85%
rate for parents.
RESULTS
Participants' responses to the MTAI survey were used to validate the measure, to
examine factors affecting parents' and early childhood practitioners' beliefs, and
to analyze patterns in respondents' beliefs. In addition, practitioners' perceptions
of accommodation, preparation, barriers, and facilitators related to inclusion were
analyzed.
Measure Validation
The three belief subscales and the total belief scale were examined for internal
consistency using Cronbach's alpha. Reliability analyses for the MTAI resulted in
the following alphas for the 28-item comprehensive version (and 12-item brief ver-
sion): Core Perspective, .80 (.77); Expected Outcomes, .85 (.69); Classroom
Practices, .64 (.69); and Total Beliefs, .91 (.86). Subscale-to-total-scale correlations
ranged from .73 to .91, suggesting an association between each belief domain and
the Total Scale. Next, intercorrelations among the three subscales were examined.
Subscale intercorrelations were moderate (r = .50 for Core Perspective-Classroom
Practices, r = .55 for Expected Outcomes-Classroom Practices, and r = .75 for
Expected Outcomes-Core Perspectives). The unidimensional structure of the three
belief domains was confirmed by the use of principal components analysis. For
each domain, only one factor was extracted. The total percentage of variance that
was explained by each factor was 47.7% for Core Perspectives, 52.2% for Expected
Outcomes, and 69.2% for Classroom Practices. Because the intercorrelatious
among subscales were not high (< .80) and the principle component analysis sup-
ported the conceptually distinct nature of each subscale, they were retained as
separate scales for further analysis.
Beliefs About Inclusion 117
Parent Beliefs
To address our fLrSt research question concerning factors that affect parents'
beliefs regarding inclusion, analyses were conducted using summary scores for
each subscale and the Total Scale of the brief MTAI (12 items). Parents of children
with special needs were more positive in their beliefs than parents of children with-
out special needs on the Total Scale, t(404) = 2.97, p <.01, Core Perspectives
subscale, t(404) = 3.47, p < .001, and Classroom Practices subscale, t (404) = 2.84,
p < .01. Analysis of variance (A_NOVA) showed significant associations between
parents' social-economic status and their beliefs on all three subscales (F = 4.67,
p < .01; F = 8.14, p < .001; F = 3.40, p < .05; for Core Perspectives, Outcomes, and
Classroom Practices, respectively) and the Total Scale (F = 7.59, p < .001). Fol-
low-up analyses using the Tukey HSD showed that parents with high or middle
incomes reported more positive beliefs than did parents with low income on the
Core Perspectives subscale, Outcomes subscale, and Total Scale. Although the
overall ANOVA was significant for the Classroom Practices subscale, no two
groups differed significantly at the .05 level. To investigate further the effect of
income, ANCOVAs were conducted with level of education as a covariate. When
education level was controlled, the relationship between income level and inclu-
sion beliefs was not significant for any scale.
Parents with a college education had more positive beliefs on the Core Perspec-
fives subscale compared to parents with a high school education or less (F = 5.58,
p < .05). Parents with one or two children had more positive beliefs about inclusion
than did parents with four or more children on the Total Scale (F = 3.10, p < .05)
and Outcomes subscale (F = 4.30, p < .05). Significant differences due to marital
status were detected on the Total Scale and Core Beliefs subscale. Tukeys showed
that married parents held more positive beliefs than did single parents (F = 3.16
and F = 4.18, respectively, on the Total and Beliefs scales, both ps < .05). No sig-
nificant variations among parents from different community settings were found.
DISCUSSION
One primary purpose of our study was to determine whether a scale measuring the
beliefs of both parents and practitioners could be developed that demonstrates
sound psychometric properties. Our data indicate that both the brief 12-item MTAI
and the more comprehensive 28- item MTAI demonstrate good internal reliability.
The internal consistency for the brief MTAI supports its use with both parents and
practitioners as a general measure to explore their beliefs related to inclusion. Val-
idation work on the comprehensive MTAI suggest that inclusion beliefs are fairly
consistent within the specific domains it measures (i.e., Core Perspectives,
Expected Outcomes, and Classroom Practices). Some variations were found, how-
ever, in the ways practitioners having differing backgrounds and experiences
responded to items within the three MTAI subscales, reflecting the multidimen-
sional nature of inclusion beliefs. Overall, greater variance in beliefs were evident
in comparing participants' responses on the Core Perspectives and Classroom
Practices subscales than on the Expected Outcomes subscale. Together these find-
ings lend support for differential use of the MTAI. The brief version has utility for
further comparative investigations of beliefs or for early childhood programs to
obtain a general indication of whether an individual or group holds positive or neg-
ative beliefs toward inclusion. The comprehensive 28-item MTAI might be used to
provide more refined indications of what dimensions are most important to address
in promoting greater awareness or acceptance toward inclusion. Prior to discussing
what we view as key findings, several limitations of the study should be acknowl-
edged.
12o Stoiber, Gettinger, and Goe~
First, our primary intent was to explore the beliefs of both parents and practitio-
ners because these adults' actions and reactions play an important role in the
implementation of inclusion. Our attempt to give voice to parents and practitioners
cannot capture their many subtle, yet critical, conceptions about inclusive prac-
rices. Although the use of a survey provided a quantitative approach for examining
diverse inclusion beliefs, this method did not fully assess the complexity of beliefs.
In addition, our conceptual distinctions regarding inclusion beliefs (Core, Prac-
rices, Outcomes) represent one possible conceptualization. Clearly, other
categories or dimensions of inclusion beliefs exist and need to be examined in fur-
ther research.
Despite these limitations, we observed important patterns related to how situa-
tional and experiential factors affect inclusion beliefs among parents. Differences
in beliefs due to having a child with a disability were revealed on two subscales
(Core Perspectives and Classroom Practices) and the Total Scale, with parents of
children with disabilities responding more positively than parents of typically
developing children. These findings differ from Vaughn et al.'s (1996) teachers
who "anticipated that parents of students with disabilities would not view inclusion
favorably" (p. 103). Parents with lower incomes and lower education levels (high
school education or less) held less positive beliefs concerning inclusion, however,
these differences were attributable to education level. One explanation for this dif-
ference based on parents' education is that socialization toward inclusion occurs
through the education process. It is also possible that individuals with higher edu-
cation levels have more opportunities to reflect on the advantages of inclusive
practices in reducing discrimination based on ability. Although parents' marital
status and number of children were associated with their beliefs about inclusion,
community context (urban, suburban, rural) did not influence parents' beliefs. The
current results support Sigel et al.'s (1992) contention that parental beliefs are
determined by multiple experiences, demographic characteristics, and sociocul-
tural contexts. In addition, our findings suggest that there are variations in the
degree of influence by differing factors. Proximal individual factors (i.e., educa-
tion, marital status) appear to be more potent in influencing inclusion beliefs than
distal, global factors (i.e., community).
Clearly, the need for more information about parents' beliefs and for dissemina-
tion of parents' beliefs to practitioners is apparent. Research that replicates or
clarifies the contextual nature surrounding parents' beliefs should also occur. For
example, do parents of children at the elementary or secondary levels differ in their
beliefs about inclusion from parents of young children? Do parents of typically
developing children who have greater contact or involvement with inclusive pro-
grams hold more positive beliefs related to inclusion practices? Answers to these
questions have important implications for understanding how patents' beliefs are
formed as well as how they may be altered through different experiences. Regard-
less of whether or when these questions are pursued, our results support the need
for public awareness efforts aimed at broadening the understanding of inclusion
both to parents and practitioners.
Beliefs About Inclusion 121
study were all working in inclusive settings. Their concerns are consistent with
other research on teacher perceptions of inclusion (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996;
Vaughn et al., 1996), and suggest that attention should be given to increasing time
for planning and collaborating in inclusive settings. In addition, the need for col-
laborative skills is consistent with Putnam, Spiegel, and Brninink.q (1995) who
revealed strong support for all education majors to be trained in communication
skills and teamwork. Field-based approaches emphasizing direct, hands-on experi-
ence were considered most effective by our practitioners for improving inclusion
practices, thus underscoring the importance of training that is authentic and rele-
vant. Given these beliefs, it appears that effective training to move practitioners
toward "best" practices requires major restructuring of professional development.
The model for professional development that emerges from the preferences of
early childhood practitioners in the present study concurs with Moeller and
Ishii-Jordan (1996), who proposed that traditional, didactic instruction does not
match the dynamic and practical needs of inclusive practitioners. Practitioners
believe that they need more than just single-session inservice training to provide
them with appropriate teaching and intervention strategies; they need peer support
and ongoing opportunities for professional development.
Patterns evident throughout the data support the goal of increasing both parents'
and practitioners' exposure to diverse learners and strategies for accommodation.
It appears that propinquity or "getting up close" to children with diverse disabili-
ties and to inclusion has a powerful positive effect on our beliefs about inclusion.
Efforts aimed at motivating individuals to find ways to differentiate instruction for
the most challenging children may produce a powerful influence on beliefs related
to inclusion. Hence, school or program cultures dedicated to nurturing the positive
value of diverse learners and differentiated instruction are critical to support con-
tinued progress in the inclusion movement. Our results also point to the need for
continued research on parents' and early childhood practitioners' beliefs, espe-
cially regarding the impact of various educational and socialization approaches. It
would be informative, for example, to examine how one's beliefs about inclusion
develop over time with different types of knowledge and experience (e.g., knowl-
edge about what is meant by inclusion vs. knowledge of how to differentiate
instruction; knowledge constructed through didactic training vs. knowledge con-
structed through an action research project). In addition, more information is
needed on how individuals from various cultural groups view inclusion. As
progress is made in these areas, the beliefs of individuals assuming the critical
roles in inclusion will be more clearly understood. Such understanding is essential
to develop meaningful frameworks for enhancing both parents' and practitioners'
growth toward inclusion policies and practices.
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