2005 Book UnsaturatedSoilsExperimentalSt PDF

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and Pattern Formation in Condensed-Matter Physics XIV
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Editor: F.-J. Niedernostheide and H.-B. Schüttler
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93 Unsaturated Soils:
83 Computer Simulation Studies Experimental Studies
in Condensed-Matter Physics X Editor: T. Schanz
Editors: D.P. Landau, K.K. Mon,
and H.-B. Schüttler 94 Unsaturated Soils:
Numerical and Theoretical Approaches
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T. Schanz (Ed.)
Unsaturated Soils:
Experimental Studies
Proceedings of the International Conference
,,
From Experimental Evidence towards Numerical Modeling
,,
of Unsaturated Soils, Weimar, Germany, September 18--19, 2003
Volume I
With 212 Figures and 44 Tables
123
Professor Dr. Ing. habil. Tom Schanz
Bauhaus-Universität Weimar
Professur Bodenmechanik
Coudraystraße 11c
99421 Weimar, Germany
E-mail: tom.schanz@bauing.uni-weimar.de
ISSN 0930-8989
ISBN 3-540-21121-7 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York
Library of Congress Control Number: 2004109958
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Foreword
These proceedings document the various papers delivered and partially presented at the
International Conference “From experimental evidence towards numerical modeling of
unsaturated soils,” which was held in Weimar (Germany) during 18-19 September 2003.
The conference was organized under the auspices of the International Society of Soil
Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (ISSMGE) and the National German Geo-
technical Society (DGGT).
The need to understand the behavior of unsaturated soils is becoming exclusively es-
sential for the geotechnical engineers and designers. In the last three decades many re-
searchers have made significant contribution to the understanding of the unsaturated soil
mechanics. Nevertheless, application of the subject to variety of new problems still re-
quires our attention. This International conference is a mere attempt to unite researchers
and engineers in geotechnical engineering and to discuss about the problems associated
with the unsaturated soils. Doing so the objectives of these lecture notes are as follows:
- to promote unsaturated soil mechanics for practical application,
- to exchange experiences in experimental unsaturated soil mechanics and numerical
modeling,
- to discuss application of unsaturated soil mechanics to variety of problems.
In other words, we could also name these two volumes as “From theory to daily prac-
tice”.
I would like to extend my deep sense of appreciation as the editor and the Head of the
organizing committee, to many persons who have contributed either directly or indirectly
to organize the International conference and to finalize these proceedings. Firstly, I ac-
knowledge the support provided by the German National research fund. I would like to
mention specifically the involvement of the TC 6 (“Unsaturated Soils”) Committee of
the International Society. Secondly, I appreciate the effort of the members of the Techni-
cal committee, who have spent their valuable time to suggest the changes, improvement
to the papers submitted. Finally I wish to convey my thanks to all the keynote and invited
speakers, authors and delegates attending the conference.
I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude for the outstanding work per-
formed by those involved in the technical and administrative organization of these pro-
ceedings. Special thanks go to my co-workers Ms. Yvonne Lins, Mr. S. S. Agus and Dr.
S. Tripathy, who helped in guaranteeing the international standard of the scientific pro-
gram and shaping the proceedings itself.
I would like to congratulate the authors for their very interesting presentations and the
reported results and advances in the topics of this conference. Ms. Sandra Michael did
significant contributions while incorporating the corrections in the papers as suggested
by the Editor. Special thanks go to Dr. Thomas Ditzinger at Springer Publisher for the
fruitful and personal co-operation so guaranteeing the high quality of these two volumes.
I myself believe that this conference has meant another significant step towards the ad-
vancement and understanding of unsaturated soils. Studying the presented papers care-
fully we will learn about current international work in the field of: experimental unsatu-
rated geotechnics, constitutive modeling in unsaturated geotechnics, the microstructure
and its importance to soil behavior and further about environmental issues.
Weimar, January 2004 Tom Schanz
Introduction
The field of unsaturated soil mechanics has been propelled forward by a variety of
concerns brought to the fore by societal demands. In the 1960s, a series of interna-
tional conferences was convened to better understand the behavior of expansive
soils. As a result of these conferences, geotechnical engineers became aware of the
significant role played by soil suction. Consequently, the volume change behavior
of expansive soils began to be viewed in terms of changes in soil suction. Later,
there was considerable interest in studying landslides precipitated by a reduction
in soil suction as a result of excessive rainfall over a period of time. In the 1980s,
society began to demand greater accountability with regard to our stewardship of
the environment. The need for accountability provided a great Impetus for re-
search into the movement of water and chemicals through the unsaturated portion
of the soil profile. Another application that provided an incentive to better under-
stand unsaturated soil behavior was the need for adequate handling of radioactive
wastes from nuclear power plants.
Over a period of about 30 years, the theories and formulations for unsaturated
soil mechanics have been put forth and verified through numerous research stud-
ies. Unsaturated soil mechanics is now sometimes referred to as “Nonlinear Soil
Mechanics” and it is interested that our understanding of unsaturated soil behavior
has paralleled the development of computational ability to make numerical solu-
tions available for geotechnical engineering practice.
In the frame of the International Conference “From experimental evidence to-
wards numerical modeling of unsaturated soils”, which was held in Weimar, Ger-
many, autumn 2003, I would like to provide a few comments in response to 4
questions that have been placed before me by the Organizing Chairman, Dr. Tom
Schanz. I will attempt to answer these questions by taking into consideration re-
search studies around the world over the past few years. These questions are as
follows.
1. What are the major landmark contributions in the last five years relative to the
field of Unsaturated Soil Mechanics?
The past few years have indeed bore witness to a number of significant major
landmark contributions in the area of unsaturated soil mechanics. I couldn’t help
thinking back to the time when Dr. Harianto Rahardjo and I completed the writing
of the book entitled, “Soil Mechanics for Unsaturated Soils” in 1993. No sooner
was the book completed than we realized that it had some shortcomings. It had
shortcomings because some significant landmark developments were emerging in
unsaturated soil mechanics. Our book attempted to take the classic areas of satu-
rated soil mechanics and extend these areas to embrace unsaturated soil behavior.
The book focused primarily on the areas of i.) seepage, ii.) volume change and iii.)
shear strength. For each of those areas, the book presented, i.) theory, ii.) methods
VIII Introduction
of measuring the soil properties and iii.) application of the theory to engineering
practice, for unsaturated soils. While the book provided an extension of the classic
theories into the unsaturated soil range, implementation of unsaturated soil me-
chanics proved to be difficult due mainly to the cost of measuring unsaturated soil
properties. However, engineers are problem-solvers and geotechnical engineers
began to find ways whereby unsaturated soil mechanics could be implemented
into routine geotechnical engineering.
As a result of extensive research in unsaturated soil mechanics, the soil-water
characteristic curve, SWCC, emerged as a means for estimating unsaturated soil
property functions. I would say that research into techniques for estimating un-
saturated soil property functions has been one of the most significant research con-
tributions in the last 5 to 10 years.
There are also other significant landmark contributions that have also been
made. Significant progress has been made in developing elasto-plastic models for
unsaturated soils; however, we need to realize that there is still need for more re-
search on comprehensive elasto-plastic models that incorporate wetting and drying
paths along all total stress loading paths. The models should be verified for a wide
range of soils (e.g., sands, silts and clays) prepared as either initially remolded ma-
terials (e.g., compacted) or initially undisturbed. Consideration also needs to be
given to the variations in soil model behavior that might occur in the occluded air
bubble stage (near saturation), the desaturation phase between the air entry value
and the residual suction stage, as well as the stage beyond residual suction condi-
tions.
Significant contributions have been made by geotechnical engineers in the
measurement of soil suction. There is great need for both “direct” and “indirect”
means of measuring soil suction in situ and in the laboratory. The advances in the
direct measurement of matric suctions beyond one atmosphere are to be hailed as
a significant breakthrough. At the same time, it is important to be transparent re-
garding the limitations of this technology. Further research should be undertaken
to more fully understand the factors that affect the longevity of such suction
measurements. The advances in the use of “indirect” methods such as TDR and
TC (i.e., Thermal Conductivity) are also worthy of mention particularly because of
their ongoing functionality with limited maintenance over long-term monitoring.
2. What are the deficiencies we are facing today?
I believe that one of the primary deficiencies in unsaturated soil mechanics is the
lack of comprehensive case histories where sufficient state variables have been
measured in the field in order that an assessment can be made regarding the accu-
racy of the proposed theories for unsaturated soil behavior. We need to see the
“Observational Method” used over and over again relative to the assessment of
unsaturated soil behavior. It is interesting to note that the present Chairman of the
TC6 Committee on Unsaturated Soils (Professor E. Alonso) has made a special
plea for detailed case histories involving unsaturated soils.
Introduction IX
I also believe that there is still need for more research into the measurement of
matric suction in situ and in the laboratory. Limitations in the measurement of soil
suction result in a deficiency to the overall implementation of unsaturated soil me-
chanics.
There have been numerous formulations that have been proposed in the re-
search literature associated with elasto-plastic type soil models. While these for-
mulations are encouraging to see, it is advantageous to have the models eventually
formulated on a sound continuum mechanics basis, if at all possible. In other
words, it is preferable that there be a clear distinction when using empiricism in
the description of state variables for the models, as opposed to following the
requirements of classical continuum mechanics. I would note that reference was
made at this conference to a “constitutive stress” for an unsaturated soil. Such a
reference is an oxymoron in the sense that “stress” is a state variable and the word,
“constitutive” must link together state variables. The use of the word “effective
stress” for unsaturated soils is also “constitutive” in character and therefore inter-
jects empiricism at the onset of subsequent formulations. Researchers may choose
to deviate from all the classical concepts of continuum mechanics in some of their
formulations but it should be realized that these constitute deficiencies that we
face as researchers in unsaturated soil mechanics.
3. Which major questions are still open ended?
I believe that models for unsaturated soil behavior need to be more clearly devel-
oped in relation to their position along the soil-water characteristic curve, SWCC.
Just as there is a soil behavior models for a saturated soil; likewise there may need
to be separate models (or at least, somewhat differing models) developed for soils
in the desaturation zone (i.e., between the air entry value and the residual suction
value) and the residual zone. In other words, there is evidence that the behavior of
an unsaturated soil in the residual zone may be significantly different from its be-
havior in the desaturation zone between the air entry value and the residual value.
The fundamental physical characteristics of an unsaturated soil in the “residual
suction” range need to be further studied with respect to volume change, shear and
seepage behavior. For example, liquid water flow most likely ceases in the resid-
ual zone and only water vapor flow is of consequence. Therefore, the permeability
function (or hydraulic conductivity function) should not be mathematically ex-
tended into the residual soil range when using empirical estimation techniques.
This subject requires further research. Likewise, research is also required for the
volume change and shear strength behavior of unsaturated soils in the residual soil
range.
Research needs to be done regarding the required accuracy for the assessment
of unsaturated soil property functions for various types of problems. In other
words, estimation techniques may be suitable for certain types of problems but
may be unsuitable for other problems. There needs to be guidelines made avail-
able to practicing geotechnical engineers.
X Introduction
4. Which are the goals for the next 5 years
I believe that one of the primary goals of the researcher engineers should be stud-
ies related to the implementation of unsaturated soil mechanics into routine engi-
neering practice. There is a need to demonstrate in detail the implementation pro-
cedures that are to be used by practicing geotechnical engineers. There needs to be
protocols (or standards of practice) established for acceptable engineering practice
in order that engineers can be protected from excessive litigation associated with
unsaturated soils problems.
There should be a review of all near-ground-surface geotechnical problems in
order to develop engineering protocols for numerous types of problems. In so do-
ing, it may be possible for some empirical practice procedures to be put onto a
more reliable and theoretical basis.
Further attention needs to be given to the quantification of climatic conditions
at specific engineering sites. In particular, more research is required on soil-
atmosphere models that predict the actual evaporation at a site. As well, there is
need for procedures for assessing runoff and infiltration into highly fractured,
near-ground-surface soils. These procedures should be somewhat standardized to
produce consistency and reliability in engineering practice.
In closing, I want to express my gratitude to Professor Tom Schanz and all his
co-workers for the excellent conference that has been held. The organizers have
drawn upon research from a variety of disciplines and geographic locations. In so
doing, these conference proceedings provide a valuable addition to the unsaturated
soil mechanics literature.
Saskatchewan, October 2003 Delwyn G. Fredlund

Contents
HYDRAULIC BEHAVIOUR
Laboratory Experiments and Simulations on the Significance

of Non-Equilibrium Effect in Capillary Pressure-Saturation Relationship..............3
Hassanizadeh, S. M., Oung, O., and Manthey, S.
Determination of hydro-mechanical Properties of Sand....................................... 15

Lins, Y. and Schanz, T.
Column test apparatus for the inverse estimation

of soil hydraulic parameters under defined stress condition................................. 33
Scheuermann, A., Montenegro, H., and Bieberstein, A.
Water permeability of unsaturated compacted kaolin .......................................... 45

Peroni, N., Fratalocchi, E., and Tarantino, A.
Moisture retention curve in landfilled waste ........................................................ 59

Kazimoglu, Y. K., McDougall, J. R., and Pyrah, I. C.
The pF-curve of fine-grained soils at high pore water suction ............................. 69

Schick, P.
STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION – MEASUREMENT OF SUCTION
Influence of microstructure on geotechnical properties of clays .......................... 89

Schmitz, R. M., Schroeder, C., and Charlier, R.
Suction induced by static compaction ................................................................ 101

Tombolato, S., Tarantino, A., and Mongiovì, L.
Suction of compacted residual soils ................................................................... 111

Tripathy, S., Leong, E. C., and Rahardjo, H.
Creation of artificial loess soils .......................................................................... 123

Zourmpakis, A., Boardman, D. I., and Rogers, C. D. F.
Analysis of the mechanical response of an artificial collapsible soil.................. 135

Medero, G.M., Schnaid, F., Gehling, W.Y.Y., and Gallipoli, D.
Fabric Evolution of an Unsaturated Compacted Soil

during Hydromechanical loading ....................................................................... 147
Cuisinier, O. and Laloui, L.
XII Contents
Measurement of osmotic suction using the squeezing technique ....................... 159

Peroni, N. and Tarantino, A.
The use of different suction measurement techniques

to determine water retention curves.................................................................... 169
Boso, M., Romero, E., and Tarantino, A.
Measurement of Suction of Thick Textured Soil

using Filter Paper Method and Equivalent Tensiometer – EQT......................... 183
Mahler, C. F. and Mendes, C. A. R.
Laboratory measurement of matric suction in pyroclastic soil

using vacuum and high-suction tensiometers ..................................................... 193
Nicotera, M. V. and Tarantino, A.
EXPANSIVE SOILS
Volume Change Behaviour of Fine Grained Soils ............................................. 209

Sridharan, A.
Volume change behaviour of cohesive soils ...................................................... 227

Dobrowolsky, M.
Swelling Pressures and Wetting-Drying Curves

of a Highly Compacted Bentonite-Sand Mixture ............................................... 241
Agus, S. S. and Schanz, T.
Results and interpretation of bentonite resaturation experiments

with liquid water and water vapour .................................................................... 257
Kröhn, K.-P.
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR
Shear strength of unsaturated bentonite buffer material ..................................... 273

Farouk, A., Kos, J., and Lamboj, L.
Evaluation of Yielding in Unsaturated Clays

Using an Automated Triaxial Apparatus with Controlled Suction ..................... 285
Blatz, J., Anderson, D., Graham, J., and Siemens, G.
A triaxial device for unsaturated sand – New Developments............................. 301

Lauer, C. and Engel, J.
Undrained Isotropic Compression of Soil .......................................................... 315

Oostveen, J. P.
Contents XIII
Hydro-mechanical behaviour of clayey silt under isotropic compression .......... 331

Buenfil, C., Romero, E., Lloret, A., and Gens, A.
The concept of “apparent” Compression Index.................................................. 343

Bardanis, M. and Kavvadas, M.
Behaviour of unsaturated cohesive soils subjected to cyclic loads..................... 355

Becker, Th. and Li, T.
Remarks on consolidation in unsaturated soils from experimental results ......... 373

Ausilio, E. and Conte, E
Prediction and modeling of tensile stresses and shrinkage ................................. 383

Baumgartl, Th.
Tensile Strength of Compacted Clays ................................................................ 395

Heibrock, G., Zeh, R.M., and Witt, K. J.
Fine Fissuring of Clay Fill Materials for Flood Defence Embankments ............ 413
Dyer, M. and Coulson, B.
Laboratory investigation of the virgin drying of the Corinth Marl ..................... 421
Bardanis, M. and Kavvadas, M.
APPLICATIONS
From experimental evidence towards the assessment

of weather-related railway embankment hazards................................................ 435
Gitirana, G. Jr. and Fredlund, D. G.
Large scale hill creep in cohesive sediments: A field and model study.............. 469
Zehe, E., Lindenmaier, F., and Ihringer, J.
The effect of soil suction in stability of partially submerged slopes................... 483

Bellezza, I. and Fratalocchi, E.
Effects of unsaturation on the stability of a moraine slope................................. 497

Simeoni, L., Tarantino, A., and Mongiovì, L.
A large physical Mock-Up model for investigating engineered barriers ............ 509
Pacovský, J.
Experimental testing and modelling of a Design for HLW Disposal

through a Large Scale Mock-Up ........................................................................ 521
Verstricht, J., Li, X. L., and Bernier, F.
HYDRAULIC BEHAVIOUR
Laboratory Experiments and Simulations on the
Significance of Non-Equilibrium Effect in the
Capillary Pressure-Saturation Relationship

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References
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)()9 $SSURDFK International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids

Determination of hydro-mechanical Properties
of Sand
Yvonne Lins1 and Tom Schanz1
Laboratory of Soil Mechanics, Bauhaus-Universität Weimar, Coudraystr. 11 C,

Weimar 99432, Germany (yvonne.lins/tom.schanz@bauing.uni-weimar.de)
Summary. In this study the behavior of an unsaturated sand is examined. The

sand used is Hostun sand from France. The Soil-Water-Characteristic Curves
(SWCCs) of loose and dense specimen were determined by using the suction mode
and pressure mode axis translation technique under various vertical net stresses.
One dimensional compression and rebound behavior was studied for specimens at
different initial matric suction values. During these tests the matric suction was
maintained constant during loading and unloading processes. To study the wetting
induced collapse of the sand, specimens with a known matric suction and water
content were prepared and then saturated at several vertical net stresses during
loading. The study showed that the SWCC is not significantly influenced by ver-
tical net stress. However there is a influence of initial suction on the compression
behavior of the material which is manifested on the stiffness moduli, compression
index and collapse potential of the sand used in this study. In comparison to these
results, results from one dimensional compression and rebound tests, where water
content was kept constant, for Quartz sand Weferlingen were added. Results from
collapse potential test for Quartz sand Weferlingen are given, too.
Keywords: Hydro-mechanical behavior, unsaturated granular frictional

materials, one dimensional compression rebound test, SWCC, collapse
1 Introduction
It is generally known that the presence of moisture in granular materials can
drastically change their constitutive behavior. In literature results concerned
with change of shear strength due to water content or matric suction [3] [16]
and hydraulic conductivity [2] are given. In [20] experimental results are given
on the SWCC for Hostun sand. Results of former investigations at Bauhaus
University Weimar on the hydraulic conductivity are given in [9, 17, 15]. For
determination of the effect of degree of saturation on the mechanical behavior
of granular materials this experimental work was carried out. Observations of
the coupled hydro-mechanical behavior were correlated with application and
measurement of the negative pore water pressure. In this paper we concen-
trate on the determination of the capillary pressure saturation relationship
(soil-water characteristic curve SWCC) and the constitutive behavior for con-
fined compression.
16 Y. Lins and T. Schanz
Table 1. Properties of sand used
Hostun Sand
Specific gravity ρs 2.65
Coefficient of uniformity Cu 1.50
Coefficient of curvature Cc 1.11
Classification (USCS) SP
Experimental results of this work will be used to estimate constitutive param-

eters for numerical models and statistical approach. A statistical approach
for SWCC is presented in [13, 12] and a theoretical approach to model unsat-
urated behavior of granular materials in the frame of the theory of plasticity
is presented in [5].
2 Material used
The material used in this study is Hostun Sand [6, 18] from France. The prop-
erties of the sand are summarized in Table 1 and the grain size distribution
curve is given in Figure 1. As can be seen from the grain size distribution
curve it is a uniform graded medium sand. According to USCS classification
the sand is described as a sand SP.
Sand
Clay Silt medium co arse Gravel
fine
100
90
80
Percent passing by weight [%]
70
60
50
40
30
20 Hostun Sand (IGT Dresden)
Hostun Sand (Flavigny 1990)

10
Hostun Sand (BUW)
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Grain size [mm]
Fig. 1: Grain size distribution curves of sand tested by different laboratories

Determination of hydro-mechanical Properties of Sand 17
50
Collapse Potential Tests
Oedometer Tests
SWCC Tests
40
u a - u w [kPa]
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200
σ v - u a [kPa]
Fig. 2: Loading history of different laboratory tests
3 Experimental Program
The experimental program consists of determination of SWCC (Soil-Water-

Characteristic Curves) as well as one dimensional compression rebound tests
under different initial conditions. Detailed information on the different load-
ing pathes are given in Fig. 2.
For determining Soil-Water-Characteristic Curves of the sand a modified
pressure plate apparatus was used. This apparatus allows to apply vertical
stress to the top of the specimen. One dimensional compression and rebound
test were performed in a UPC Controlled-Suction Oedometer Cell [1]. Both
cells are equipped with a porous stone on the top of the cell and a ceramic
disc on the bottom of the cell. The ceramic discs used in this investigation
have an air entry value of 1 bar. The used apparats are additionally equipped
with a burette attached to the water reservoir below the ceramic disc and
an air pressure control system connected to the top of the cell. Tests were
carried out for loose specimen with an initial void ratio of e0 = 0.89 ± 0.005
and dense specimen with an initial void ratio of e0 = 0.66 ± 0.005. The pre-
cision for measured deformation is 0.001 mm and 0.6% of the absolute value
for stresses (both vertical stress and air pressure).
3.1 Determination of Soil-Water-Characteristic Curve
SWCCs were determined for loose as well as for dense specimen. To examine
the influence of net stress on the SWCC loose specimen were applied by a
net stress of σ = 10 and 20 kPa. Additionally SWCC for dense and loose
specimen with net stress σ = 0 kPa were performed. The SWCC for the
sand were obtained by using pressure mode test and suction mode test.
The testing procedure consists of preparing a dry specimen directly into the
fixed ring of the cell. By using the attached burette the specimen was satu-
rated. From this condition the determination of SWCC started with a drying
cycle followed by one wetting cycle.
SWCC of the sand was determined by both suction mode test and pressure
mode test. By using the attached burette with a capacity of 25 cc and a least
count of 0.05 cc the suction mode test was carried out for low suction values
up to 3.0 kPa. Suctions of 0.1 kPa, 0.2 kPa, 0.5 kPa, 1.0 kPa, 1.5 kPa, 2.0
kPa and 3.0 kPa were induced by lowering down the burette with reference
to the top of the ceramic disc. Higher suctions up to 50.0 kPa were applied by
the pressure mode test. Therefore the connected air pressure control system
was used. After finishing one drying and one wetting curve, wich are also
called desorption curve and adsorption curve, the specimen was dismantled
and the gravimetric water content was measured by oven drying method. By
back calculation the volumetric water content Θ, the degree of saturation Sr
and the gravimetric water content w corresponding to each matric suction
applied were computed.
3.2 One dimensional compression and rebound tests

One dimensional compression and rebound tests with different initial condi-
tions were carried out in this study:
– One dimensional compression and rebound test with constant suction.
– One dimensional compression and rebound test with constant water con-
tent.
Special attention was given to the error estimation related to the vertical
net load. Correction was applied to the measured vertical net stresses due to
shear stresses between the oedometer ring and the soil sample. Both frictional
(fixed ring, triangular distribution of horizontal stress: σhmax = (1−sin ϕp )σv ,
loose: ϕp = 34o , dense: ϕp = 42o [19]) and cohesional effects (derivation of
capillary cohesion from SWCC) were taken into account following [8].
One dimensional compression rebound test with constant suction

Loose and dense dry specimen were prepared directly in the fixed oedoemter
ring, followed by the saturation process. Suctions induced by suction mode
test for s = 1.5 kPa and s = 3.0 kPa and pressure mode test for s = 20 kPa
and s = 50.0 kPa were applied to the sand samples and kept constant during
the loading and unloading path. Specimen were loaded up to 200 kPa and
then unloaded to 2 kPa.
One dimensional compression rebound test with constant water

content
For comparison of the results from our actual study, test results from ear-
lier work with Quartz sand Weferlingen were taken into account [14]. During
this study specimen with different water contents were prepared. In differ-
ence to the tests carried out with constant suction values for this type of
tests a porous stone was placed on the bottom as well as on the top of the
specimen similar to standard one dimensional compression and rebound test
equipment. Tests were run under undrained conditions.
3.3 Collapse potential tests

For different initial conditions the collapse potential of Hostun sand was
studied. All specimen were prepared for loose conditions (e0 = 0.89 ± 0.005).
During loading the specimens with constant suction or water content were
saturated from the bottom of the cell by the attached burette at certain
vertical net stress. The saturated specimen was loaded up to 100 kPa and
unloaded. Saturation process was carried out at vertical net stresses of 5 kPa,
12 kPa and 25 kPa.
Method 1
For this method dry specimen were prepared in the oedometer cell, saturated
and a suction of s = 5.0 kPa was induced by pressure mode. For the initial
loading the specimen was saturated by net stress of σ = 5 kPa and σ = 12
kPa.
Method 2
Method 2 includes the preparation of a wet sand sample with a water content
of w = 5%. From the SWCC for loose specimen one can find out that a water
content of w = 5% corresponds to a suction less than s = 5 kPa. By applying
5 kPa air pressure (pressure mode test) from the top of the specimen suction
was applied. Samples were saturated at σ = 5 kPa, 12 kPa and 25 kPa.
Method 3
Specimen with a water content of w = 3%, which correlates to a suction of
s = 5.0 kPa were prepared and loaded for undrained test conditions up to
σ = 5 kPa 12 kPa and 25 kPa, saturated, further loaded up to 100 kPa and
unloaded. In difference to the first methods the ceramic disc on the bottom
was replaced by a porous stone.
4 Experimental results
4.1 Soil-Water-Characteristic Curves for Hostun Sand
To study the influence of initial void ratio we display in Fig. 3 the results
from SWCC test for one loose sample in comparison with one dense sample.
The volumetric water content is plotted against matric suction for one drying
cycle and one wetting cycle. According to [7] typical ranges of the SWCC are
included into the diagram exemplary for the dense drying curve. By using
the following equation [7] the data points were fitted (see also Fig 4)
Θs
Θw = n m (1)
Ψ
ln e +
a
where Θw is volumetric water content, Θs is the saturated water content, Ψ

is the suction value and a, n, m are constants, e is the natural base of the log-
arithm. As can bee seen from Fig. 3 an air-entry value (AEV) of ψAEV = 2.0
kPa for dense specimen and an air-entry value of ψAEV = 1.5 kPa for loose
specimen for drying path were found. When reaching the air-entry value the
water content of both samples decreases rapidly for a small range of suction.
This zone, the transition zone, is between 2.0 kPa to 4.0 kPa for the dense
0.5
drying; e 0= 0.66; σ*= 0 kPa
wetting; e 0= 0.66; σ*= 0 kPa
0.4 drying; e 0= 0.89; σ*= 0 kPa
wetting; e 0= 0.89; σ*= 0 kPa
Vol. water content [-]
curve fit
0.3 (Fredlund and Xing, 1994)
Transition zone
Saturated zone Residual zone
0.2
dense:
ΨAEV =2.0kPa
ΨWEV=0.7kPa
0.1 loose:
ΨAEV =1.5kPa
ΨWEV=0.4kPa
0
0.1 1 10 100
Matric suction [kPa]
Fig. 3: Volumetric water content versus matric suction for loose and dense
samples and σ = 0
specimen and between 1.5 kPa to 4.0 kPa for the loose specimen. Residual
zone starts at low suction values for the drying curve for loose as well as
for the dense sand specimen. During wetting no significant changes in water
content in a range of 50 kPa to 3 kPa were observed for the loose and dense
specimen. For the wetting curve the transition zone starts at matric suction
of 0.5 kPa for loose and dense samples. It ends at a matric suction of 3 kPa.
Water-entry values (WEV) of ψW EV = 0.7 kPa for dense sand specimen and
of ψW EV = 0.3 kPa for loose sand specimen were determined graphically.
The saturated zone falls in a very narrow range from 0 kPa to 0.5 kPa.
From Fig. 3 it can be seen that after reaching the air-entry value the curves
rapidly falling down to low values of volumetric water content. The slopes of
the curves are steep, which is also reflected in the calculated value n (value
describing the slope of the curve) during curve fitting. The following values
were found for the loose specimen and dense specimen: n = 8.5 (drying curve,
0.5
drying, e 0=0.89,
drying;e0= 0.89;s=0kPa
σ*= 0kPa
0.4 wetting;
w 0.89;s=0kPa
e0=0.89,
etting, e0= σ*= 0kPa
drying,
drying;e0= 0.89;s=10kPa
e 0=0.89, σ*= 10kPa
Vol. water content [-]
wetting;
w 0.89;s=10kPa
e0=0.89,
0.87;s=20kPa
e 0=0.87,
drying;e0=
drying, σ*= 20kPa
0.3 wetting;
w 0.87;s=20kPa
e0=0.87,
0.2
0.1
0
0.1 1 10 100
0.895
0.890
0.885
Void ratio [-]
0.880
0.875
0.870
0.865
0.860
0.1 1 10 100
Fig. 4: SWCC - drying and wetting cycle for loose specimen under different
vertical net stress and volumetric behaviour
loose), n = 8.3 (drying curve, dense), n = 3.0 (wetting curve, loose) and
n = 4.5 (wetting path, dense). During drying the slope of the loose specimen
is slightly steeper. Caused by the larger voids the loose specimen desaturates
slightly faster. Because of larger voids the volumetric water content of the
loose specimen is after reaching the air-entry value slightly smaller than for
the dense one. Since void ratio decreases the pore sizes become smaller and
as assumed the air-entry value with ψAEV = 2.0 for the dense specimen is
slightly higher than for the loose specimen, where ψAEV = 1.5 was found.
In opposite of the drying curve for the wetting curve the dense specimen is
steeper. In this case the smaller voids absorb the water slightly faster.
Water content versus matric suction is plotted in Fig. 5. In Fig. 5it can be
seen, that the water content of the dense specimen for saturated condition
Sr = 1.0 is lower than for the loose one, because of smaller voids. Finally
hysteresis is significant for both specimen.
In Fig. 4 the SWCCs for the loose specimens with different applied net stresses
σ are presented. For these tests in Fig. 4 the matric suction s is plotted
against the void ratio e, too. It can be seen that in contrast to cohesive soils,
the SWCC is not significantly influenced by the level of net stress. SWCCs
for all specimen fall in the same range. Due to applied suction there is no
significant change in void ratio. Changes in void ratio were only measured
during saturation process and after applying net stresses. The curves are
characterized by the values given in Tab. 2.
Water content plotted against the matric suction for the loose and dense
specimen are presented in Fig. 5, where experimental results from [20] are
35
loose drying
loose w etting
30
dense drying
dense w etting
25 Biarez (1989) drying
Water content [%]
Biarez (1989) w etting
20
15
10
0
0.1 1 10 100
Fig. 5: SWCC for Hostun Sand: comparison with results from Biarez (1999)
Table 2. Calculated and measured parameters of SWCC with applied net stress
Applied net stress σ [kPa] 0 10 20

Matric suction s [kPa] for Sr = 0.5 2.00 1.80 1.60
Air-entry value [kPa] 1.50 1.20 1.10
Water-entry value [kPa] 0.40 0.70 0.35
included additionally. It can be seen that current results are in a good agree-
ment with results taken from [20].
4.2 Results from one dimensional compression rebound tests
One dimensional compression rebound test with constant suction
Test results from one dimensional compression rebound tests are presented in
Fig. 6. Applied vertical net stress is plotted versus volumetric strain and void
ratio. For better understanding 3D plots of the oedometer results for loose
and dense sand specimen are added in Fig. 7. From Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 one can
see that as anticipated the stiffness for dense specimen is higher then for loose
0.000 0.000
s= 1.5 kPa s= 1.5 kPa
s= 3.0 kPa s= 3.0 kPa
s= 20.0 kPa s= 20.0 kPa
s= 50.0 kPa s= 50.0 kPa
0.005 0.005
Strain [-]
Strain [-]
s= 20.0kPa
s= 3.0kPa
0.010 0.010
s= 1.5kPa
s= 3.0kPa
s= 50.0kPa s= 1.5kPa
s= 20.0kPa
s= 50.0kPa
0.015 0.015
0.665 0.890
s= 1.5 kPa s= 1.5 kPa
s= 3.0 kPa
0.660 0.885 s= 3.0 kPa
s= 20.0 kPa s= 20.0 kPa
s= 50.0 kPa
s= 50.0 kPa
0.655 0.880
Void ratio [-]
Void ratio [-]
0.650 0.875
0.645 0.870
0.640 0.865
0.635 0.860
0.630 0.855
1 10 100 1000 1 10 100 100
Vertical net stress [kPa]
Vertical net stress [kPa]
Fig. 6: Vertical stress versus strain and void ratio of dense (left) and loose
(right) specimen in the oedometer cell for constant suction conditions
Fig. 7: 3D plots of oedometer test results for dense (left) and loose (right)
sand samples
specimen. For the loose specimens a change in void ratio of approximately

∆e = 0.025 and ∆e = 0.015 for the dense specimens was calculated, which
indicates a higher stiffness for the dense one.
The stiffness increases with matric suction from s = 1.5 kPa, 3.0 kPa and
20.0 kPa for the tests carried out for dense specimen. Lowest stiffness re-
sults from the test with a matric suction of s = 50.0 kPa. Similarly to the
dense specimens for the loose one the lowest stiffness was calculated for the
specimen with matric suction s = 50.0 kPa. With increase in matric suction
from s = 1.5 kPa to 20.0 kPa the stiffness is slightly increasing. Comparing
the unloading path of all tests one can state that, there is a similar behavior
for all the specimens. To further underline the observed behavior we display
the compression index Cc and the swelling index Cs in Fig 8. Compression
index decreases first for suction less then about 3kP a and increases again for
higher suction values. As expected compression index of the dense specimen
is less then the compression index of the loose one, which indicates a higher
stiffness. No influence of the suction on the swelling index can be observed.
According to Eqs. 2 the stress dependent stiffness moduli Eoed and Eur were
calculated for vertical net stress σ = 12kP a as well as for σ = 100kP a,
ref ref
where Eoed is the normalized stiffness modulus for initial loading and Eur is
the normalized stiffness modulus for un-/reloading path. Results are given in
Table 3. For the constant m we calculated for the dense specimen m = 0.62
to 0.81 and the loose specimen m = 0.53 to 0.73. For detailed information of
determination of Eoed and Eur see [11, 19].
m m
ref σ ref σ
Eoed = Eoed Eur = Eur σref = 100kP a (2)
σref σref

0 1 10 100
0.000
0.005
0.010
C c , C s [-]
0.015
*
0.020
*
loose C* c
0.025
loose C* s
0.030 dense C* c
dense C* s
0.035
Fig. 8: Compression and swelling index versus suction
Table 3. Results for stiffness modulus in MPa for dense and loose specimen
Matric suction [kPa] dry 1.5 3.0 20.0 50.0

dense
Eoed σ = 100 23.3 30.3 29.4 35.6 27.8
Eoed σ = 12 10.4 6.9 8.2 8.1 5.7
Eur σ = 100 175.2 131.5 258.0 141.3 167.8
Eur σ = 12 8.0 14.8 10.4 15.9 16.3
loose
Eoed σ = 100 15.1 24.4 24.7 24.6 22.8
Eoed σ = 12 6.7 6.6 7.1 5.4 4.9
Eur σ = 100 102.9 154.9 138.3 125.7 153.8
Eur σ = 12 7.6 15.0 12.0 17.2 17.0
One dimensional compression rebound test with constant water

content
To compare the current results, results for Cc and Cs from previous investi-
gations (constant water content tests) [14] are shown in Fig. 9. The results
for Cs are similar to that shown in Fig. 8. In opposite to the current results
on Hostun sand no influence of matric suction on Cc and thus on the stiff-
ness can be observed. The results are very much scattered and no tendency
is apparent.
0.00
0.01
0.02
Stiffness [-]
Compession index
Swelling index
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Water content [-]
Fig. 9: Compression and swelling index versus water content, quartz sand
Weferlingen (e0 ≈ 0.84, (w0 − wend )max = ±0.03)
Collapse potential
Results of oedometer tests for estimation of collapse potential are presented

in Fig. 10 (Method 1), Fig 11 (Method 2) and Fig. 12 (Method 3) for loose
samples. All diagrams show, that the collapse potential of Hostun Sand is
very small. It seems that Method 1 is not a suitable procedure for estimation
of collapse potential. Even during saturation at small net stress of σ = 5
kPa a difference in void ratio of ∆e = 0.0016 was measured. Reason for this
behavior is, that macrostructure is already destroyed after first saturation
process, before applying higher suction of 5 kPa.
Results from Method 2 show differences in void ratio of ∆e = 0.0033 for
saturation at σ = 5 kPa, ∆e = 0.0022 for saturation at σ = 12 kPa and
difference in void ratio of ∆e = 0.0020 for saturation at σ = 25 kPa. Com-
paring the compression index for loading path before and after saturation
one can find that stiffness of the sand decreases with saturation process. The
compression index Cc = 0.0108 for first loading path with matric suction of
s = 5.0 kPa in comparison with Cc = 0.0204 for the second loading path
with Sr = 1.00 is smaller and indicates higher stiffness.
The same behavior was found during Method 3, where we calculated Cc =
0.0094 for first loading path and Cc = 0.0226 for second loading path.
Fig. 13 presents results concerning the collapse potential of quartz sand We-
ferlingen. By using Method 3 this test was carried out (w = 5%). Saturation
was started at a vertical net stress of σ = 100 kPa. The sand sample col-
lapsed from void ratio of e = 0.813 to e = 0.806.
0.890
s= 5.0kPa Sr= 1.00
0.885
∆ e= 0.0016
void ratiol [-] 0.880
0.875
0.870
0.865
1 10 100
vertical net stress [kPa]
0.890
0.885 s= 5.0 kPa Sr= 1.00
0.880 CC=0.0126
void ratio [-]
∆ e= 0.0013
0.875
0.870 CC=0.0183
0.865
0.860
1 10 100
0.890
s= 5.0 kPa Sr=1.00
0.885
0.880
void ratio [-]
∆ e= 0.0012
0.875
0.870
0.865
0.860
1 10 100
Fig. 10: Estimation of collapse for vertical net stress at (top) σ = 5.0 kPa
and (middle),(bottom) σ = 12.0 kPa, loose Hostun Sand, Method 1
0.895
0.890 s= 5.0kPa Sr= 1.00
0.885 ∆ e= 0.0033
void ratio [-]
0.880
0.875
0.870
0.865
0.860
1 10 100
0.895
s= 5.0 kPa Sr= 1.00
0.890
0.885 CC=0.0108
∆ e= 0.002
void ratio [-]
0.880
0.875
CC=0.0204
0.870
0.865
0.860
1 10 100
0.895
0.890 s= 5.0kPa Sr= 1.00
0.885
Porenzahl [-]
0.880
∆ e = 0.002
0.875
0.870
0.865
0.860
1 10 100
net vertical stress [kPa]
Fig. 11: Estimation of collapse for vertical net stress at (top) σ = 5.0 kPa;
(middle) σ = 12.0 kPa and (bottom) σ = 25.0 kPa, loose Hostun sand,
Method 2
0.895
s= 5.0kPa Sr= 1.00
0.890
∆ e= 0.0015
0.885
void ratio [-]

0.880
0.875
0.870
0.865
0.860
1 10 100
0.895 s= 5.0kPa Sr= 1.00
0.890
0.885 CC=0.0094 ∆ e= 0.0022

void ratio [-]
0.880
0.875
CC=0.0226
0.870
0.865
0.860
1 10 100
0.895
0.890 s= 5.0kPa Sr= 1.00
0.885
void ratio [-]
0.880
0.875
∆ e= 0.0009
0.870
0.865
0.860
1 10 100
Fig. 12: Estimation of collapse for vertical net stress at (top) σ = 5.0 kPa;
(middle) σ = 12.0 kPa and (bottom) σ = 25.0 kPa, loose Hostun sand,
Method 3
In comparison to the results of the Hostun Sand a distinct collapse behav-

ior was established for quartz sand Weferlingen. In Fig. 13 oedometer results
of two further tests with constant water content are shown. The compression
1.85
Sr=1,0
w=0.05
jump w=0.05 to Sr=1.0
1.84
1.83
specific volume [-]
1.82
1.81
1.80
e =0.84
0
1.79
5 10 50 100 500
vertical stress [kPa]
Fig. 13: Collapse potential of quartz sand Weferlingen: two oedometer tests
with constant water content (w=5% and Sr =1.0) and one test with jump at
100 kPa from w=5% to Sr =1.0
curve for the sand sample with water content of w = 5% is close to the first
part of the jump-test. After saturation process the compression curve of the
jump-test follows the test with Sr = 1.0.
5 Conclusions
Summarizing the presented results we can draw the following conclusions:
The SWCC of Hostun sand displays a significant hysteretic behaviour. Com-
pared to cohesive soils the effective range of suctions up to about 20 kPa
requires special care for the testing procedure. No influence of the net stress
could be observed. A change of void ratio during the tests was not measured.
Changes in initial void ratio influence both hysteresis and air entry value.
Stiffness for one dimensional compression is clearly influenced by suction for
the case initial loading. No influence was found for unloading.
Collapse potential was studied for loose conditions. Three different methods
of sample preparation related to variation of initial conditions are described.
Collapse potential is very small for the stress paths analysed.
Further studies will be related to the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity and
the shear strength under biaxial and triaxial conditions for partially saturated
states.
Acknowledgement
The presented work was carried out in the frame of the DFG-research project
Mechanik teilgesättigter Böden (Mechanics of unsaturated soils). An acknowl-
edgement is given from the second author to the research assistantship pro-
vided by the Bauhaus University Weimar Germany through the research
grant from Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), FOR 444/1-1. The au-
thors would also like to thank Dr. S. Tripathy for his valuable help performing
the tests and during preparation of this paper.
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-
Water permeability of unsaturated compacted
kaolin
N. Peroni1, E. Fratalocchi2, and A. Tarantino3

1
Dipartimento di Fisica e Ingegneria dei Materiali e del Territorio, Università Po-
litecnica delle Marche, Via Brecce Bianche, 60131 Ancona, Italy,
nicoletta_p@yahoo.it ()
2
Dipartimento di Fisica e Ingegneria dei Materiali e del Territorio, Università Po-
litecnica delle Marche, Via Brecce Bianche, 60131 Ancona, Italy,
fratalocchi@univpm.it
3
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Meccanica e Strutturale, Università degli Studi di
Trento, via Mesiano 77, 38050 Trento, Italy, tarantin@ing.unitn.it
ABSTRACT: The paper presents an experimental investigation into the perme-

ability of compacted kaolin. Tests were performed in a suction-controlled oe-
dometer using the air overpressure technique: ambient air pressure (raised above
the atmospheric pressure) was kept constant and pore water pressure was modi-
fied. Permeability was measured by monitoring water inflow in response to a suc-
tion decrease and interpolating experimental data using a simplified solution of
Richards’ equation (unsteady-state method). Corrections were made to account for
the impedance of the high air-entry ceramic disc, the water lost by evaporation
into the air pressure line and the air diffusing through the ceramic. The experimen-
tal results have shown that axis-translation technique may be problematic at high
degrees of saturation and that permeability can be significantly underestimated.
INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated compacted soils is a key variable in many

geotechnical and geoenvironmental problems. These include waste management
structures (soil liners and covers), clay barriers for containment of contaminated
soils, pollutant migration in the vadose zone, stability of road and railway em-
bankments, and earth dams.
Soil permeability depends on the amount of pore space available for water. The
available pore space reduces as the soil desaturates and, hence, hydraulic conduc-
tivity decreases with suction. Hydraulic conductivity can vary several orders of
magnitude in the suction range of practical interest to engineers. This makes hy-
46 N. Peroni, E. Fratalocchi, and A. Tarantino
draulic conductivity a very critical variable in geotechnical and geoenvironmental

design.
Despite the great relevance to engineering practice, unsaturated soil permeabil-
ity is rarely measured in the laboratory or in the field. Experimental procedures are
time consuming, require sophisticated equipment and necessitate considerable ex-
pertise. In addition, several experimental methods proposed in the literature (e.g.
Vicol, 1990; Fredlund & Rahardjo, 1993; Jucà & Frydman 1996) are difficult to
implement as they involve extremely low flow rates, especially at high suctions.
As a result, many researchers have focused on procedures for indirectly predicting
unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, most of them based on water retention data.
There are three approaches for estimating unsaturated permeability: macro-
scopic, statistical and empirical. The macroscopic and statistical models are based
on the relationship between the water retention curve and the pore size distribu-
tion. Macroscopic models assume that each pore is connected only to pores of the
same size (capillary model). The equation proposed by Brooks & Corey (1964)
belongs to this class of models. In contrast, statistical models assume, more realis-
tically, that pores of different size are interconnected. The Van Genuchten’s equa-
tion (1980) is an example of statistical model. Empirical models are mathematical
functions used to interpolate experimental data and often expressed in terms of
non-dimensional variables (Richards, 1952; Gardner, 1958).
Several empirical equations have been proposed in the literature to correlate the
unsaturated hydraulic conductivity to the degree of saturation. Nonetheless, the re-
liability of these relationships remains doubtful. In particular, correlation between
measured and predicted unsaturated hydraulic conductivity may be poor in fine-
grained soils such as compacted clays (Chiu & Shackelford, 1998).
This paper presents an experimental investigation on the permeability of com-
pacted kaolin. Tests were carried out in an oedometer, where suction was con-
trolled through the application of the axis translation technique. Ambient air pres-
sure was kept constant and suction was changed by modifying pore water pressure
(air overpressure technique). Permeability was measured by monitoring water in-
flow/outflow in response to a suction change.
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS
Unsaturated permeability was investigated using the controlled-suction oedometer

designed and constructed at the Geotechnical Laboratory of the Universitat
Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain (UPC) (Figure 1).
The oedometer cell is made of stainless steel and consists of four parts: the
base, the oedometer ring, the air pressure chamber and the loading system. Verti-
cal load was applied with compressed air. Two different pistons can be used with
the oedometer. One allows the application of a net vertical stress equal to the dif-
ference between the air pressure over the piston and the pore air pressure. The
other one makes it possible to double the net vertical stress without changing the
air pressure over the piston. The two loading pistons are made of brass and end
Water permeability of unsaturated compacted kaolin 47
with a rigid bronze coarse porous disc, which is in contact with the upper base of
the sample.
Pore air pressure is supplied through the upper coarse porous disc. A 1 mm
thick rubber membrane divides the loading chamber from the lower compartment
containing the sample. The soil specimen is placed on a high air entry value
(HAEV) ceramic disc (1.5 MPa), mounted recessed into the base plate. The ce-
ramic disc allows the control of pore water pressure and it is connected to the wa-
ter pressure line.
Low-pressure High-pressure Diaphragm

Membrane loading cap loading cap pressure
Water re-
lease
valve
Pore air
pressure
Water pres-
sure inlet
Water pressure outlet

(to diffused air flush-
ing system) HAEV ceramic disc
Coarse porous disc Soil specimen
Fig. 1. Layout of the suction controlled oedometer (Di Mariano, 2000)
Water volume changes were measured using a graduated glass burette (resolu-
tion 0.02 ml) enclosed in a Perspex cylinder. The inner burette was connected to
the specimen to monitor water inflow/outflow. Two immiscible liquids were pre-
sent in the inner burette (de-aired water and a yellow coloured liquid) to form a
visible interface. It was verified that burette readings did not depend on water
pressure. Room temperature was controlled in the range 22°C r 1°C. Limiting
temperature fluctuations is essential to obtain accurate readings of water volume
change during the oedometer tests. Vertical displacements were measured with a
mechanical micrometer having a resolution of 2 Pm.
TEST MATERIAL AND SPECIMEN PREPARATION
Commercial processed kaolin (Rotoclay HB Goonvean, St.Austen, UK) was used

in the present research work (Table 1).
Table 1. Properties of Rotoclay kaolin

Property Reference Value
Principal mineral Product information kaolinite

Specific gravity (Gs) ASTM D854 2.65
Liquid Limit (LL) ASTM D4318 52%
Plastic Limit (PL) ASTM D4318 35%
Plastic Index (PI) ASTM D4318 17%
Activity (A) - 0.68
Particle Sizes:
Silt (0.002y0.074 mm) ASTM D422 75%
Clay (<0.002 mm) ASTM D422 25%
Maximum dry unit weight (Jdmax) ASTM D698 14.3 kN/m3
Optimum water content (wopt) ASTM D698 28.5%
Distilled water (EC < 20 PS/cm) was used to moisten the kaolin prior to com-
paction to achieve the predetermined water content of 22.8% r 0.4%. After mois-
ture equalisation (about 24 hours), samples were dynamically compacted (Proctor
Standard procedure) at the same initial dry unit weight
(Jdmax = 13.97 kN/m3 r 0.17 kN/m3). The initial degree of saturation of the samples
was Sr | 68%. This value was sufficiently low to ensure that all pore filled with air
were interconnected (continuous air phase). A specimen having diameter of
50 mm and height of 20 mm was finally cut from each compacted sample.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Saturation of the high air-entry ceramic
To achieve the desired bubbling pressure and to ensure continuity between the
pore water and the water in the measuring system, the high air-entry ceramic disc
was saturated prior to testing. To this end, the oedometer cell was filled with
deaired water and pressurised at 2 MPa. Then, the reservoir underneath the high
air-entry ceramic was vented to the atmosphere to let water flow downwards under
a pressure differential of 2 MPa. Saturation of the ceramic was therefore achieved
by two mechanisms, dissolution of air bubbles due to the high water pressure and
flushing out of undissolved bubbles due to the high pressure gradient (Romero
1999).
Steady state water outflow from the ceramic disc was used to calculate the
permeability of the ceramic disc. This value was used to determine the impedance
of the ceramic disc and, hence, to interpret the subsequent permeability tests.
Monitoring water flow through the ceramic under steady state conditions made
also it possible to detect possible cracks in the ceramic.
Mechanical and hydraulic paths
After flushing the drainage lines with deaired water, the specimen was placed in-
side the oedometer, the loading cap was rested on the specimen and the cell was
finally assembled.
In the first stage, air pressure around the sample was increased to a target value
of 0.5 MPa while keeping constant the water content of the specimen (undrained
conditions with respect to water phase). The pore air pressure was raised to
0.5 MPa in steps by alternatively increasing the air pressure in the loading cham-
ber (total stress) and the air pressure in the specimen chamber (pore air pressure).
Air pressures were increased in such a way that the net vertical stress always re-
mained greater than zero (but significantly less than the final target value). After
raising the pore air pressure, the net stress was increased to its final value. This
procedure is similar to the one suggested by Di Mariano (2000).
At the end of the loading path, a water pressure of 0.10 MPa was applied to the
base of the specimen in order to impose an initial matric suction of 0.40 MPa. The
pore water was then allowed to come to equilibrium with the applied matric suc-
tion.
Once equilibrium was attained, the specimen was wetted under constant net
vertical stress using the air over-pressure technique as proposed by Romero
(1999). This technique consists in keeping constant the pore air pressure (raised
above the atmospheric value) and modifying the pore water pressure, in contrast to
the more traditional water sub-pressure technique, where matric suction is con-
trolled by modifying the air pressure and keeping constant the water pressure
(usually at atmospheric value). The air over-pressure technique is preferable to the
water sub-pressure technique, especially when testing fine-grained soils at high
degrees of saturation (Romero, 1999; Gens & Romero, 2000). The variation of air
pressure can induce irreversible arrangements in the soil skeleton, especially in
unsaturated soils near saturation. Another advantage of the air over-pressure tech-
nique is that water pressure is maintained to values greater than atmospheric. This
considerably reduces the volume of diffused air that accumulates underneath the
high air-entry ceramic disc.
Measurement of water volume change
In order to accurately measure water volume changes, it was necessary to account

for pore water losses due to evaporation into the pore air pressure line (open to
atmosphere) and air diffusion through the high air-entry ceramic. Evaporation of
pore water is driven by the relative humidity gradient between the air in the pore
voids and the air in the specimen chamber, which is vented to atmosphere through
the pore air pressure line. According to Romero (1999), evaporative fluxes reduce
with increasing matric suction, with increasing relative humidity in the specimen
chamber and with lower soil porosity.
Periodical flushing underneath the ceramic allowed the removal of diffused air
from the water pressure line. This procedure was aimed at avoiding progressive
cavitation and the consequent loss of continuity between the pore water and the
water in the measuring system. Between two flushing procedures, air cavities
slowly accumulated underneath the high air-entry ceramic, thus causing an error in
the measurement of water volume change.
The measurement of the volume of water that crosses the high air-entry value
disc was corrected to account for water evaporation and air diffusion. At the end
of the transient process, the level of the meniscus in the inner graduated burette
did not remain constant, as would be expected, but changed linearly with time. In
particular, it registered pore water outflow at higher suctions (s>0.3 MPa), indicat-
ing that air diffusion was predominant over water evaporation and registered pore
water inflow at low suctions (s<0.3 MPa), as water evaporation was the control-
ling factor. The constant rate of water volume change at the end of the transient
process was used to correct water volume measurements.
DETERMINATION OF WATER PERMEABILITY
Water permeability was determined under transient conditions by analysing the

corrected inflow data (wetting paths). This approach is an unsteady-state method,
initially developed by Gardner (1956) for outflow.
For every single step of matric suction decrease, transient inflow data were in-
terpolated using the following simplified solution of Richards’ equation that takes
into account the ceramic disc impedance (Miller & Elrick, 1958; Kunze & Kir-
ham, 1962; Romero, 1999):
Q
t
1 ¦ 2 n
f 2 exp D 2 D t / L2
w (1)
Q0 2
n 1 D n a cos ec D n
where Q(t) is the volume of intruded/extracted water at time t, Q0 is the total
volume of inflow/outflow for a suction decrement/increment, L is the specimen
height, Dw is the capillary diffusivity that is dependent on water hydraulic conduc-
tivity, a is the ratio of impedance of the ceramic disc to the impedance of the soil a
= kw e / kd L (e is the ceramic disc thickness and kd is the ceramic water coefficient
of permeability) and Dn is the nth solution of the equation Dn a = cotDn (for

n = 1,2,…). This equation is based on a number of simplifications: the soil skele-
ton is incompressible, the liquid is homogeneous and incompressible, the water
flow is isothermal and the air flow in the porous medium is negligible or assumed
to take place instantaneously. A non-linear, least-squares optimisation procedure
was used to approximate test readings to the model prediction, in order to derive
the Dw parameter. Water hydraulic conductivity was calculated from the following
relationship:
D w J w Q0
kw (2)
V'u w
where 'uw is the water pressure increment, V is the volume of the sample and
Jw is the water unit weight.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION
As a preliminary test, the saturated permeability was measured on a specimen

35 mm height and 102 mm diameter. Permeability test was carried out with flexi-
ble wall permeameter according to ASTM D5084. The specimen was first com-
pacted at the same water content and dry density as the unsaturated samples and
then consolidated at confining effective stress of 100 kPa and back-pressure of
310 kPa to ensure full saturation. Permeability was measured under steady state
conditions applying hydraulic gradients ranging between 11 and 13. The saturated
permeability was found equal to 2.3u10-9 m/s. A very similar value was measured
by Mazzieri & Van Impe (2001), testing the same soil.
To investigate the unsaturated permeability, three oedometer tests were per-
formed on unsaturated compacted specimens at net vertical stress of 0.04 MPa,
0.2 MPa and 0.5 MPa. The stress paths followed in these tests are shown in Fig. 2.
An example of the variations of gravimetric water content with time during the
different wetting stages is shown in Figure 3 for the test run at 0.04 MPa net verti-
cal stress. As matric suction decreases (i.e. water pressure increases), the gravim-
etric water content of the sample increases.
0,5
Matric suction ua-uw (MPa)
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6
Vertical net stressVv-ua (MPa)
Fig. 2. Stress paths followed during oedometer tests
Vv - ua = 0.04 MPa
36
W0 =22.7% Jd = 13.76 kN/m3
s = 0.3 MPa
34
s = 0.2 MPa
32
s = 0.1 MPa
Water content (%)
s = 0.01 MPa
30
28
26
24
22
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Time (min)
Fig. 3. Gravimetric water content versus time recorded during wetting stages at
0.04 MPa vertical net stress (Peroni, 2002)
For every single step of matric suction decrease, measured water inflows were
interpolated using the simplified solution of Richards’ equation, in order to deter-
mine water soil permeability at different degrees of saturation.
The values of water permeability obtained from the three oedometer tests are
shown in Figure 4. As would be expected, the water permeability increases with
the degree of saturation. It is also interesting to note that water permeability is not
significantly influenced by the applied vertical net stress and, hence, by the varia-
tion of void ratio. This can be explained considering the Kozeny-Carman equation
for permeability of porous media (Kozeny, 1927; Carman, 1956; quoted in
Mitchell, 1992). At given temperature and degree of saturation, the water perme-
ability kw depends on void ratio e through the following relationship:
e3
k w S ,T v (3)
r 1 e
In the three oedometer tests, the void ratio for given degree of saturation did not
vary significantly ('emax = 0.05). As a result, the change in water permeability as-
sociated with a change in void ratio was anticipated to be small
(kw(e+'e)/ kw(e)~Sr,T t 0.87).
1,00E-08
Interpolation using data having Sr<0.8
Interpolation using data having Sr<0.99
Net stress 0.04 MPa
Hydraulic conductivity k (m/s)
Net stress 0.2 MPa

Net stress 0.5 MPa
1,00E-09 Saturated permeability
1,00E-10
1,00E-11
0,6 0,65 0,7 0,75 0,8 0,85 0,9 0,95 1
Degree of saturation Sr
Fig. 4. Variation of water permeability with degree of saturation for different ver-
tical net stresses (Peroni, 2002)
The most striking aspect of the data shown in Figure 4 is the discrepancy be-
tween the permeability measured on the saturated sample (Sr = 1) and the perme-
ability at saturation obtained by extrapolating the unsaturated permeability data. If
these data are fitted using a power function as suggested by Brooks and Corey
(1964), the following equation can be obtained:
kw 2.5 u 10 10 S r5.3 m / s (4)
The difference between the measured and extrapolated permeability would

therefore be about one order of magnitude. However, a closer inspection of the
figure reveals that the saturated permeability is consistent with unsaturated data
having Sr<0.8. If these data are interpolated using a power function, the following
equation is obtained:
kw 9.6 u 10 10 S r9.8 m/s (5)
which gives a saturated permeability of 9.6 u 10-10 m/s, very close to the measured
value (Figure 4). This result seems to suggest that the permeability is underesti-
mated in the range of degrees of saturation from 0.8 to 1. This is not surprising, as
air phase is likely to be in occluded form in this range of degrees of saturation.
Here, the validity of the axis-translation technique is controversial. The exponent
of the degree of saturation Sr in equation 5 is associated with the pore size distri-
bution and falls within the range of observed values as reported by Mualem
(1976).
Experimental results were then used to validate an empirical relation proposed
by Vanapalli and Lobbezoo (2002) relating relative water permeability kr (unsatu-
rated permeability to permeability at saturation ratio) to the effective saturation ra-
tio Sre:
w wres
S re (6)
wsat wres
where wres is the residual gravimetric water content, often associated to the hy-
groscopic water content, and wsat is the saturated gravimetric water content. For
the material tested, the residual water content was negligible and the effective de-
gree of saturation was approximately equal to the degree of saturation. The equa-
tion proposed by Vanapalli and Lobbezoo (2002) is:
kr S r7.9J (7)
where J is a parameter related to the plastic index PI of the soil

[J = 14.08 (PI)2 + 9.4 (PI) + 0.75]. This relationship has some practical interest, as
it would allow the estimate of the unsaturated permeability on the basis of an easy-
to-determine parameter. These authors found that this relationship is in good
agreement with experimental data for sandy and silty soils. For soils having plastic
index greater than 0.20, experimental data were more scattered. They attributed
such behaviour to the influence of soil structure on the coefficient of permeability
or to the limited set of data analysed. For the material used in this experimental
program, PI = 0.17 and then J = 2.75. The equation proposed Vanapalli and Lob-
bezoo (2002) is then plotted in Fig. 5 together with the experimental data. It can
be observed that errors can be greater than one order of magnitude. This result
confirms the difficulty in applying the proposed relationship to fine-grained soils.
1
Estimated relative permeability
Measured relative permeability
0,1
Relative permeability
0,01
0,001
0,0001
0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1
Degree of saturation S r
Fig. 5. Variation of relative water permeability with degree of saturation: experi-

mental data and theoretical prediction.
CONCLUSIONS
A suction controlled oedometer was used to investigate unsaturated water perme-

ability of compacted non-active clay (kaolin). Water permeability was measured
using an unsteady-state method. Water inflow in response to a suction decrease
was monitored and the experimental data were interpolated using a simplified so-
lution of Richards’ equation. Tests were conducted at different vertical net stresses
(0.04, 0.2 and 0.5 MPa) and exploring degrees of saturation in the range from 0.7
to 1.
Experimental results indicate that unsaturated permeability can be underesti-
mated at high degrees of saturation when using the axis-translation technique. At
high degrees of saturation, the air phase becomes occluded within the pore water
and unsaturated permeability becomes difficult to measure.
The empirical equation proposed by Vanapalli and Lobbezoo (2002) was used
to estimate the relative water permeability as a function of the degree of satura-
tion. This relationship proved very inaccurate for the clayey soil tested, confirm-
ing that this relationship is only applicable to silty and sandy soils.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Prof. E. Pasqualini for the support to the experimen-
tal activity.
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D>N1Pð@T>@P>@ Model parameter for capillary water content.

D N1PðD N1PðD D Constants in (13)
%:%,>PROPð@Coating density of water molecules or ions on grain surface
FFV7>JPñ@Absolute humidity, index s: maximum humidity (saturation)
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References
>@ 6&+,&. 3 $QZHQGXQJ HLQHV =ZHL.RPSRQHQWHQ0RGHOOV GHU S)

.XUYH DXI 6WUXNWXUlQGHUXQJHQ LQ %|GHQ Application of a two-component
model of the pF-curve to structure changes in soils%DXWHFKQLN
+HIW
>@ 6&+,&.3'LHS).XUYHELQGLJHU%|GHQEHLJURHQ:DVVHUVSDQQXQ
JHQThe pF-curve of fine-grained soils at high water suction%DXWHFKQLN
+HIW6
>@ 6&+,&.36&+0,'-.HQQJU|HQ]XU:DVVHUKDXVKDOWVPRGHOOLHUXQJ
GHU%DXVWRIIHYRQ'HSRQLHREHUIOlFKHQDEGLFKWXQJVV\VWHPHQIndex values of
soils for modeling the water balance of landfill capping systems) %DXLQJH
QLHXU%DQG+HIW$SULO6
36FKLFN
>@ 6+$1*-4/2.<48,*/(<504XDQWLWDWLYHGHWHUPLQDWLRQRI

SRWHQWLDO GLVWULEXWLRQ LQ 6WHUQ *RX\ GRXEOHOD\HU PRGHO &DQ *HRWHFK -
SS
>@ )5('/81' '* 5$+$5'-2 + 6RLO 0HFKDQLFV IRU 8QVDWXUDWHG
6RLOV:LOH\1HZ<RUN
>@ .8521+9HUVXFKH]XU)HVWVWHOOXQJGHU*HVDPWREHUIOlFKHYRQ(UG
E|GHQ 7RQHQ XQG YHUZDQGWHQ 6WRIIHQ (Measurements on the evaluation of
the total inner surface of soils, clays and similiar materials)=3IODQ]HQHU
QlKUXQJX'QJXQJ$6
>@ /$1*(508QWHUVXFKXQJHQ]XU7KHRULHGHU:DVVHUDXIQDKPHIlKLJ
NHLWYRQ7RQHQ(Evaluation of the theory of water uptake of soils)9RUWUlJH
GHU%DXJUXQGWDJXQJ6
>@ )5('/81' ;,1* (TXDWLRQV IRU WKH VRLOZDWHU FKDUDFWHULVWLF FXUYH
&DQ*HRWHFK-
>@ 6,/9(,5$$$Q$QDO\VLVRIWKH3UREOHPRI:DVKLQJ7KURXJKLQ 3UR
WHFWLYH)LOWHUV3URFWK,&60)(0RQWUHDO
>@+$57*(+251(LQIKUXQJLQGLH%RGHQSK\VLN$XIODJH
>@6&+,&.3%RGHQPHFKDQLVFKHXQGEDXWHFKQLVFKH(LJHQVFKDIWHQYRQ
%HQWRNLHVGLFKWXQJHQ 1DFKZHLV GHU *HEUDXFKVWDXJOLFKNHLW (Properties of
Bentokies-sealings for waste deposits – proof of security and serviceability)
%DXWHFKQLN+6
>@6&+,&.3=XP(LQIOXVVQHJDWLYHU3RUHQZDVVHUVSDQQXQJHQDXIGLH
6WDQGVLFKHUKHLWYRQ(LQVFKQLWWVE|VFKXQJHQLQEHUNRQVROLGLHUWHQ%|GHQOn
the influence of negative pore water pressure on the safety of cutting slopes in
overconsolidated soils,Q0LWWHLOXQJHQGHV,QVWLWXWVIU%RGHQPHFKDQLNXQG
*UXQGEDX8QL%Z0QFKHQ+
>@ 0,7&+(// -. )XQGDPHQWDOV RI 6RLO %HKDYLRXU 6HFRQG (GLWLRQ
-RKQ:LOH\ 6RQV1HZ<RUN
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RUFRQWDFW SHWHUVFKLFN#XQLEZPXHQFKHQGH
STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION -
MEASUREMENT OF SUCTION
Influence of microstructure on geotechnical
properties of clays
R.M. Schmitz1,2, C. Schroeder1, and R. Charlier1

1
Geomecanics and Engineering Geology - Géomac - Université de Liège, Belgium
2
National Scientific Research Fund (F.N.R.S.)
Abstract. Clays are geomaterials, which are used in various applications in our
society. The more common geotechnical applications are: waterproof cores of
dams, barriers to contain waste, slurry walls etc. But even if clays are not used as
construction materials the geotechnical engineer encounters them frequently dur-
ing construction of e.g. foundations and tunnels. Within the group of clay minerals
we find individual clay species that possess geotechnical properties that vary
enormously. These differences in geotechnical properties can be related directly to
the differences in microstructure of the clay minerals. In this contribution it is
shown how the knowledge of clay microstructure from X ray diffraction analysis,
thus knowledge of the clay mineralogy, can be used to assess the geotechnical be-
haviour of the clay. When mineralogical alteration processes of the clay are know
from appropriate geological analogues, the geotechnical characteristics of the en-
gineered clay structure can be estimated on the basis of these processes (e.g. con-
tainment of hazardous waste, infiltration of permeates in dams etc.). This implies
however that the clay used as construction material is well characterised. A
method to prepare such a clay atlas and how to use it is presented in this contribu-
tion.
1 Introduction
In environmental engineering clays are the most important construction materials

used to seal hazardous waste from the biosphere until fossilisation of the waste
occurs. The required technical life of the clay seal ranges from hundreds of years
if domestic waste is concerned, to tens of thousands of years in the case of rad-
waste. During this period the clay barrier is exposed to varying environmental
conditions, like changes in pore fluid chemistry or heat. This variation provokes
microstructural changes, reflected in clay mineral alteration processes. These
processes can be analysed relying on x ray diffraction techniques. The link be-
tween x ray diffraction techniques and geotechnical properties is provided by the
equivalent basal spacing concept. The mineral alterations likely to occur were
90 R.M. Schmitz, C. Schroeder, and R. Charlier
simulated in the laboratory in the framework of a multidisciplinary research pro-

ject funded by the Walloon region. Some of the alteration processes that were ob-
served, will be discussed, referring to tests performed with natural clayey soils
having a complex mineralogy representative of the clay reserves in Belgium on
one hand and monomineral clays used for demonstration purposes on the other.
Materials
The materials that were used were natural Tertiary clays obtained in Soignies and
Tournai (Ypresian) and in Kruibeke (Rupelian). Analysis revealed that the clays
consist of illlite, neoformed volcanogenic illite-montmorillonite mixed layers (10-
14m), illite-chlorite random mixed layers (10-14c), chlorite and kaolinite, and
only in the Tournai clay some natural pillared smectite with Al hydroxyls in the
interlayers (SmAl). The average composition of the clay minerals in the natural
materials is given in Table 1. Next to these natural clays a reference smectite and
kaolinite were used.
Methods
Geotechnical tests
The Atterberg test results of the natural clays were obtained using the Casagrande
cup according to NF P94-051. The cone parameters give liquid limits that rea-
sonably correspond with Casagrande liquid limits. However the very different
procedures of the falling cone test and the Casagrande cup must lead to different
values of liquid limits for extreme soils (Muir-Wood 1990). Above a liquid limit
of 100% (Head 1992) the cone method tends to give slightly lower values. Al-
though the cone method is preferred to the Casagrande method (Muir-Wood 1990)
the data for the clay determined using the Casagrande cup were used because it is
the most widespread method used in Belgium (Table 2). The average liquid limit
and plasticity index values of the three natural clays (after gentle drying at 30°C
and grinding) are given in Table 1.
Influence of microstructure on geotechnical properties of clays 91
Table 1. Average Atterberg properties and clay mineral composition
CF(10-14m)FOA
CFKaoliniteFOA
CFChlorite FOA
TCFTRP (%)
CF(10-14c)FOA
LLcasa (%)
CFSmAlFOA
CFIlliteFOA
PI (%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
Reference 59 25 10 0 0 0 90 0 95
Kaolinite
Kruibeke average 63 34 28 18 17 5 13 19 71
Tournai average 1.2e2 76 16 7.0 68 9.0 0 0 81
Soignies average 35 11 33 15 16 6.0 20 10 49
Reference smectite 6.6e2 6.1e2 0 0 1.0e2 0 0 0 95
Table 2. Methods currently used to determine the liquid limit at Belgian Universi-
ties
University Tool for Atterberg test Standard
VU-Brussel Casagrande cup ASTM D4318
UL-Bruxelles Casagrande cup ASTM
FA-Gembloux Casagrande cup LCPC M.O. S.I.-4-1963
RU-Gent Casagrande cup BS 1377
Cone penetrometer1
U-Liège Casagrande cup NF P94-051
U-Louvain la Neuve Casagrande cup BS 1377 NF P94-051
1
A cone penetrometer is present but used only if explicitly demanded by client
Clay mineralogy analysis
The mineralogy was determined using the Liège Clay Laboratory sample prepara-
tion as described in (ManWal 2001) and (Schmitz et al. 2001). The total clay frac-
tion was analysed and not only the fraction smaller than 2 microns in order to take
into account all clay minerals present.
The equivalent basal spacing
To relate the interlayer space and the basal spacing of a polymineral clay to the
liquid limit the concept of equivalent basal spacing was previously introduced
(Schmitz et al. 2002):
n (1)
EBS TCF TRP ¦ CFi FOA BS i( 001) FOA
i 1
The relative amount of a clay mineral is multiplied with the basal spacing (Å)
of this mineral known from literature. This step is repeated for all measured clay
fractions. Then these values are summed. This sum is then corrected for the total
amount of clay minerals in the sample.
An example: if the sample only consists of smectite; the TCFTRP = 1, the
CFSmectiteFOA=1 and the BSSmectite(001)FOA = 14Å. Therefore the EBS will be 14Å as
well. If the sample only consists of sand: the EBS=0 Å
In Fig. 1 the EBS is plotted versus the liquid limit of the same samples
(Casagrande cup). If a Boltzmann distribution of data is assumed (coefficient of
determination is equal to 0.98) then
A1 A2 (2)
EBS LL Casa x0 / xd A2
1 e

LL xd LN A1 A2 1 x0
EID A2
(3)
with: A1 = -1.268E2; A2 = 1.315E1; x0 = -1.528E2 and xd = 6.571E1
Fig. 1. The equivalent basal spacing versus the liquid limit of three natural clays
(exposed to landfill leachates).
Fig. 2. The equivalent basal spacing versus the liquid limit of three natural clays
and a reference smectite (Smref).
How the correlation between the EBS and the LL can be used to predict the be-
haviour of clay in engineering terms is shown in the examples in the next sections.
Therefore reference is made to the following well known correlations between the
Atterberg test results and other geotechnical properties:
Using the expression by (Terzaghi and Peck 1967) a link can be made between
the liquid limit and the compression index:
CC 0.009 ( LL 10) (4)
Using the expression by (Wetzel 1990) a link can be made between the specific
surface of the clay and the liquid limit (if LL>50%):
Sa
LL 46.5 (5)
1.01
If the results of index tests on a number of samples of related soils are plotted
on a plasticity chart the points tend to lie on a straight line which is often ap-
proximately parallel to the A line (Muir-Wood 1990):
PI ALL B (6)
The parameters A and B were determined for the three natural clays and the
reference smectite:
Table 3. Relationship between LL and PL for different clay families. All samples
were carefully dried, exposed to demineralised water and different landfill
leachates. Results are the average of a total of 188 tests.
A B
Kruibeke average 0.94 -25.7
Tournai average 0.71 -6.55
Soignies average 1.97 -57.3
Reference smectite aver- 1.02 -62.3

age
With the relationship between the LL and the PI for each group, the change in
PI can be estimated if a change in EBS is known. The PI of a clay can be related to
the undrained shear strength as shown by (Mitchel 1993):
I' 6.6LnPI 50.4 (7)
Application EBS: Clay exposed to heat
What will happen to the clay barrier once it is exposed to heat, like in the case of
storage of radioactive waste? From clay mineralogy it is known that heating to e.g.
500°C during several hours causes a collapse of smectite to 10 Å and the disap-
pearance of the kaolinite peak. How these processes can be described in terms of
EBS is shown below.
For the reference smectite the initial EBS = 0.95*14 = 13.3Å according to (1).
This value corresponds using relationships (3) - (6) to:
LL >> 300%
PI >> 300%
Cc >> 3.2
Sa > 300 m²/g.
These values were validated as is evidenced by the following measured values:
LL = 660%, PI = 610%, Cc = 5.3 (van Paassen 2002) and Sa = 556m²/g (Keijzer
2000).
After heating to 500°: EBS = 0.95*10 = 9.5 Å, corresponding using relation-
ship (3), (4), (6) to:
LL=85%, PI=25% and Cc~0.7.
The clay has changed enormously but still, its properties are those of a high
plastic clay (type: TA DIN18196 or CH BS1377). The liquid limit value is thus be
representative of a smectite after collapse of the interlayer space without rehydra-
tion.
Atterberg tests cannot, however, be performed without re-exposure of the sam-
ple to water. Tests were performed to analyse the reversibility of the collapse of
the interlayer space. After renewed exposure to water part of the collapsed smec-
tite (43%) reopens while another part remains at 10 Å (57%). This corresponds to
an EBS = 0.95*(0.57*10+0.43*14)= 11.7 Å and using relationships (3), (4) to a
LL near 1.5E2% and Cc near 1.2.
The measured liquid limit varied between 1.6E2 and 1.9E2 % which is close to
the predicted value. The variability is due the difficulty of rehydrating the clay af-
ter heating. The same observation is valid for the PI. Due to the heating the Cc
also decreased, from 5.3 to 1.9, an order of magnitude predicted correctly by the
EBS concept.
Fig. 3. The equivalent basal spacing versus the liquid limit of the reference smec-
tite (Smref) and the same clay after heating to 500°C (Smref 500°C). Fig. 4. The
equivalent basal spacing versus the liquid limit of the Tournai clay versus the
Tournai clay after heating to 500°C (Taverage 500°C).
Tournai clay has an initial EBS = 0.81*(0.16*10+0.07*12+0.68*14+0.09*14)

= 10.7 corresponding using relationship (3), (4), (6), (7) to:
LL near 1.1E2%, PI near 7.3E1%, Cc near 0.9, Sa = 65 m²/g and I' near 22°.
The measured values are close:
LL = 1.2e2%, PI = 7.6e1%, Cc = 0.9 and a Sa = 66 m²/g only the I' was higher
than expected being equal to 27°.
When Tournai clay was exposed to 500°C heat it was impossible to determine
the liquid limit afterwards. The clay did not rehydrate, and did not show the typi-
cal clayey stickiness. If it is assumed that this material had a liquid limit just be-
low the test limit of about 28% (Wendehorst 1996). If it is assumed that the loss
of its "plasticity" indicates destruction of the smectite clay minerals, this fraction
has to be added to the fraction of non-clay minerals. This results in an EBS =
0.26*(0.49*10+0.23*12+0.28*14) = 3.0 Å and a LL = 15 %, indeed a value below
the test limit of the liquid limit test. This indicates that our assumption was cor-
rect. The transition of the EBS and LL properties of the Tournai clay due to heat-
ing are shown in Fig. 4.
These examples show that although heating has a tremendous effect on the liq-
uid limit, the impact is different depending on the relative composition of the clay
minerals. The reference smectite could resist the effect of heating fairly good and
can still be classified as a plastic clay (type TA DIN18196 or CH BS1377) after
heating, whereas the Tournai clay changes from an plastic clay (TA or CH) a clay-
silt mixture (ST). This behaviour was predicted for different clays using the EBS
concept types and validated afterwards by performing the test.
Application EBS: Clay exposed to salt solutions
Background
Salts tend to change the behaviour of clays (Schmitz and van Paassen 2003) by the
following processes:
x Osmotic effects
- on a large scale: if the clay is considered as a semi-permeable membrane the
presence of salts causes fluids to migrate from the clay outwards, producing a de-
crease of volume, increase of shear strength, etc.
- on a small scale: if salts enter the clay by advection or diffusion, the thickness
of the double layer is decreased, the clay particles approach each other, resulting
in a decrease of the liquid limit, decrease of volume, increase of permeability, etc.
x Mineral alteration:
- cations, like potassium, can enter the pseudohexagonal voids of Smectite.
This causes to some degree an irreversible collapse of the interlayer space. The
properties of this collapsed material will correspond to that of an illitic clay or il-
lite-smectite mixed-layer, which generally have a lower liquid limit and higher
shear strength.
x Crystallisation of salt crystals
By increasing the concentrations of ions in the pore fluid by e.g. evaporation
salts start to crystallise. This modifies the clay in two ways:
- due to the hygroscopic nature of salt, water is drawn from the clays; this loss
of water is accompanied by a decrease of volume, reorientation of clay particles,
etc.
- the presence of salt crystals in solid form increases the grain size of the total
sample; the silt-sized fraction increases with respect to the clay fraction which re-
sults in a decrease of the liquid and plastic limit, an increase in internal angle of
friction, etc.
Reference smectite
These processes can be described for the reference smectite in terms of EBS as
follows:
initial EBS = 0.95*14 = 13.3 Å corresponding to a LL >> 300% and a
Cc >> 3.2.
After addition of a KCl solution and air-drying the samples during only one cy-
cle, the basal spacing collapsed to 12 Å. The EBS becomes:
EBS = 0.95*12 = 11.4 Å corresponding to a LL = 135%. The measured LL
however was much lower. But it was reported that the clay sample felt silt like. In
fact as was shown by XRD analysis, these "silt" particles were sylvite (KCl salt)
crystals. After a standard was created to determine accurately the amount of KCl,
it was found that the sample consisted up to an average of 40 % Sylvite. The EBS
in this case is:
EBS = 0.6*(1*12) = 7.2 Å corresponding to a LL = 52 %, very close to the ac-
tual value measured in the lab: LL = 47 %. The original value of the reference
smectite, the correlation line between the LL and the EBS, and the actual meas-
ured data points are given in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. The equivalent basal spacing versus the liquid limit of the reference smec-
tite (Smref) and the same clay after exposure to a saturated salt solution (Smref
KClsat). Fig. 6. The equivalent basal spacing versus the liquid limit of three natu-
ral clays and a reference Kaolinite( Kao ref).
The natural Tournai clay
The friction angle of a remoulded Tournai clay sample tested during a CU triaxial
test is 27°. If the sample is exposed to a saturated NaCl solution, remoulded and
tested, will the salt change the friction angle? From the experiment with the refer-
ence smectite and salt we know that the clay fraction decreases from 95% to 60%
thus by a factor 1.58; assumed that this same factor applies to the Tournai clay -
NaCl combination, the initial clay fraction of 81% will decrease to 51%, addition-
ally the basal spacing of the 68% (10-14m) will decrease form 14 Å to 12 Å this
will result in an EBS = 0.51*(0.16*10+0.07*12+0.68*12+0.09*14) = 6 Å,
LL=40% and I'=30°. The salt increased the relative friction angle by 4°. Lab re-
sults were able to confirm this. The measured value was 31°.
Podzolinisation
Clays are often used as engineered barrier to contain hazardous waste because
clays:
- are available in large quantities in low lying areas where the population den-
sity is highest and thus, the need for these industrial materials is largest
- are cheap
- have a low hydraulic conductivity
- can be easily handled and formed
- are quite stable because they are at the end of the weathering chain
A Tournai clay sample, consisting of a core of compacted natural clay, was
permeated during months with a young landfill leachate. At the end, thin sections
of this clay sample were examined. The analysis showed that the processes ob-
served such as smectitisation and secondary chloritisation strongly resembled to
the process of podzolisation observed in the field. This indicates that if the labora-
tory test is representative for the conditions present in the base of a landfill the
clay used in the clay barrier will slowly transform into kaolinite.
What does this mean for the changes in terms of geotechnical properties?
In Fig. 6 the position of the three natural clays is shown as well as the position of a
"pure" Kaolinite. The process of kaolinitisation will have the largest impact on the
Tournai and Soignies clays. Kruibeke clay will not change that much. Although
the process is beneficial for the Tournai clay in terms of gaining undrained shear
strength and decreasing the compression index, the Soignies clay will be affected
the other way round. The Tournai clay will show next to the gain in "strength" a
decrease of the specific surface and cation exchange capacity. For the Soginies
clay it will be the opposite.
This example shows once more the benefit of using the EBS concept to relate
clay mineral knowledge to quantify changes of clay in terms of its engineering
properties, this knowledge can be used to choose the right clay for the right task.
Conclusions
The behaviour of clayey soils is related to the microstructure and the clay miner-
alogy. This clay mineralogy changes if clays are used in divers engineering appli-
cations. In environmental engineering clays are frequently used as seal to contain
hazardous waste. If clays are used as seal they will be exposed to e.g. brines and
heat. The effect of this exposure was analysed on three natural soils with a com-
plex mineralogy, representative of the common natural clay an engineer will work
with in practise. The microstructure of clays can be studied in various ways but
with small modifications in sample preparation, the X ray diffraction technique is

a very suitable method. A link between the result obtained by X ray diffraction
analysis and geotechnical properties can be made using the equivalent basal spac-
ing concept. The changes presented like exposure to heat and brines caused col-
lapse of the interlayer space resulting in a quantifiable decreased in Atterberg lim-
its and compressibility. It was shown that if the reaction of clay minerals when
exposed to certain conditions is known from clay mineralogical literature, quanti-
tative predictions of the changes in various geotechnical properties can be given.
Finally it was shown that once the mineralogical alteration process during permea-
tion of domestic landfill leachate through the clay barrier is recognised compari-
son to natural analogues can be made, and based on this knowledge suitable clay
deposits can be chosen to limit the changes in geotechnical properties during the
technical life of the clay seal.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere gratitude for the support by the Liege Clay
Lab (Prof. J. Thorez and D. Dosquet).
References
Head K.H. (1992) Manual of soil laboratory testing. vol 1. Soil classification and
compaction tests. Second edition. John Wiley & Sons.
Keijzer T.J.K. (2000) Chemical osmosis in natural clayey materials. Ph.D. thesis,
Universiteit Utrecht.
Manwal (2001) Manuel relatif aux matières naturelles pour barrières argileuses
ouvragées pour C.E.T. et réhabilitation de dépôtoirs en Région wallonne. Ver-
sion 1. Marcoen JM, Tessier D, Thorez J, Monjoie A, Schroeder Ch. (eds).
Ministère de la Région wallonne, Direction générale des Ressources naturelles
et de l'Environnement Belgium.
Mitchel J.K. (1993) Fundamentals of Soil Behaviour. Second edition. John Wiley
& Sons Inc.
Muir-Wood D. (1990) Soil behaviour and critical state soil mechanics. Cambridge
university press.
Schmitz R.M. van Paassen L.A. (2003) The decay of the liquid limit of clays with
increasing salt concentration. Ingeokring Newsletter. Dutch association of
Engineering geology. 9: 10-14.
Schmitz R.M. Dosquet D. Illing P. Rodriguez C. Ourth A-S Verbrugge J-C. Hil-
ligsman S. Schroeder C. Bolle A. Thorez, J. Charlier R. (2001) Clay –
leachate interaction: a first insight. In: 6th KIWIR International Workshop on
Key Issues in Waste Isolation Research. P. Delage (ed). Ecole Nationale des
Ponts et Chaussèes, pp 245-269.)
Schmitz R.M. Schroeder Ch. Charlier, R. (2002) A correlation between clay min-
eralogy and atterberg limits. In: Proceedings International Workshop of
Young Doctors in Geomechanics. V. De Gennaro and P. Delage (eds). Ecole
Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées, pp 27-30.
Terzaghi K., Peck R.B. (1967) Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. Second
edition. John Wiley &Sons Inc.
Van Paassen L. (2002) The influence of pore fluid salinity on the consolidation
behaviour and undrained shear strength development of clayey soils. Memoirs
of the Centre of Engineering Geology in the Netherlands. TU-Delft. Vol: 216.
Wendehorst R. (1996) Bautechnische Zahlentafeln. 27. Auflage. Teubner, Stutt-
gart.
Wetzel A. (1990) Interrelationship between porosity and other geotechnical prop-
erties of slowly deposited, fine grained marine surface sediments. Marine Ge-
ology. 92: 105-113. Elsevier Amsterdam.
Suction induced by static compaction
Sara Tombolato, Alessandro Tarantino (), and Luigi Mongiovì

Trento, via Mesiano 77, 38050 Trento, Italy
saratombolato@yahoo.it / tarantin@ing.unitn.it / mongiovi@ing.unitn.it
Abstract. The paper aims at investigating suction induced by static compaction in

clay specimens. To this end, kaolin powders prepared at target water contents
were statically compacted in a shearbox apparatus. Trento (TNT) high-suction
tensiometers (0-1800 kPa) were installed through the loading pad to monitor suc-
tion changes during the loading-unloading paths. Specimens were compacted at
water contents ranging from 0.22 to 0.30 and at vertical stresses of 300, 600, and
1200 kPa. This made it possible to explore a broad spectrum of compaction con-
ditions. Experimental results are presented and discussed in the paper. The most
striking aspect of the results is that suction of unloaded specimens increased as
degree of saturation increased. This can be explained by the dependency of the
main wetting curve upon void ratio.
Keywords: compacted soil, hydro-mechanical coupling, negative pore water pres-
sure, suction.
Introduction
Compaction water content and compactive effort are known to have a significant
influence on the subsequent mechanical and hydraulic behaviour of compacted
fine-grained soils (Gens 1996). This influence of compaction procedure is fre-
quently attributed to the different soil fabrics that are produced when the compac-
tion procedure is varied. It is often implied that these changes in soil fabric pro-
duce entirely different soils, in the sense that different constitutive parameters will
be required to model soil behaviour within the context of an elasto-plastic critical
state framework. Recently, it has been emphasised that some effects can be simply
modelled by taking into account the variation in the initial compaction-induced
state (Sivakumar & Wheeler 2000; Wheeler & Sivakumar 2000; Barrera 2002).
Different compaction water contents and compactive efforts produce different
suction and stress histories and these could be sufficient to explain differences in
the subsequent behaviour.
The information available about suction history is the suction measured on the
sample at the end of the compaction process, after removing the sample from the
compaction mould. However, the suction of the unloaded sample may not be rep-
resentative of the entire suction history.
102 S. Tombolato, A. Tarantino, and L. Mongiovì
Suction changes occurring during the compaction process are generally un-
known. The lack of this type of information was the main motivation for the ex-
perimental program described herein. There was indeed another motivation for in-
vestigating suction changes during compaction. When processing data on post-
compaction suction measured on about 30 samples compacted at different water
contents and compaction efforts, it appeared that suction increased as degree of
saturation increased. This behaviour is surprising, as suction would be expected to
decrease for increasing degree of saturation.
The paper presents an experimental programme aimed at investigating the
changes in suction that occur during the compaction process. To this end, kaolin
powders prepared at target water contents were statically compacted in a shearbox.
Trento (TNT) high-suction tensiometers (Tarantino & Mongiovì 2002, 2003) were
then installed in the loading pad to monitor suction changes during the loading-
unloading paths. Specimens were compacted at water contents ranging from 0.22
to 0.30 and at vertical stresses of 300, 600, and 1200 kPa.
Previous investigation
An experimental programme on the hydro-mechanical behaviour of statically

compacted Speswhite kaolin has been underway at the University of Trento.
Within this experimental programme, samples were compacted at water contents
ranging from 0.24 to 0.34 and vertical stresses of 300, 600, and 1200 kPa. After
removal from the compaction mould, wet mass, dry mass, and total volume of the
samples were measured. This made it possible to calculate water content, dry den-
sity, and degree of saturation after compaction. In addition, matric suction was
measured using Trento tensiometers. The water retention curves of samples com-
pacted at different vertical stresses are shown in Figure 1. The retention curves
moves rightward as compaction vertical stress increases and, hence, void ratio de-
creases. This can be explained by the dependency of the retention curve on void
ratio (Romero and Vaunat 2000, Gallipoli et al. 2003).
The moisture-dry density compaction curves for compaction vertical stresses of
300, 600, and 1200 kPa are shown in Figure 2, where contours of equal degree of
saturation and of equal suction are also indicated. The optimum seems to be
reached only by the curve corresponding to the compaction vertical stress of
1200 kPa, at a degree of saturation slightly greater than 0.9. The other two curves
only develop on the ‘dry’ side of optimum. The contours of equal suction were
obtained from a bi-linear interpolation of post-compaction suction data. Using bi-
linear interpolation, data showed little variation. Nonetheless, contours of equal
suction showed a clear trend. The most striking aspect of these data is that con-
tours have a positive slope. This means that, if the soil is compacted at constant
water content, suction increases as the degree of saturation increases. This result
was unexpected, as contours of equal suction have been reported to have negative
slope (Romero 1999, Barrera et al. 2000). To better understand the mechanisms of
suction changes in compacted soils, an experimental program was carried out.
Suction induced by static compaction 103
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Fig. 2. Static compaction curves for Speswhite kaolin at different compaction vertical stress
(thick lines), contours of equal degree of saturation (dashed lines) and contours
Material and specimen preparation
The soil used in this experimental programme is natural processed clay (Speswhite
kaolin). Clay fraction (d<0.002 mm) is about 0.6, the remaining fraction being silt
(0.002 mm<d<0.075 mm). Plastic and liquid limit are 0.32 and 0.54 respectively
and the clay can be classified as non-active. The clay was supplied as dry powder
in paper bags. The water content of the powder was that imposed by the average
relative humidity in the laboratory. To prepare the moist powder, the soil was first
laid in a large plastic container to obtain layers of about 5 mm height. The soil was
sprayed with demineralised water and then thoroughly mixed. Lumps were then
cut using a spatula sharp blade. The soil was finally sieved on a 1.18 mm sieve.
The moist powder was placed in a plastic bag and stored in a high humidity room
for at least one week to allow moisture equalisation.
Experimental equipment and procedure
The soil was compacted in the shearbox body shown in Figure 3. To prevent pore
water losses due to evaporation, the shearbox was made airtight by sealing the gap
between the two halves and the gap between the retaining plate and the lower half
with silicone grease. The gap between the loading pad and the upper half was cov-
ered with a latex membrane smeared with slow setting silicone. This membrane
was glued to the loading pad and clamped over the upper half. This simple anti-
evaporation system proved effective in maintaining constant specimen suction
during the test. Two tensiometers were installed in the loading pad and kept in
place by a small cap (not shown in the figure), which was tightened to the loading
pad by means of three screws. The annular gap between the tensiometer and the
inner surface of the hole was sealed with an O-ring.
Fig. 3. Schematic layout of the monitored-suction shearbox.

Vertical displacements were measured with a potentiometer transducer having

10 mm stroke and measured accuracy of 0.003 mm (standard deviation). Vertical
load was applied with a lever-arm loading system with 10:1 beam ratio.
The water content of the moist powder was first determined by taking a small
amount of soil. The moist powder was poured into the shearbox body from a small
height. The excess moist powder was levelled off and the loading pad was posi-
tioned on the top surface of the specimen. At this stage, dummy tensiometers were
positioned in the loading pad. A vertical stress of 300 kPa was applied, thus pro-
ducing a large vertical settlement. The latex membrane was clamped to the shear
box upper half to ensure constant water content. Dummy tensiometers were re-
moved and replaced with two tensiometers, after applying a paste to the tensi-
ometer porous ceramic to make contact with the specimen. The tensiometer cap
was then set in place and tightened to the loading pad. The procedure for suction
measurement included pre-measurement and post-measurement checks of the po-
rous ceramic saturation as described by Tarantino (2003).
The specimen was kept under constant vertical stress (300 kPa) for sufficient
time to allow pore water pressure equalisation (about 1 day). Afterwards, the sam-
ple was unloaded and kept under quasi-zero vertical stress (5 kPa) for a period of
time sufficient for pore water pressure equalisation. Two loading-unloading cycles
were then applied, by increasing the vertical stress up to 600 kPa and 1200 kPa re-
spectively.
Vertical settlements recorded during load increments were relatively large and
often exceeded the travel of the vertical displacement transducer. As a result, it
was not always possible to back calculate void ratio at the end of each load incre-
ment or decrement. To cope with this problem, the degree of saturation of the
sample under quasi-zero vertical stress (5 kPa) was estimated using the retention
curves plotted in Figure 1. The degree of saturation under loading was then calcu-
lated from the vertical swelling measured upon the subsequent unloading. At the
end of the test, the shearbox was dismantled and the water content of the specimen
was measured.
Results
Three tests were carried out on specimens having water content of 0.22, 0.26, and
0.30. The results from the test on the sample having water content of 0.26 are
shown in Figure 4, where vertical stress, vertical displacement, and suction are
plotted versus time.
The values of suction recorded by the two tensiometers are in agreement (dif-
ferences are less than 10 kPa), except for the values recorded under 1200 kPa ver-
tical stress. This discrepancy was also observed in the test on sample with 0.30
water content. The reason for this difference is not clear and it is perhaps associ-
ated with the large sudden increment applied to the sample (from 0 to 1200 kPa).
It is worth noting that suction recorded after unloading from 1200 kPa is greater
than suction recorded after unloading from 600 kPa, which is in turn greater than
suction recorded after unloading from 300 kPa. This result confirms the trend
shown in Figure 2. The results from the three compaction tests are shown in Fig-
ure 5, where the paths followed during the compaction process are plotted in terms
of suction and degree of saturation. For the test at water content of 0.22, suction
measured at quasi-zero vertical stress decreased as the degree of saturation in-
creased, in contrast to the other two tests.

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Fig. 5. Results of compaction tests in terms of degree of saturation versus suction.
Discussion
The loading stages are associated with an increase in degree of saturation (water
content is constant and void ratio decreases). The resulting hydraulic path is there-
fore a wetting path. Since the sample is experiencing the highest degrees of satu-
ration ever, the sample moves along a ‘main’ wetting path. In contrast, the un-
loading stages are associated with a decrease in degree of saturation and the
resulting path is therefore a ‘scanning’ drying path.
In all the tests, specimens were subject to ‘virgin’ compression, in the sense
that they were experiencing the highest vertical stress ever. Compression was
therefore very large and the degree of saturation increased significantly. On the
other side, the unloading process produced small (‘elastic’) swelling and the de-
gree of saturation slightly decreased.
A qualitative representation of the path followed during the loading-unloading
process is shown in Figure 6 (plane suction – degree of saturation). When first
loading at 300 kPa, the soil moved on the main wetting curve (point A in Figure
6a). The subsequent unloading moved the soil to B, along the scanning curve. If
the water retention curve was independent of void ratio, suction would be ex-
pected to decrease significantly during loading at 600 kPa (B-C-D) and slightly
increase upon the subsequent unloading (path D-E). As a result, the loading-
unloading process would have the overall effect of decreasing suction. If so, the
contours of equal suction in the plane water content-dry density would have a
negative slope.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6. Interpretation of compaction tests: a) water retention curve independent of void ra-
tio; b) water retention curve dependent of void ratio.
However, the experimental results on specimens having water contents of 0.26

and 0.30 have shown that suction slightly increased after the subsequent unload-
ing. This suggests that the main wetting curve moves as void ratio changes. In
particular, the curve moved rightward for decreasing void ratio
The path followed during compression is qualitatively represented in Figure 6b.
The first compression at the vertical stress of 300 kPa moved the soil to point A,
which laid on the main wetting curve associated with the void ratio eA. Upon the
subsequent unloading, the void ratio increased slightly, the degree of saturation
slightly decreased and the soil moved along the scanning curve to point B. For
sake of simplicity, let us assume that eB # eA so that the unloading stage did not
produce any leftward movement of the main wetting curve.
The loading at the vertical stress of 600 kPa then produced a decrease in void
ratio and an increase in degree of saturation. At the same time, the main wetting
curve moved rightward. The main wetting curve is the lower bound of the hys-
theresis domain, which delimits all possible attainable states. As a result, the main
wetting curve dragged the soil to point D . Since the soil was forced to remain on
the main wetting curve, the change in suction was less than that occurring for the
case of incompressible soil (rigid main wetting curve). Upon unloading, the soil
moved along a scanning drying curve to point D*. For tests at water content of
0.26 and 0.30, Point D* was positioned on the left side of point A. This could ex-
plain the positive slope of the contours of equal suction observed in the specimens
at water content of 0.26 and 0.30. In contrast, the specimen at water content of
0.22 showed indeed a negative slope. Because of the greater stiffness (suction is
higher), the main wetting curve moved less in this latter case.
Conclusions
The experimental program described in the paper has been underway to gain better
insight into an apparent anomalous behaviour regarding observed cases where in-
creasing suctions were noted at increasing degrees of saturation for compacted
specimens. Samples compacted at high vertical stress were found to have higher
post-compaction suction than those compacted at lower vertical stress (at the same
water content).
Three compaction tests have been carried out in a shearbox, with the facility to
monitor suction during the loading-unloading cycles. Tests results have empha-
sised that suction changes occurring during the loading-unloading process (at con-
stant water content) are associated with two main mechanisms: 1) the variation of
the degree of saturation; 2) the movement of the main wetting curve. When the
first mechanism predominates, contours of equal post-compaction suction have
negative slope in the plane water content – dry density, as commonly reported in
the literature. However, when the soil is highly compressible, it is the movement
of the main wetting curve that controls suction, which increases even though the
degree of saturation increases.
References
Barrera, M. (2002). Estudio experimental del comportamiento hidro-mecánico de suelos

colapsables. PhD Thesis, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain.
Barrera, M., Romero, E., Lloret, A. and Gens, A. (2000). Collapse tests on isotropic and
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Fabric Evolution of an Unsaturated Compacted
Soil during Hydromechanical Loading
Olivier Cuisinier and Lyesse Laloui
Soil Mechanics Laboratory - Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne

(EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
e-mail : Olivier.Cuisinier@epfl.ch / Lyesse.Laloui@epfl.ch

Phone: (+) 41 21 693 23 01
Fax: (+) 41 21 693 41 53
Abstract: The main goal of this paper is to present the first results of a study per-
formed to provide insights into the relationship between the hydromechanical
stress path experienced by a compacted soil and the modification of its pore space
geometry. A new oedometer employing the axis translation technique was used to
characterize the hydromechanical behaviour of the tested material. The fabric of
the tested samples was determined using the mercury intrusion porosimetry tech-
nique under 4 stress levels and two different suctions. From this information, the
macro and micropore volume variations were then determined. The results showed
that mechanical loading produced a progressive reduction of the macropore vol-
ume and a significant increase of the micropore volume beyond a stress of
250 kPa. The obtained results tend to demonstrate that suction strengthens soil
fabric, as the initial “double structure” of the tested material was not destroyed in
the case of the unsaturated sample by the loading up to 1 000 kPa, whereas, the
saturated sample exhibited a more homogenous fabric.
Introduction
Soil structure corresponds to the combination of fabric, meaning the geometrical

arrangement of soil particles, and of interparticle bondings that stem from cemen-
tations and physical-chemical interactions (Yong and Warkentin, 1975). The in-
fluence of bonding on soil mechanical behaviour has been widely studied (e.g.
Leroueil and Vaughan, 1990), and it is well known that principal soil mechanical
properties are directly related to the soil’s initial internal fabric (e.g. Lambe,
1958). Nevertheless, there is a lack of knowledge concerning the fabric modifica-
tion that results from hydraulic and/or mechanical loadings. This kind of informa-
148 O. Cuisinier and L. Laloui
tion is, however, of great importance since hydraulic conductivity or water reten-
tion curves, for example, depend widely on soil fabric (e.g. Brustaert, 1968;
Richard et al., 2001), and that data represent essential parameters in geotechnical
and geoenvironmental engineering.
In this context, some authors have attempted the characterisation of soil fabric
and its evolution during mechanical loading performed under a saturated state. De-
lage and Lefebvre (1984), using mercury intrusion porosimetry and scanning elec-
tron microscopy, have shown that, during consolidation, only the largest pores col-
lapse at a given stress increment and small pores are only compressed when all the
macropores have been completely destroyed by the loading. These results were
confirmed by the work presented by Griffiths and Joshi (1989) and Lapierre et al.
(1990). Simms and Yanful (2001) have investigated the relationship between suc-
tion changes and induced fabric modifications. Their results have demonstrated
that soil fabric is extremely sensitive to any suction variation. However, only a
few authors have studied fabric evolution during mechanical loading of an unsatu-
rated soil (Al-Mukhtar et al., 1996; Qi et al., 1996). These authors have used re-
moulded Boom clay, which is a swelling material, and a synthetic model clay
named Na-laponite, respectively. However, their interest was essentially focused
at the clay particle level and the initial fabric of these materials was very different
from the “double structure” encountered in natural or compacted soils (Collins and
Mc Gown, 1974). Consequently, it is difficult to extrapolate their conclusions to-
wards natural or compacted soils.
Considering these observations, a study was undertaken to characterise the evo-
lution of soil fabric during mechanical loading. The suction controlled oedometer
used is presented in the first part of the paper. The mercury intrusion porosimetry
technique was selected in order to determine the soil sample’s internal pore space
geometry. Its basic principle is explained in the second part of the paper. Two suc-
tion levels were investigated (0 and 200 kPa). The first obtained experimental re-
sults are presented in the third part of the paper. The final point outlines the main
conclusions that could be inferred from these first results and further research that
will be undertaken in the framework of this study.
Suction Controlled Oedometer
Two kinds of devices were used to perform the mechanical tests: basic oedometers
and a suction controlled oedometer, especially developed for this study (Fig. 1).
This last device employs the air overpressure method for suction control. The ce-
ramic disc at the base of the sample had an air entry value of 500 kPa. An air pres-
sure/volume controller regulated the air pressure, ua, inside the sample. The water
pressure at the base of the sample, uw, was maintained constant with a water pres-
sure/volume controller. The imposed matric suction, s, is equal to ua - uw. The
maximum vertical mechanical stress, Vv, was 1 MPa. It was transmitted to the soil
sample through the upper chamber of the device, which corresponds to a water
tank made with a flexible membrane (see Fig. 1). This water was pressurized with
Fabric Evolution of an Unsaturated Compacted Soil 149
a pressure/volume controller. All the controllers used had a precision of ± 1 kPa

and ± 1 mm3. The sample diameter was 6.35 cm and the initial height about
1.2 cm. This relatively low height was necessary to reduce the time to reach equi-
librium after the imposition of a given suction to the soil sample. The vertical load
and the suction were increased step by step. Each stress step required a duration of
at least 24 h in order to reach deformation equilibrium. In some cases, several days
were required to reach equilibrium. In the case of the basic oedometer, sample
height was about 1.5 cm and the diameter was 6 cm.
Fig. 1. Suction controlled oedometer (APC: air pressure controller; WPC: water pressure
controller).
Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry (MIP)
The theoretical bases for the determination of soil fabric with MIP is very similar
to those of the pressure plate test. In the case of MIP, the non-wetting fluid is mer-
cury and air is the wetting fluid. The mercury pressure is increased step by step
and the intruded volume of mercury is monitored for each pressure increment. As-
suming that soil pores are cylindrical flow channels, Jurin’s equation can be used
to determine the pore diameter associated with each mercury pressure increment.
Due to technical requirements, tested samples must be totally dry in order to
perform a MIP test. Among the available dehydrating methods, oven drying and
air-drying should be avoided since they induce strong soil pore geometry modifi-
cation. According to Delage and Lefebvre (1984), the freeze-drying method is the
least disturbing preparation technique for water removal. Hence, this method was
selected for our study although it gives less reproductive results than oven drying
(Penumadu and Dean, 2000). The samples were quickly frozen with liquid nitro-
gen (temperature of -196 °C) and then placed in a freeze-drier for approximately
1 day. The samples were kept inside desiccators until the MIP tests were per-
formed using a Porosimeter 2000 (Carlo Erba Instruments).
A MIP test gives the cumulative mercury volume intruded as a function of the
pore radius. To further interpret MIP data, Juang and Holtz (1986) have proposed
using the pore size distribution, PSD, of the sample, defined as follows:
'Vi
f (log ri ) (1)
'(log r )
where 'Vi is the injected mercury volume at a given pressure increment corre-
sponding to pores having a radius of ri ± ('log ri)/2. It is necessary to use a loga-
rithmic scale because a wide range of pore radius, meaning several orders of mag-
nitude, are investigated. The PSD curves that are presented in this paper were all
determined using a constant value for '(log r) equal to 0.3.
Tested Material
The tested soil was a sandy loam from the eastern part of Switzerland, a morainic
soil of the Swiss Central Plateau. The plasticity index of the soil was about 12 %
and its liquid limit about 30 %. All the samples used in this study were prepared
using the same procedure. After sampling in the field, the soil was air-dried, and
after several days it was gently crushed and aggregates between 0.4 and 2 mm
were selected by sieving. They were then wetted up to a mass water content of
about 15 % and stored in an airtight container for at least one week in order to
reach moisture equilibrium. The material was then statically compacted directly
inside the desired oedometer up to a dry density of 14 kN.m-3. In a last stage the
samples were saturated. In the case of tests conducted under suction higher than 0,
the desired suction was applied in several steps after the saturation phase prior to
the application of the mechanical loading.
Hydromechanical Behaviour
The test program was set up in order to determine the mechanical behaviour of the
selected material and its fabric evolution during loading. In order to achieve this
last objective, several samples were prepared. Each was loaded up to a different
maximum stress (15, 60, 250 and 1 000 kPa) under constant suction. At the pre-
sent time, the program under null suction has been completed and one unsaturated
test has been already conducted. This sample was loaded up to 1 000 kPa under a
suction of 200 kPa (test Unsat). The obtained oedometric curves are plotted in
Figure 2 for the saturated tests and in Figure 3 for the test conducted under a suc-
tion of 200 kPa. The mechanical parameters determined from these curves are the
elastic compression index Cs, the plastic compression index Cc and the precon-
solidation stress p0(s). These data are grouped in Table 1.
Test number SAT Ch1 Ch2 Max Unsat

Applied suction (kPa) 0 0 0 0 200
Maximum applied stress (kPa) 15 60 250 1 000 1 000
p0(s) (kPa) n.a. 15-20 15-20 15-20 90
Cc n.a. -0.30 -0.27 -0.28 -0.41
Cs n.a. -0.05 -0.06 -0.04 -0.18
Table 1. Mechanical parameters.
Fig. 2. Compression curves under null suction (tests Ch1, Ch2 and MAX).
The stress p0(s) is significantly higher in test Unsat than in the saturated tests
and the parameter. This observation is very similar to the majority of existing data
in the literature (e.g. Alonso et al. 1990). The value of Cs determined in test Unsat
is significantly higher than Cs obtained in the saturated tests. This might be related
to the fact that the unloading was performed in several steps during test Unsat
whereas the unloading was done in one step in the saturated tests. On the other
hand, it is interesting to note that the slope Cc is significantly lower in test Max,
performed under null suction, than in test Unsat despite the applied suction being
equal to 200 kPa in test Unsat. Geiser (1999) observed the same kind of behaviour
on a silt and this author correlated the air entry value of the material with the suc-
tion for which Cc is maximal. Sivakumar and Wheeler (2000) obtained similar
behaviour for lightly compacted kaolin. They demonstrated that this mechanical
behaviour depends on the initial density of the material. In the case of the sample
compacted under 400 kPa, Cc increases with suction, whereas in the case of the
sample compacted under 800 kPa, Cc decreases continuously with suction. The
material behaviour observed in the tests presented in this paper is certainly related
to the relatively loose initial density of the samples related to their low density.
That conclusion is supported by data obtained by Cuisinier (2002) on a compacted
swelling soil.
Fig. 3. Comparison of the compression curves under null suction and s = 200 kPa.
Fabric Evolution during Mechanical Loading
Saturated state
In order to validate the experimental procedure set up to determine the PSD with
MIP, two MIP tests were undertaken from sample MAX. The results are plotted in
Figure 4a for the injection curves and 4b for the PSDs. No significant differences
were seen and hence repeatability was considered to be satisfactory.
It can be seen that the amount of injected mercury is directly related to the maxi-
mum pressure experienced by the sample: the higher the applied stress, the lower
the injected mercury volume (Fig. 5). From the total volume of intruded mercury,
it was possible to determine the porosity of the sample. The differences between
theoretical values of the whole sample’s porosity determined from oedometer tests
and porosity values estimated from the MIP test were always lower than 0.05.
These results confirm that samples fabric was not significantly affected by the
freeze-drying procedure. The PSD of test SAT allows the identification of two dif-
ferent pore classes inside the samples just prior to mechanical loading (Fig. 6).
This indicated that the preparation technique allows the forming of samples with a
“double structure”, with micro and macropores, similar to compacted soil fabrics.
The limit between the two pore classes could be situated approximately at a pore
radius of 0.6 Pm. Knowing this limit, it is possible to estimate the micro and mi-
croporosity of samples and their values in the different tests (Tab. 2).
Together with the PSD curves, these data allow a representation of the modifi-
cation of sample fabric during loading performed under a saturated state (Fig. 6).
It appeared that the void ratio reduction occurs by the diminution of the amount of
macropores without significant modification of the microporosity up to a vertical
stress of 250 kPa. Beyond this value, a significant increase of the microporosity
could be evidenced from PSD curves. The initial double structure of the samples is
destroyed progressively and that confirms that void ratio reduction occurs by a
progressive destruction of soil pores as stated by Delage and Lefebvre (1984). It
is, however, interesting to note that a significant amount of macropores were not
destroyed by the loading in test MAX.
Fig. 4. Repeatability between MIP tests: (a) mercury injection curves; (b) PSD.
Test number SAT Ch1 Ch2 Max

Total pore volume (mm3.g-1) 293.3 269.8 236.8 207.2
Total porosity 0.45 0.42 0.39 0.35
Macropore volume (mm3.g-1) 179.5 155.4 119.9 89.1
Macroporosity 0.28 0.24 0.20 0.15
Micropore volume (mm3.g-1) 113.8 114.4 117.6 118.1
Microporosity 0.17 0.17 0.19 0.20
Table 2. Modification of macro and microporosity during mechanical loading.
Fig. 5. Mercury injection curves of saturated samples loaded up to different vertical stress.
Fig. 6. PSD curves of the saturated samples loaded up to different vertical stress.
Suction Influence on the Deformation Process
The study of suction influence on the deformation process was undertaken by

comparing MIP data obtained in the case of tests MAX and Unsat, as both sam-
ples were loaded up to the same vertical stress (Fig. 7 and 8). The MIP data are in-
complete for the test Unsat as the minimal investigated radius was equal to only
about 0.05 Pm due to a technical problem encountered on the porosimeter. Conse-
quently, it was not possible to determine the porosity of the unsaturated sample
quantitatively from the data plotted in Figure 7.
Figures 7 and 8 tend to demonstrate that suction had a strong influence on the
deformation process. It can be seen that the Unsat sample clearly exhibited a
“double structure”, whereas the sample MAX had a more homogenous fabric, as
discussed previously. However, only pores lower than 8-9 Pm seem to be affected
by the applied suction. The amount of void having a radius comprised between 5
and 1 Pm is lower in sample Unsat than in sample MAX, whereas the amount of
pores smaller than 1 Pm is the highest in sample Unsat. Two aspects could explain
this phenomenon. First, fabric modifications produced by the suction imposition
phase in test Unsat have to be taken into account. Simms and Yanful (2001) have
shown that drying produced shrinkage of the macropores that shrink due to suction
increase. This produces an increase of the micropore volume. Consequently, we
can suppose that before the loading phase, the volume of micropores was higher in
sample Unsat than in sample MAX. Second, as evidenced in the saturated tests,
micropores are not significantly affected by mechanical loading. These two points
could explain the differences between the samples MAX and Unsat.
An important observation is that after the loading/unloading phase, there are

still macropores in the Unsat sample. This is similar to what was observed in test
MAX. This might be related to the procedure employed to prepare the samples but
additional data are needed to interpret these data further.
Fig. 7. Comparison of Max and Unsat tests mercury injection curves.
Fig. 8. Comparison of Max and Unsat tests PSD curves.

Conclusion
The paper presents the first results of a study undertaken to characterise the hy-
dromechanical behaviour and the evolution of fabric as a function of the imposed
stress/suction path of a compacted soil.
The unsaturated test was performed with a new suction controlled oedometer
using the air overpressure method. The mechanical behaviour was determined un-
der two suctions: 0 and 200 kPa. The pore space geometry of the soil was deter-
mined with mercury injection porosimetry. The MIP tests performed after the
saturated mechanical tests have shown that stress increase produced a progressive
destruction of the macroporosity which became significant for applied stresses
higher than approximately 250 kPa. In addition, after an applied stress of 250 kPa,
a significant increase of micropore volume was observed. The data already ob-
tained under an applied suction of 200 kPa suggest that suction has a strong influ-
ence on the deformation process of soil. It seems that, for the same applied me-
chanical stress, fabric is strengthened by suction. In addition, the amount of
micropores is higher in the unsaturated sample than in the saturated sample. Also,
an important observation was the fact that all macropores did not disappeared fol-
lowing the application of stress/suction.
Additional tests will be performed under suctions of 100 and 200 kPa to charac-
terise fabric modification fully as a function of suction and applied load and to de-
pict the modification of the fabric that stems from suction variation. Then, the
consequence of structural modification on other parameters, such as air permeabil-
ity or water retention, will be undertaken.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Dr Peter Weisskopf and Dr Th. Anken for providing the soil
used and the assistance of the Powder Technology Laboratory (EPFL) to perform
the freeze-dryings. This research was funded by the Swiss Agency for Environ-
ment, Forests and Landscape (contract n° 2001.H.10 granted to the second au-
thor).
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natural soils and weak rocks. Géotechnique, 40, pp. 467-488.
Penumadu, D. and Dean, J., 2000. Compressibility effect in evaluating the pore size distri-
bution of kaolin clay using mercury intrusion porosimetry, Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, 37, pp. 393-405.
Qi, Y., Al-Mukhtar, M., Alcover, J.F. and Bergaya, F., 1996. Coupling analysis of macro-
scopic and microscopic behaviour in highly consolidated Na-laponite clays. Applied
Clay Science, 11, pp. 185-197.
Richard, G., Cousin, I., Sillon, J.F., Bruand, A., and Guérif, J., 2001. Effect of compaction
on the porosity of a silty soil: influence on unsaturated hydraulic properties. European
Journal of Soil Science, 52, pp. 49-58.
Simms, P.H. and Yanful, E.K., 2001. Measurement and estimation of pore shrinkage and
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Geotechnical Journal, 38, pp. 741-754.
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compression, Géotechnique, 50, pp. 359-368.
Yong, R.N. and Warkentin, B.P., 1975. Soil properties and behavior. Developments in Geo-
technical Engineering, 5. 449 p.
Measurement of osmotic suction using the
squeezing technique
N. Peroni1 () and A. Tarantino2

1
Dipartimento di Fisica e Ingegneria dei Materiali e del Territorio, Università
Politecnica delle Marche, Via Brecce Bianche, 60131 Ancona, Italy,
nicoletta_p@yahoo.it
2
Trento, via Mesiano 77, 38050 Trento, Italy, tarantin@ing.unitn.it
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INTRODUCTION
The total suction \ is made of two components, the matric suction s and the os-
motic suction S (\ = s + S). Both matric and osmotic suction depends on water
content, although this dependency is controlled by different physical mechanisms.
Matric suction is controlled by the interaction of soil particles with the pore water
whereas osmotic suction depends on the concentration of ions dissolved in the
pore water. Most researchers have focused on the relationship between water
content and matric suction. Nonetheless, the osmotic suction may also play an im-
portant role in the hydro-mechanical behaviour of clayey soils.
Osmotic suction is present in both saturated and unsaturated soils. However,
osmotic suction remains nearly constant in saturated soils (unless the soil is ex-
posed to chemical contamination) whereas it can change significantly in unsatu-
rated soils. As the soil losses water by evaporation, the concentration of the dis-
solved ions increases, and the osmotic component of suction also increases. A
change in pore water concentration affects the interaction between clay particles
and, hence, the mechanical behaviour of unsaturated fine-grained soils. As a re-
160 N. Peroni and A. Tarantino
sult, the osmotic suction shall be regarded as a potential stress variable for unsatu-
rated clayey soils.
The assessment of the osmotic component of suction is also important to match
matric and total suction measurements. When determining water retention curves
of clayey soils, more than one technique is required to cover the entire suction
range. In the low suction range, measurement techniques are commonly based on
migration of free water (e.g. axis-translation technique and tensiometer) and ma-
tric suction is measured. In the high suction range, measurement techniques are
based on vapour migration (e.g. psychrometer) and the total component of suction
is measured. When tracing the water retention curve over the entire range of suc-
tion, it is necessary to match matric and total suction measurements through the
assessment of the osmotic suction.
Techniques for measuring soil osmotic suction are based on the extraction of
pore water from the soil sample for the purpose of determining the amount of
soluble salts contained in the extracted liquid. Several methods of pore water ex-
traction are available, namely the immiscible liquid displacement or gas extraction
method, the centrifuging method, the saturation extract method and the mechani-
cal squeezing method (Iyer, 1990). The immiscible liquid displacement method
and the gas extraction method can only be used for sand or silty soils whereas the
centrifuging method is reported to be quite satisfactory especially with sands and
silts (Iyer, 1990). The saturation extract method and the high pressure squeezing
technique are employed for pore water extraction from clays and clay shales.
The pore fluid squeezer technique has shown to give the most reasonable
measurement of osmotic suction (Krahn & Fredlund, 1972; Wan, 1996). This
technique consists in squeezing a soil specimen to extract the macropore water and
then measuring its electrical conductivity. This can be related to the total concen-
tration of dissolved salts, which can in turn be related to the osmotic suction of the
soil.
Romero (1999) has made significant contribution to the measurement of os-
motic component of suction. The author validated two empirical relationships to
correlate the electrical conductivity to the osmotic suction. To this end, the os-
motic suction determined via electrical conductivity was compared to the osmotic
suction determined from the relative humidity of the air in equilibrium with the
extracted pore water (transistor psychrometer). Substantial agreement was ob-
served between the two methods.
Furthermore, Romero (1999) assessed the validity of the squeezing technique
by calculating the osmotic suction as the difference between total and matric suc-
tion values, obtained by Wan (1996) using non-contact and contact filter paper re-
spectively. The values of total minus matric suction were found to closely agree
with the values of osmotic suction estimated on the basis of the electrical conduc-
tivity.
In general, the results of the squeezing technique measurements appear to be af-
fected by the magnitude of the extraction pressure applied (Engelhardt & Gaida,
1963; Iyer, 1990) and this influence is found to depend on the type of soil.
This paper presents an experimental investigation on the osmotic suction of
kaolin using the squeezing technique. Osmotic suction was estimated from electri-
Measurement of osmotic suction using the squeezing technique
cal conductivity of pore water extracted from the soil, using the two relationships
validated by Romero (1999). The effects of the extraction pressure and the initial
water content of the soil were first analysed. Then, the osmotic suction measured
from electrical conductivity was compared with the difference between total suc-
tion (measured with transistor psychrometer) and matric suction (measured with
axis translation technique).
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS
Osmotic suction was investigated using the pore fluid squeezer. It is a heavy-
walled stainless steel cylinder with a squeezer piston (Figure 1). A concave seat
was centrally machined in the upper part of the piston to accommodate a high re-
sistance steel sphere and allow the centring of the vertical load. The vertical load
was applied to the piston through a hydraulic load frame. A rigid ertalon disc and
a neoprene disc were placed between the piston and the upper base of the soil
sample. The former ensured a uniform load distribution on the specimen and the
latter ensured that water did not escape through the annular gap between the piston
and the inner wall of the cylinder.
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Fig. 1. Scheme of pore fluid squeezer (Peroni, 2002).
The soil specimen, having diameter of 56 mm and height of 15 mm, was placed
on a sand filter. The sand filter was used in place of ceramic porous stone, bronze
porous disc, or geotexile because it is permeable, chemically inert and does not
experience significant grain crushing when loaded at high vertical stresses. As
shown later in the paper, chemical inertness of washed sand was verified measur-
ing the electrical conductivity of distilled water maintained in contact with the
sand for 24 hours. The measured electrical conductivity appeared negligible
(20 PS/cm). The sand filter was placed at the bottom of the stainless steel cell and
connected to a sterile container using a 3 mm diameter teflon tube. The extracted
liquid was collected into the sterile container.
TEST MATERIAL AND SPECIMEN PREPARATION
Commercial processed kaolin (Rotoclay HB Goonvean, St.Austen, UK) was used

in the present research work. The physical properties of the material are summa-
rised in Table 1.
Table 1. Properties of Rotoclay kaolin
Property Reference Value
Principal mineral Product information kaolinite

Specific gravity (Gs) ASTM D854 2.65
Liquid Limit (LL) ASTM D4318 52%
Plastic Limit (PL) ASTM D4318 35%
Plastic Index (PI) ASTM D4318 17%
Activity (A) - 0.68
Particle Sizes:
Silt (0.002y0.074 mm) ASTM D422 75%
Clay (<0.002 mm) ASTM D422 25%
Maximum dry unit weight (Jdmax) ASTM D698 14.3 kN/m3
Optimum water content (wopt) ASTM D698 28.5%
To prepare the samples, kaolin powder was sprayed with distilled water
(EC < 20 PS/cm) to target gravimetric water contents (ranging from 29.6% to
52.3%). These water contents were sufficiently high to extract an adequate amount
of pore water for measurement of electrical conductivity. At the same time, they
were sufficiently low to avoid excessive dilution of pore water. The moist powder
was hand-mixed and stored in a plastic bag for one day to allow moisture equali-
sation.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Before placing the soil sample inside the pore fluid squeezer, every part of the ap-
paratus was first washed with alcohol and then rinsed three times with distilled
water, in order to reduce contamination of the pore liquid as much as possible.
Sand was put at the bottom of the pore water squeezer. In order to assure that
the sand did not alter the chemical content of the pore liquid, it was first washed
with chlorine solution, then rinsed three times with distilled water and finally
dried at a temperature of 105 °C for 24 hours.
The remoulded soil sample was placed into the pore fluid squeezer and then
covered with the neoprene disc and the ertalon disc. Finally the piston was placed
on the specimen and the squeezer was connected to the sterile container by a tef-
lon tube. The tube connections were sealed with parafilm in order to avoid evapo-
ration of pore water.
Vertical stress was applied in steps to a predetermined extraction pressure and
held until no more water was expelled (at least 24 hours). For initial gravimetric
water contents lower than the plastic limit PL of the soil, especially at the lower
extraction pressures, it was necessary to repeat the procedure two or three times in
order to collect a representative amount of pore water.
Before measuring the electrical conductivity, the extracted liquid was filtered
with a vacuum pump system and an ultra-fine White HAWP glass fibre filter pa-
per, having pore diameter less than 1 Pm. Filtration is necessary to retain colloidal
flocculated clay particles which could alter conductivity readings (Romero, 1999).
An electrical conductometer was used to measure the conductivity of pore wa-
ter. The instrument can automatically correct the measurement to account for tem-
perature changes. Osmotic suction was estimated from the electrical conductivity
of the extracted water using the following empirical relationships:
S = 0.0191 EC1.074 (U.S.D.A., 1950) (1)
S = 0.0240 EC1.065 (Romero, 1999) (2)

where S is the osmotic pressure in kPa and EC the electrical conductivity in
PS/cm. Both expressions are based on exponential correlations between electrical
conductivity and osmotic suction. The first expression was proposed by the
U.S.D.A. Agricultural Handbook N.60 (1950) (quoted in Fredlund & Rahardjo,
1993) and was obtained with water solutions containing mixture of dissolved salts;
the second one was determined with homoionic NaCl solutions by Romero (1999).
The two curves led to quite close osmotic suction values (differences were less
than 15% for osmotic suctions greater than about 40 kPa).
In the present study, two sets of squeezing tests were performed. The first one
was performed on samples prepared at different initial gravimetric water contents
(from 29.6% to 52.3%), applying the same extraction pressure of 3 MPa. The
maximum water content was chosen according to the procedure for free pore wa-
ter squeezing proposed by ASTM D4542 (1993). This recommends an initial wa-
ter content less than the liquid limit to avoid leaching of dissolved salts with con-
sequent alteration of the original saline content of the pore water. The second
group of tests was performed on kaolin samples at the same initial gravimetric
water content (w = 32%) applying different extraction pressure (3, 12, 28 and
35 MPa).
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION
Experimental results obtained by the two sets of squeezing tests are shown in Fig-
ure 2 and Figure 3. There seems to be good agreement between the two empirical
expressions used to correlate osmotic suction with the electrical conductivity.
The variation of the osmotic suction versus the initial gravimetric water content
is shown in Figure 2. It can be seen that osmotic suction decreases as the initial
water content of soil increases. In particular, its variation is more significant in the
water content range from 29.6% to 40%, whereas it seems to approach a constant
value at higher water contents. The variation of the solute concentration and,
hence, of the osmotic suction with water content has also been reported by Iyer
(1990) when using the saturation extract technique.
The variation of the osmotic suction versus the extraction pressure is shown in
Figure 3. It can be observed that estimated osmotic suction decreases as the ex-
traction pressure increases. The reduction in osmotic suction is relatively small,
being about 25% of the value at the lowest extraction pressure. It then appears that
the squeezing pressure has less influence than the initial water content on the os-
motic suction.
The variation of osmotic suction with the extraction pressure can be explained
by considering the interaction between the soil water with the clay particles. In a
dry clay powder, adsorbed cations are strongly held by the negatively charged clay
particles. Cations in excess of those needed to neutralise the electronegativity of
the clay surface and associated anions are present as salt precipitates (Mitchell,
1976). Upon wetting, these precipitated salts go into the free solution contained in
the macro-porosity which is mainly the pore water being extracted by squeezing
technique at low extraction pressures. As the squeezing pressure is increased, the
salts contained in micro-porosity water (diffused double layer) will not be dis-
solved in the free water due to the “restrictive membrane effect” (Mitchell, 1976).
Cations would tend to diffuse away from the micro-porosity level desiring to
equalise concentration throughout. However, the diffusing tendency is restricted
by the negative electrical field originated at particle surfaces which acts a restric-
tive semipermeable membrane separating regions of high concentration midway
between particles and the low concentration zones in the solution surrounding the
peds. The adsorbed cations will tend to increase liquid concentration at the particle
mid-plane to counterbalance the higher squeezing pressure. As a result, salt con-
centration of the extracted pore water and, hence, osmotic suction, decrease as the
squeezing pressure increases.
Iyer (1990) reported different values of pore water concentrations when apply-
ing different squeezing pressures. He found that concentrations of cations of the
squeezed water at pressures less than 20 MPa remained approximately constant,
becoming representative of the macro-porosity and the outer double layer. At
higher squeezing pressures, concentration decreased supposedly due to the mixing
of the free pore water with water in the double-layer. Iyer (1990) suggested that
this threshold squeezing pressure should be established for each soil. However,
this threshold squeezing pressures could not be detected for soil tested (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 2. Osmotic suction versus gravimetric water content (Peroni, 2002)
The investigation was completed by comparing the osmotic suction estimated

from extracted pore water to the difference between total suction (measured with
transistor psychrometers) and matric suction (measured with a suction controlled
oedometer using axis translation technique). To this end, samples for total and
matric suction measurement were prepared at the same target water content, using
the same soil adopted for pore water extraction technique.

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Fig. 3. Osmotic suction versus extraction pressure (Peroni, 2002)

Kaolin samples were moistened with distilled water at the predetermined water
content of approximately 23% and were dynamically compacted (Proctor Standard
procedure) at the same initial dry unit weight (Jdmax = 14 kN/m3). This water con-
tent was a compromise solution. The water content needed to be closest to the
range of water contents investigated by the squeezing technique (29.6% to 52.3%).
However, higher water contents would have produced very low total suctions,
which would have been difficult to measure with the transistor psychrometer.
Ten specimens having a diameter of 15 mm and a height of 12 mm were cut
from the compacted samples and used to measure total suction using the transistor
psychrometers. The SMI transistor psychrometer (Woodburn et al., 1993) allows
the measurement of the relative humidity of the air within a confined space and it
can be used to measure total suction values from 0.5 MPa to greater than 10 MPa.
All specimens were used to determine a single total suction value in order to
minimise the measurement errors and the effect of dishomogeneity in water con-
tent and structure. Every total suction measurement lasted one hour. The average
total suction value was approximately 0.60 MPa.
Three specimens having a diameter of 50 mm and a height of 20 mm were cut
from compacted samples and used to estimate matric suction using an axis-
translation oedometer.
The kaolin specimens were subject to an initial suction of 0.4 MPa and then
wetted under constant net vertical stress applying the following matric suction
path: 0.4 MPa, 0.3 MPa, 0.2 MPa, 0.1 MPa and 0.01 MPa. Suction was reduced
maintaining constant the air pressure at 0.5 MPa and slowly increasing water pres-
sure (air over pressure technique). During each matric suction decrement, water
volume inflow/outflow were monitored. This made it possible to back calculate
gravimetric water content at the end of each suction decrement. It was found that
matric suction corresponding to the gravimetric water content of 23% was ap-
proximately 0.35 MPa. As a consequence the difference between the total and the
matric suction was estimated as S = 0.25 MPa.
To determine the osmotic suction corresponding to the water content of 23%, it
was necessary to extrapolate the data obtained in the range 29.6% to 52.3% (Fig.
2). The extrapolation function was defined on the basis of simple physical as-
sumptions.
Romero (1999) have showed that the relationship between osmotic suction S
and concentration of the salt solution is approximately linear in the range 0-
1000 kPa when using homoionic solutions:
SvC (3)
where C is the concentration of the solution, defined as the mass of salts to
mass of extracted water ratio. The concentration C of the pore water is given by:
C = Msalt / Mw free (4)
where Msalt is the mass of salts dissolved in water and Mw free is the mass of free
pore water. The latter can be expressed as:
Mw free = Mw - Mw bonded (5)

where Mw is the total mass of water and Mw bonded is the mass of bonded water. If
Ms is the mass of the solids, w is the water content and wbonded is the water content
associated with the bonded water, we can combine equations (3), (4), and (5) as
follows:
S v Msalt / [Ms (w-wbonded)] (6)
As a first approximation, we can assume that the mass of dissolved salts is in-
dependent of water content. Accordingly, the extrapolation function takes the
form:
S = A / [(w-B)] (7)
where A and B are fitting parameters. Data shown in Fig. 2 were then interpo-
lated using equation (7) and the parameters A and B were determined using the
least square method. The extrapolation curves are shown in Fig. 2 as dashed lines.
At water content of 23%, the osmotic suction was found to be 0.20 MPa and
0.23 MPa when using equations (1) and (2) respectively. The average osmotic
suction was then 0.21 MPa, a value that is very close to the one obtained from the
difference between total and matric suction (0.25 MPa). It would therefore seem
that this extrapolation function can be used to estimate osmotic suction to the
range of low degrees of saturation, where pore water is difficult to extract from the
unsaturated soil.
CONCLUSIONS
An experimental program was carried out to assess the reliability of the squeezing
technique for measuring osmotic suction. A pore fluid squeezer was used to ex-
tract pore water from kaolin samples. Electrical conductivity of extracted pore
water was measured and related to osmotic suction using two different relation-
ships proposed in the literature.
To investigate the role of initial water content tests were performed at different
water contents and constant squeezing pressure. To investigate the role of the
squeezing pressure, tests were performed at different squeezing pressures and con-
stant water content.
Experimental results have shown that osmotic suction depends upon the initial
water content and the extraction pressure. However, changes in osmotic suction in
response to squeezing pressures appear small when compared to the osmotic suc-
tion changes associated with changes in initial water content.
The osmotic component estimated using the squeezing technique was then
compared with the difference between total suction (measured with transistor psy-
chrometers) and matric suction (measured with axis translation technique). To this
end, an extrapolation function based on simple physical assumptions was pro-
posed to extrapolate osmotic suction to the range of lower water contents. This
function fits satisfactorily the experimental data. Most of all, the extrapolated os-
motic suction seems to be good agreement with the difference between the total
suction and the matric suction.
This good agreement seems to support the reliability of the squeezing technique
for osmotic suction measurements, as well as the extrapolation method used to es-
timate osmotic suction at the lower water contents. The results also seem to sup-
port the validity of the two empirical relationships proposed in the literature used
to correlate osmotic suction to the electrical conductivity.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Prof. E. Pasqualini for the support to the experimental
activity.
REFERENCES
ASTM (1993) “Annual book of ASTM standards”, Vol. 04.08, Philadelphia.

Engelhardt, W.V. e Gaida, K.H., 1963, “Journal of Sedimentary petrology”, Vol. 33, pp.
919-930.
Fredlund, D.G. & Rahardjo, H. (1993) “Soil mechanics for unsaturated soils” John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. New York.
Krahn, J. E Fredlund, D.G., 1972 “On total, matric and osmotic suction”, Soil Science, Vol.
114, n.5, pp.339-348.
Iyer, B., 1990 “Pore water extraction-comparison of saturation extract and high-pressure
sqeezing”, Physo-chemical aspects of soil and related materials, ASTM STP 1095,
K.B. Hoddinott and R.O. Lamb, Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, pp. 159-170.
Mitchell J. K. (1976) “Foundamentals of soils behavior” Ed. J. Wiley & Sons, New York.
Peroni, N. (2002) “Contributo allo studio delle proprietà idrauliche e della deformabilità di
un terreno insaturo” PhD Thesis, Università degli Studi di Ancona, Italy.
Romero, E. (1999) “Characterisation and thermo-hydromechanical behaviour of unsatu-
rated Boom Clay: an experimental study”, PhD Thesis, Universitad Politecnica de
Cataluna.
U.S.D.A. (1950) “Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils” Agricultural
Handbook n. 60.
Wan, A.W.L. (1996) “The use of thermocouple psychrometers to measure in situ suctions
and water contents in compacted clays” PhD Thesis, University of Manitoba.
Woodburn J.A., Holden J. & Peter P. (1993) “The transistor psychrometer: a new instru-
ment for measuring soil suction”, in S.L.Houston and W.K. Wray (eds.), Unsaturated
soil – Geotechnical Special Publications n. 39, ASCE, Dallas: 91-102.
The use of different suction measurement
techniques to determine water retention curves
M. Boso1, E. Romero2, and A. Tarantino1

1
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Meccanica e Strutturale Università degli Studi di
Trento, Italy
2
Departament d'Enginyeria del Terreny, Cartogràfica i Geofísica, Universitat Po-
litècnica de Catalunya, Spain
Introduction
One of the problems of determining the water retention curve is that many
techniques are often required to cover the entire range of suction. In particular,
this applies to clayey soils where suction range can extend over hundreds of MPa.
Each measurement technique is capable of measuring a limited range of suction
and therefore provides only a part of the retention curve.
Techniques for suction measurement can involve either liquid or vapour trans-
fer. The former measure matric suction, the latter measure the total suction.
The suction measurement techniques can be also distinguished between direct
and indirect. A direct technique consists of measuring water tensile stress, while
indirect techniques exploit thermodynamic and physical laws to link suction with
other measurable variables, e. g. the relative humidity of the pore air.
To compare different measurement techniques it is necessary to performe tests
on similar samples, but because of the several assumptions underling each tech-
nique, suction data may not be fully consistent. The different stress paths followed
on the application of these techniques may significantly affect water retention
properties of the material. As a result, the stress paths followed must also be ac-
counted for when comparing suction measurements from different techniques.
This paper presents water retention data obtained with three different tech-
niques: the axis translation technique, the extended range transistor psychrometer
and the high-suction tensiometer.
The axis translation technique is an indirect method that involves the control of
air pressure and water pressure as boundary conditions. It was implemented fol-
lowing two different procedures in two pressurised cells (oedometer and shearbox
cells) to investigate the low suction range. These tests were performed at constant
vertical net stress.
170 M. Boso, E. Romero, and A. Tarantino
The extended range transistor psychrometer is an indirect method for total suc-
tion measurement and measures the relative humidity in equilibrium with the soil
(vapour phase equilibrium). It was used to investigate the high range of suction
and measurements were performed under null net stress.
The intermediate zone of the retention curve was covered by the high-suction
tensiometer. This is a direct measurement technique and the equilibrium is
achieved through the liquid phase. Also in this case measurements were performed
under null net stress. These techniques were used to trace the main drying curve of
a reconstituted clayey silt.
An attempt was made to overlap the suction ranges explored by each technique
in order to verify their consistency, as well as to study the effects of the stress
paths followed on water retention characteristics.
Tests were performed on samples normally consolidated from slurry which
were subsequently dried. One test was performed directly starting from slurry.
Tested material and specimen preparation
The material studied was taken from the Campus Nord of the Universitat
Politècnica de Catalunya of Barcelona. Physical properties of the silty/clay mate-
rial are shown in Table 1. The clay fraction is constituted predominantly by illite
(Barrera 2002).
To fabricate the samples, a slurry was prepared at a water content 1.5 times the
liquid limit. For nearly all the tests, the slurry was consolidated at a vertical effec-
tive stress of 100 kPa. In the case of the oedometer test, the slurry was directly
poured into the oedometer cell. For tests using the high-suction tensiometer and
the transistor psychrometer, the consolidated slurry was air-dried to target water
contents. The samples were sealed into plastic bags and stored in a high-humidity
chamber for moisture equalisation.
Table 1. Basic properties of the BCN silt.

Clay (%) Silt (%) Sand (%) Js wh* wL wP IP=wL-wP
(kN/m3) (%) (%) (%)
20 43 37 26.6 1.8 31.8 16.0 15.8
* hygroscopic humidity (mass basis) at a relative humidity of 50%
The mercury intrusion porosimetry was used to determine the pore size distri-
bution of the consolidated slurry before and after a main drying path with no ex-
ternal stress applied (Delage et al. 1996). Fig. 1 shows the two pore size density
functions, in which a clear mono-modal distribution is observed that corresponds
to the dominant matrix structure of the slurry condition.
The consolidated slurry exhibits a dominant pore size at 4.9 Pm. On main dry-
ing to a suction of around 500 kPa, the consolidated slurry undergoes shrinkage at
expense of the dominant pore size, defining a new mode at a lower value of 850
The use of different suction measurement techniques 171
nm. The estimated suction needed to desaturate the dominant pore size (air-entry
value) of the consolidated slurry is around 60 kPa, as estimated from the Laplace
equation. The estimated value for the consolidated slurry after undergoing the dry-
ing path is around 340 kPa.
consolidated slurry at 100 kPa
consolidated slurry at 100 kPa and then dried
1.0
4.9 Pm
Pore size density function
0.5
850 nm
0.0
100 1000 10000 100000
Entrance pore size (nm)
Fig. 1. Pore size density functions of the consolidated slurries. The dashed line
represents the condition after undergoing a main drying path with no external
stress applied.
The drying process of a normally consolidated soil under nearly saturated con-
ditions and with no external stresses applied has many similarities with the me-
chanical consolidation of the same saturated soil (Toll 1995). An oedometer test
was performed on a normally consolidated and saturated sample to complement
this mechanical information. The virgin compression line displayed a slope of -
Ge / G(lnV’v) = 0.081. On subsequent unloading – reloading paths the saturated
material displayed a slope of 0.017.
Experimental equipment and procedures
Axis translation technique
The procedure consists of increasing pore air pressure to a constant value ua,
greater than the atmospheric pressure, in order to translate the pore-water pressure
in the positive range, where it can be easily controlled/measured (Hilf 1956). The
axis translation technique was implemented in pressurised oedometer and direct
shearbox cells. The cells were equipped with an HAEV ceramic disc to ensure the
continuity between the pore-water and the water in the measuring system and with
a peristaltic or ram pump to flush out the air bubbles accumulated below the ce-
ramic.
Two different procedures were followed to apply matric suction: a) air over-
pressure technique, in which a constant air pressure was maintained and water
pressure was regulated (oedometer cell), and b) water sub-pressure technique, in
which a constant water pressure was applied and air pressure was varied (direct
shear cell).
The first procedure was applied on slurry that was directly poured into the oe-
dometer cell. The first stage of the procedure consisted of alternatively increasing
the air pressure and the vertical stress in order to maintain the net vertical stress
below 30 kPa. These air pressurisation and loading stages were carried out under
nearly water undrained conditions until the desired air pressure (ua = 600 kPa) and
vertical net stress ((Vv-ua) = 30 kPa) were reached. During the initial process, sig-
nificant vertical settlements were recorded due to the presence of occluded air
bubbles in the slurry and the soil extrusion through the gap between the loading
cap and the oedometer ring. Di Mariano (2000) observed significant vertical set-
tlements during the air pressurisation process at high degree of saturation and sug-
gested increasing air pressure at slow rates and before any loading path.
Towards the end of the process an elastic response was obtained while cycling
the vertical net stress, which indicated that air overpressure technique was cor-
rectly applied. Afterwards the water drainage was open to apply a target water
pressure at the base of the sample and hence a target suction. The drying path was
carried out at constant (Vv-ua) = 30 kPa, while changing water pressure in a step-
wise procedure. The water outflow was measured by a burette connected to the
water pressure line. The applied suction steps were 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5 MPa,
according to the hydro-mechanical path shown in Fig. 2a). At the end of the test
the sample was extracted from the cell and its water content was measured.
The second procedure (water sub-pressure technique) was applied in the shear-
box cell on samples previously consolidated at a vertical effective stress of
100 kPa. The experimental procedure consisted in applying a vertical net stress of
100 kPa (the same as the consolidation stress) and then increasing matric suction
to the target value by increasing air pressure around the sample and keeping water
pressure atmospheric below the HAEV ceramic. The stress path followed during
preparation of the sample and the drying path in the controlled-suction shearbox
cell are shown in Fig. 2b). After consolidation the sample was unloaded, reloaded
in the box cell at the same vertical stress and then suction was increased to the tar-
get value. At the end of the shear test the sample was extracted from the cell and
its water content measured (Boso in prep.).
600
a) ua= 600 kPa b)
C E
Matric suction (kPa)
uw= 0
A: poured slurry
400
AB: loading
BC: multi-stage drying A: poured slurry
B: consolidated slurry
BC: unloading
200
CD: reloading
DE: single-stage drying
A C D
0 B A B
0 100 0 100
Vertical net/effective stress (kPa)
Fig. 2. Stress paths followed: a) air over-pressure technique (loading, multi-stage

drying); b) water sub-pressure technique (consolidated slurry, reloading, single-
stage drying).
Extended range transistor psychrometer
Transistor psychrometers (SMI, Woodburn et al. 1993) with an extended meas-

uring range were used to complement the retention curve information in the total
suction range from 1 to 70 MPa. The psychrometer probe is shown in Fig. 3b and
consists of two transistors, which act as wet bulb and dry bulb. The output voltage
produced by the transistor can be related to the relative humidity (or total suction)
through a suitable and extended calibration (Mata et al. 2002).
Measurements were performed on six specimens cut from the same sample. Af-
ter each measurement, the specimens were air-dried for some hours at the relative
humidity of the laboratory (50%), stored for one day for moisture equalisation,
weighed and total suction measured again. At the end of the multi-stage drying
procedure, the specimens were weighed, oven-dried and the water contents were
back-calculated. The stress path followed during this multi-stage drying procedure
with no external stresses applied is shown in Fig. 4a.
High-suction tensiometer
The tensiometer allows direct measurement of the negative pore water pressures
(water tensile stress). Fig. 3a shows a schematic layout of the tensiometer (Taran-
tino & Mongiovì 2002).
Reliable measurement of water tensile stress requires adequate saturation of the
porous ceramic. Saturation of the ceramic was checked before and after measure-
ments according to the procedure described by Tarantino (2003).
Two kinds of measurement were performed: monitoring matric suction during a

continuous drying process (‘dynamic’ procedure) and measuring suction under
constant water content (‘static’ procedure).
The ‘dynamic’ determination was achieved by placing the sample along with
the tensiometer on a balance. The changes in sample mass and suction were con-
tinuously monitored by a data acquisition system. Water content was estimated
considering the changes in sample mass as changes in water.
This procedure assumes that the matric suction in the sample is uniform. How-
ever, it can be partially affected by the excessive evaporation along the boundaries
in contact with the air of the laboratory. In order to slow down this evaporation the
bottom surface of the sample, where evaporation took place was covered with a
synthetic textile. The stress path followed during this continuous drying procedure
with no external stresses applied is shown in Fig. 4b.
The ‘static’ determination was achieved by constant water content measure-
ments performed on the same sample air-dried to target water contents at null
stress using a multi-stage procedure. Before each measurement the sample was left
to equalise in plastic bags placed in a high-humidity chamber for two days at least.
During measurement, the sample was wrapped in clingfilm in an attempt to mini-
mise evaporation. Special attention was given to the isolation of the paste that
‘connects’ the tensiometer to the sample. The stress path is similar to the one
shown in Fig. 4b, but the drying path CD was in steps.
cap Electric
circuit
Plastic
sleeve
Dry
Ø7.6 Wet bulb
strain gauge
0.4 bulb
0.1
PVC
36 mm cap
diaphragm
Water
drop Specimen
tensiometer
body
porous water
ceramic reservoir Ø 16 mm
Fig. 3. (a) Schematic layout of the tensiometer (Tarantino & Mongiovì 2002). (b)
Transistor psychrometer probe (Woodburn et al. 1993).
100
D a) b)
Matric suction (MPa)

Total suction (MPa)
ua= 0 ua= 0
10
A: poured slurry A: poured slurry
B: consolidated slurry D B: consolidated slurry
BC: unloading BC: unloading
1
CD: multi-stage drying CD: continuous drying
C B C
0 A A B
0 100 0 100
Vertical net/effective stress (kPa)
Fig. 4. Stress paths followed: a) psychrometer (consolidated slurry, unloading and
multi-stage drying); b) tensiometer “dynamic curve” (consolidated slurry, unload-
ing and continuous drying).
Test results and interpretation
Fig.5 shows test results obtained with the controlled-suction oedometer (air
over-pressure technique), with the tensiometer using the ‘dynamic’ and ‘static’
procedures and with the psychrometer. It is interesting to note that the suction
ranges covered by these instruments and techniques could overlap each other,
making it possible to compare the experimental procedures.
Tensiometer data display approximately the same drying curve, showing that
both ‘dynamic’ and ‘static’ procedures are equivalent if the same stress paths are
followed and adequate experimental procedures are implemented. In the follow-
ing, the directly measured suctions with tensiometer will be used as the reference
data for the comparison of the different experimental results, due to its good re-
producibility and the extension of the overlapping with the different techniques.
As shown in Fig. 5, controlled-suction oedometer and tensiometer test results
tend to converge following approximately a linear relationship between the loga-
rithm of matric suction and the water content. However, for equivalent matric suc-
tions over 100 kPa, the water stored using controlled-suction technique is lower
than the measured one using the tensiometer.
This difference can partly be explained by the non-uniform matric suction dis-
tribution when axis translation technique is used. Matric suction is only controlled
at the bottom of the sample by liquid water transfer. At the top boundary of the
sample in contact with the relative humidity of the air chamber, another suction
(total component) is applied through vapour transfer. Numerical simulations per-
formed by Romero (1999) have shown that the upper part of the sample undergoes
drying by vapour transfer at early stages of the equalisation phase due to the high-
applied total suction.
However, this evaporative flux reduces as the relative humidity of the air
chamber increases. Meanwhile, matric suction along the sample height tries to
equalise to the applied value at the bottom boundary in contact with the ceramic
disc. Finally, under steady-state conditions, a non-uniform matric suction distribu-
tion is attained with a higher value at the top boundary due to the evaporative flux
that has not vanished. In this way, slightly higher values of matric suction are ex-
pected compared to the applied one when plotting the retention curve with the
mean value of the water content (Romero 1999). Consequently, axis translation
data are shifted towards lower matric suctions compared to tensiometer data.
Fig. 5 also shows a comparison between tensiometer and psychrometer data. In
both cases the same stress paths were followed and measurements were carried
under atmospheric conditions (Fig. 4a and 4b). However, the comparison is still
not straightforward, as the psychrometer measurement is associated with total suc-
tion, while the tensiometer is related to the matric component.
1000
controlled-suction oedometer cell:
Total suction (psychrometer); matric suction (MPa)
ua = constant
100 tensiometer (dynamic curve): ua = 0
tensiometer (static curve): ua = 0

10
psychrometer: ua = 0
0.1
0.01
0.001
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Water content
Fig. 5. Psychrometer, tensiometer and air over-pressure technique data.

1000
psychrometer: ua = 0
100 modified van Genuchten fit curve:

D = 3.5 MPa-1; n = 1.6; m = 0.14;
a = 300 MPa
Matric suction (MPa)
10
0.1
0.01
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Water content
Fig. 6. Tensiometer and psychrometer data (total minus osmotic suction). Modified
van Genuchten’s fitting curve.
To compare psychrometer with tensiometer data, an osmotic suction of about 0.3

MPa was tentatively assumed. This value was chosen on the basis of osmotic suc-
tion data published in the literature. Romero (1999) measured an osmotic suction
of around 0.4 MPa in a kaolinitic/illitic clay with 75% of clay minerals using
squeezing technique. Fredlund and Rahardjo (1993) reported an osmotic suction
of 0.2 MPa for a glacial till that was measured with the same fluid extraction tech-
nique.
Fig 6 compares psychrometer data plotted as total minus osmotic suction with
tensiometer data. Despite the osmotic suction shifting, there is still a gap between
tensiometer and psychrometer data, which can be associated with two aspects. On
the one hand, the low resolution of the psychrometer at low total suctions, as the
relative humidity values in the vicinity of the dew point.
On the other hand, the osmotic suction of the pore-liquid interacting with a
silty/clay structure may significantly differ from the osmotic suction of the same
solution isolated from the soil (Mata et al. 2002). In addition, the common as-
sumption of constant osmotic suction is not appropriate, especially when suction
increase is associated with vapor transfer, which induces an increase in pore-water
concentration and the consequent increase in the osmotic component (gap between
the two techniques at suctions higher than 1 MPa).
Test results shown in Fig. 6 were fitted using a modified form of the van
Genuchten’s equation (1980), where water content w is defined as a function of
matric suction s (Romero & Vaunat 2000):
m
w ª 1 º
Sr C (s ) « n »
(1)
wsat ¬ 1 ( D s ) ¼
ª sº
ln «1 »
a¼ (2)
C ( s) 1 ¬
ln(2)
Parameters n, m and D are the same as used in van Genuchten’s expression, wsat
represents the water content stored under saturated conditions, and Sr is the degree
of saturation. Equation (2) forces the curve to be linear in a semi-log scale in the
high suction range. Material parameter a represents the intersection with the y-axis
at null water content of this linear part. A non-linear curve-fitting algorithm using
least-squares method was used to determine parameters n, m and D, assuming
a = 300 MPa. Fitted parameters were n = 1.6, m = 0.14 and D = 3.5 MPa-1.
Fig. 7 shows the results of the two procedures followed on the application of
the axis translation technique compared to the reference data of the tensiometer. A
conventional consolidation test performed on previously consolidated sample is
also included in the figure to complement the information of the drying process in
the low suction range where the soil is nearly saturated. The vertical effective
stress was transformed in mean effective stress assuming a constant lateral coeffi-
cient at rest K0 = 0.6 throughout the virgin loading path. It can be noted that at low
suction range tensiometer data and controlled suction oedometer data lie on the
normal consolidation line. This seems to confirm that the effect of a suction
change in a saturated soil under zero total stress is equivalent to the effect of a
change in mean effective stress (Blight 1965).
Toll (1995) put forward a conceptual model in which a unique water content –
suction relationship is assumed to exist (virgin drying line) for an initially satu-
rated and normally consolidated soil subjected to drying with no external stress
applied. This unique curve, in which all the differences in stress and suction his-
tory should be erased, will follow the virgin consolidation line up to a point where
the suction reaches the air-entry value.
10
Matric suction; mean effective stress (MPa)
controlled-suction oedometer: ua = 0
1 controlled-suction shear cell: ua = variable
conventional oedometer curve
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Water content
Fig. 7. Tensiometer and axis translation data. Virgin consolidation line obtained
from oedometer test.
Based on porosimetry data an air entry value of about 340 kPa was estimated
for the slurry dried up to a suction of 500 kPa. It is therefore difficult to explain
the reason why the tensiometer readings follow the virgin consolidation line be-
yond this desaturation limit and up to about 2 MPa, while the axis translation
curve clearly evolves towards lower suction values. It is possible that the suction
measured with tensiometer was overestimated. Water evaporation from the paste
causes a local drop in water content in the measuring zone. When suction is low
soil permeability is relatively high and the evaporated water is promptly replaced
with pore-water moving from the core of the sample. In contrast, when suction is
high the permeability is lower and pore-water flow rate cannot counterbalance the
water evaporation rate. As a result water content in the measuring zone remained
lower than the average one and suction is therefore overestimated.
The significant differences observed in Fig. 7 between the data of controlled-
suction oedometer and the controlled-suction shearbox are mainly related to the
different stress paths followed (Fig. 2). The loading history and the air pressurisa-
tion process have an important effect on the low-suction range of the retention
curve. Here the curve is highly dependent on the void ratio, which affects the wa-
ter storage capacity (meniscus and bulk water contained in the macropores) and
the air-entry value of the soil (Romero & Vaunat 2000; Karube & Kawai 2001).
The effects of the stress path followed when the sample was previously consoli-
dated result in an overconsolidated state from a hydraulic point of view (‘over-
dried’ state according to the terminology of Toll (1995)). The retention curve ob-
tained in the shearbox cell displays a ‘stiff’ response in terms of water content
changes, until it reaches the main drying line of the retention curve obtained in the
oedometer cell. However, the limited data at elevated suctions hinders a further in-
terpretation of the results.
Conclusions
The paper has presented a comparison of different suction measurement tech-

niques as well as different possible procedures using the same technique. A first
comparison has concerned ‘static’ and ‘dynamic’ measurement of suction using
high suction tensiometer. ‘Dynamic’ measurement is extremely appealing from
the practical point of view as it makes it possible to obtain water retention curve in
a relatively short time.
Experimental results have shown that ‘dynamic’ determination may be quite
accurate provided evaporation rate is sufficiently slowed down. Water retention
from tensiometer and axis translation oedometer data in the low suction range
seems to confirm that suction changes in saturated samples under zero total stress
produce the same effect as a change in mean effective stress. Although expected
this result is not trivial.
In the intermediate range, matric suction seems to be underestimated when us-
ing the axis translation technique and overestimated when using the tensiometer
with no perfect isolation of the sample. In both cases, this error was attributed to
pore-water evaporation. It should be noted that water evaporation can be pre-
vented when using the tensiometer provided the sample is placed in an airtight
container. In contrast evaporation is much more difficult to prevent when using
axis translation technique. The use of the humid air to pressurize the cell can cer-
tainly reduce evaporation rate but is likely to not prevent it completely.
Psychrometer data, which are associated with total suction, seem to indicate an
osmotic component of suction much higher than osmotic suction of the solution
extracted from the soil. This discrepancy may be due to the excessive dilution of
the liquid extracted from the soil. However the problem needs further
investigation.
References
Barrera, M. 2002. Estudio esperimental del comportamento hidro-mecànico de

suelos colapsables. PhD Thesis, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Spain.
Blight, G. E. 1965. A study on effective stresses for volume change. Proc. Conf.
Moisture Equilibria and Moisture Changes in Soil beneath Covered Areas:
259-269.
Boso, M. in preparation. Mechanical characterization of unsaturated soils with
control and measurement of suction. PhD Thesis, Uniersità degli Studi di
Trento, Italy.
Delage, P., Audiguier, M., Cui, Y.-J. & Howat, D. (1996). Microstructure of a
compacted silt. Can. Geotech. J., 33: 150-158.
Di Mariano (2000). Le argille a scaglie e il ruolo della suzione sulla loro defor-
mabilità. PhD Thesis, Università di Palermo e di Catania, Italy.
Hilf, J. W. 1956. An investigation of pore water pressure in compacted cohesive
soils. US Bureau of Reclamation, Tech. Mem. 654, Denver: US Bureau of
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Karube, D. & Kawai, K. 2001. The role of pore water in the mechanical behaviour
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Mata, C, Romero, E., Ledesma, A. 2002. Hydro-chemical effects on water reten-
tion in bentonite-sand mixtures. 3rd Int. Conf. on Unsaturated Soils, Recife,
Brazil: 283-288.
Romero, E. 1999. Characterization and thermo.hydro-mechanical behaviour of
unsaturated Boom clay: an experimental study. PhD Thesis, Universitat Poli-
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Romero, E., Vaunat, J. 2000. Retention curves of deformable clays. Experimental
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SS
Evaluation of Yielding in Unsaturated Clays
Using an Automated Triaxial Apparatus with
Controlled Suction
James Blatz, David Anderson, Jim Graham, and Greg Siemens
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Manitoba

Winnipeg, Manitoba, CANADA
Abstract. Research in the field of unsaturated soil mechanics for high plastic
clays is very active. One area of considerable current interest is development of
general constitutive models for unsaturated clay based sealing materials in a fra-
mework that can be implemented in numerical modeling tools (Alonso et al. 1990,
Delage and Graham 1995, Toll 1990). In particular, more quantitative information
is required to define the features of yielding, failure and strain hardening for
predictive modeling applications. Soil suction must be controlled and inde-
pendently measured in laboratory tests. This will allow examination of behaviour
along any stress path that can be expected to occur in engineering applications
which will provide the necessary material information to calibrate and validate
proposed constitutive frameworks.
This paper presents details of laboratory tests in a custom triaxial system with
stress path automation and independently controlled and measured suction (Blatz
and Graham 2000, 2003). Details describing the equipment will be given along
with selected results for the yield, strength, and strain hardening behavior of a
high-plastic sand-clay material at suctions from 5 MPa to 160 MPa and isotropic
pressures from 1 MPa to 6 MPa. The results demonstrate the importance of inde-
pendent measurement and control of suction along well controlled loading paths
for interpreting the behaviour of unsaturated high plastic clays.
Introduction
In many geoenvironmental engineering applications, silty and sandy native soils

are often mixed with smectitic clay to form ‘impervious’ seals. Many conceptual
deep geological waste repositories propose a 50:50 mixture of heavily compacted
sand and bentonite clay as a sealing material (known as ‘buffer’) to form an ad-
vective and sorbing barrier to transport of radionuclides. The buffer is subject to
heat loading from unspent waste fuel in the storage containers (the sand acts to
improve heat transfer and limit shrinkage.) Coupling between heat and moisture
near the container results in temperature gradients that cause drying at the con-
tainer surface and wetting near the host rock. The processes of wetting and drying
286 J. Blatz et al.
affect the hydro-mechanical characteristics of the buffer material significantly

(Graham et al. 1997). Different behaviour can be expected at different water con-
tents and corresponding degrees of saturation (Wheeler et al. 2003). The differ-
ences in behaviour are caused by varying water contents in the material and asso-
ciated changes in soil suction.
In order to understand the behaviour of unsaturated soils, laboratory testing
procedures must be developed that allow examination of the soil properties at dif-
ferent suction levels. Measurements from the laboratory can then be used to define
material properties for use in numerical modeling tools designed to analyze com-
plex interactions that occur in many engineering applications.
Many researchers have developed equipment that incorporates controlled suc-
tion. A number of different techniques have been used depending on the suction
levels being examined (Escario and Sáez 1986, Cui and Delage 1996, Cunning-
ham et al. 2003). As well as controlling suction, many methods have been devel-
oped for measuring soil suction in laboratory experiments (Ridley and Burland
1993, Fredlund and Rahardjo 1993, Cunningham et al. 2003). However, in many
cases these two systems have not been integrated to provide control of suction
with simultaneous independent measurement, especially for high suctions experi-
enced in high plastic clays. This can result in significant difficulties when inter-
preting test results. In some cases, soil suctions are assumed to be in equilibrium
when the volume strains equilibrate. This is not always valid. In other cases, suc-
tions are assumed to be constant during application of external stress conditions.
This often is not the case (especially in high plastic compacted clays) in constant
mass tests, where total mean stresses are altered. This paper demonstrates how in-
dependent suction measurement and control is essential to properly interpret test
results for examining the behaviour of unsaturated clays. It deals specifically with
some of the features of yielding under isotropic and shear stress loading condi-
tions.
Results from triaxial tests on densely compacted sand-bentonite buffer are pre-
sented along with details of the testing apparatus used to independently control
and measure soil suction. The specimens were subjected to various suction levels
using a vapour equilibrium technique. Selected specimens included two embedded
psychrometers that provided direct measurements of suction during triaxial test-
ing. The results provide information regarding the yield behaviour of densely
compacted buffer.
Materials and Specimen Preparation
Before mixing, the constituent bentonite and sand were stored in an oven at 104 C
for a minimum of 48 and 24 hours respectively. After removing the materials from
the oven, the containers were sealed with plastic wrap and a rubber band to ensure
moisture was not pulled from the air into the materials. The materials were al-
lowed to equilibrate with room temperature for 90 minutes before measurements
and mixing commenced.
Evaluation of Yielding in Unsaturated Clays 287
The required dry weights of the constituent bentonite clay, silica sand, and dis-
tilled deaired water for buffer specimens were pre-determined from target ‘refer-
ence’ values, water content = 19.42% and dry density = 1.67 Mg/m3 and verified
by quality control tests. Mixing of the constituents followed standardized proce-
dures used at the University of Manitoba that are outlined in Blatz et al. (1999).
Water content measurements were taken 48 hours after mixing to evaluate the ac-
tual water content of the material. This water content was then to determine the
wet soil mass needed for compaction to meet the density requirements.
Specimen Compaction
Specimens were compacted in a rigid one-dimensional static compaction mould.

Procedures developed at the University of Manitoba for preparing triaxial speci-
mens of sand-bentonite were followed (Blatz et al. 1999). Triaxial specimens were
compacted to a nominal height of 100 mm and diameter of 50 mm. Specimens
were compacted in five equal lifts using the constant lift height (20 mm) criterion.
The constant lift height criterion was adopted in this work to ensure specimen
consistency with past research projects on Reference Buffer Material (RBM). The
technique produces specimens with minimal water content and density variations.
It is noted that Cui and Delage (1996) demonstrate that stress-based compaction
procedures produce a material that is more comparable with what occurs in engi-
neering applications. However, for comparison with past research, the specimens
in this work were compacted using the strain-based method. Following compac-
tion, specimens were immediately placed in constant-suction environments for the
first phase of the testing.
Experimental Method and Facility
The triaxial apparatus (Figure 1) has been described in detail in Blatz and Graham
(2000). The capabilities and operation of the triaxial apparatus, including control
and measurement of suction, will be presented briefly. More details will be pro-
vided during discussion of the experimental results.
The triaxial apparatus was designed to examine the behaviour of soils at cell
pressures up to 10 MPa and temperatures up to 100C. The original equipment has
recently been augmented by an automated control of cell pressure and shear load-
ing using a custom-designed data acquisition and control system. The system is
centered round a Rockwell Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) that interfaces
with a standard desktop computer running the commercially available RSView
software. The software interface was also custom designed to allow user-defined
control recipes related to the external load conditions, measured soil suction, and
measured volumetric strain. The capabilities of the system have provided consid-
erable improvement in controlling stress paths. This has resulted in much easier
and more consistent interpretation of yield behaviour of the specimens. The sys-
288 J. Blatz et al.
tem was commissioned in the summer of 2002 and has been used for all testing
since that point.
Suction Measurement Using Psychrometers
The psychrometers used for suction measurement are commercially available

Wescor PST-55 stainless steel psychrometers. These were selected due to their
quick response times, small uniform cylindrical tip geometry, and the durability of
the steel shield compared to the ceramic tipped alternative. The psychrometer sen-
sor measures 5mm in diameter and 7mm in length. The psychrometers were con-
trolled and measured using a Campbell Scientific CR-7 measurement and control
system. Details of the installation procedure for incorporating these sensors in the
center and top of specimens have been discussed by Blatz et al. (1999).
Fig. 1. Automated triaxial system with controlled suction

T op Cap
Top Cap Psychrometer
Buffer Specimen
Internal Psychrometer
Fig. 2. Schematic of psychrometer layout (left) and photograph (right) of psychrometers

following excavation of specimen (after Blatz et al. 1999)
Figure 2 shows the location of the psychrometer sensors in a typical specimen.

A quality control specimen was compacted to test the compaction apparatus and to
ensure that the internal psychrometer was not damaged during compaction. After
compaction, the specimen was carefully trimmed to expose the internal psy-
chrometer with minimal disturbance (Figure 2). The photograph illustrates the
psychrometer location and the wire that leads to the external data acquisition sys-
tem. These psychrometers provide point measurement of total suction (matric plus
osmotic suction) in the range of 1MPa to 8MPa during all stages of testing. The
buffer specimens have an initial as-compacted suction of 4MPa. The psychrome-
ters have worked well for examining increases or decreases in suction from the
initial as-compacted suction to the limits indicated.
Controlled Suction Triaxial Apparatus
Constant suction conditions can be created using relative humidity environments

generated by ionic solutions in sealed chambers. Here, solutions of sulphuric acid
and distilled, deaired water were used to create a range of partial vapour pressures
in desiccators as a function of the acid concentration. Using relationships between
partial vapour pressure and acid concentration, solutions were used to generate
suctions from 5 MPa to 160 MPa.
Figure 3 (after Blatz and Graham 2003) shows a simplified diagram illustrating
the triaxial apparatus and vapour equilibrium system that allows for controlled
suction in the triaxial cell. The desiccator (a) containing an ionic solution mixed to
generate a target suction level is connected to a pump (b) using plastic tubing ap-
proximately 6.5 mm in diameter from the head space above the level of the ionic
solution in the desiccator and finally to the triaxial cell.
290 J. Blatz et al.
Top Cap Drainage

LVDT's
(c) Flow Meter

(b) Pump
(a)
Ionic Solution
Fig. 3. Schematic of controlled suction system for triaxial cell after Blatz and Graham
(2000)
An air flow meter (c) is installed between the desiccator and the triaxial cell to
monitor vapour flow through in the system. When the pump is engaged, vapour
from the headspace of the desiccator (with a known partial vapour pressure and
therefore suction) is pumped along the tubing to the base of the triaxial cell. From
the triaxial base, vapour enters the porous stone beneath the specimen. The vapour
then moves along the periphery of the specimen through Amaco #2044 woven
geotextile placed in strips around the specimen. The geotextile is placed vertically
in strips similar to filter paper drains used for saturated specimens. Geotextile
strips provide a pathway for vapour movement along the exterior of specimens
while being rigid enough to maintain drainage under externally applied cell pres-
sure. The geotextile is able to maintain a continuous flow path for the vapour at
cell pressures up to approximately 2.5 MPa. The geotextile strips are long enough
to cover the top and bottom porous stones and provide a continuous passageway
for vapour flow.
When vapour reaches the top of the specimen, it enters the top porous stone and
continues through piping to the base of the cell, where it is circulated back into the
desiccator headspace. This is a closed, constant-mass system with respect to the
water vapour and ionic solution. As water vapour moves along the outside of a
specimen at the porous stone and geotextile interfaces, it exerts a total suction on
the soil specimen according to the partial vapour pressure generated by the ionic
solution. The specimen transfers water to, or takes water from, the vapour depend-
ing on the soil suction gradient between the ionic solution and the specimen. Dur-
ing application of suction using this system, the soil suction at the center and top
of the specimen is monitored using embedded psychrometers. As drying proceeds,
water moves from the specimen into the desiccator and alters the ionic concentra-
tion. This must be accounted for in establishing the suction level and is another
reason why independent measurement of suction is important.
Results
The following sections include representative results from specimens with embed-
ded psychrometers (up to 8MPa suction) and specimens without psychrometers
(initial suctions greater than 8MPa). Initial suctions greater than 8MPa were gen-
erated by placing compacted specimens with initial suctions of 4MPa in desicca-
tors with target suction levels up to 160MPa for a period of 30 days that ensured
equilibrium with the head space environment, Tang et al. 2002). The specimens
were then tested using the triaxial system that has been described previously,
though it is noted that the suctions were now outside the range of the psychrome-
ter measurement. In these cases, the relationship regarding the measured response
of soil suction to applied external stresses at lower soil suctions were extrapolated
to higher suctions. Work is ongoing to examine the capability of new sensors that
will provide a much greater range of suction measurement.
Response of Suctions to External Loading
An important consideration in testing unsaturated specimens in the triaxial cell is

the response of soil suction to external loading. A series of specimens containing
two psychrometers (Figure 2) examined the response of the soil suction to iso-
tropic and shear loading.
After installation in the test cells, specimens were allowed to equilibrate for 24
hours prior to loading. A series of isotropic pressure increments were then applied
with 24 hour intervals to attain volume and suction equilibrium. All drainage lines
were shut off during the loading to ensure that specimens were undrained in both
the gas and liquid phases. We have called this creating a ‘constant mass’ condi-
tion. Since the material was unsaturated, loading was accompanied by compres-
sion strains. Figure 4 shows the changes in soil suction measured by the two psy-
chrometers due to the applied cell pressure increments. Figure 4 also shows the
same data plotted with respect to time. The measurements show that with
undrained conditions in both the air and gas phases, soil suction decreases with in-
creasing mean stress.
The response appears broadly linear ('S/'p=-0.83) as has been previously re-
ported by Tang et al. (2002) who also show that the relationship is reversible, at
least in this stress range. The response at the center of the specimen and at the top
of the specimen are broadly similar, indicating that the 24 hour equilibration pe-
riod is sufficient to ensure that the soil suction is uniform throughout the specimen
before the next isotropic stress increment.
292 J. Blatz et al.
Figure 5 shows the response of soil suction to shear loading (deviator stress) in
a standard triaxial compression test.
1 1
Top Cap Psychrometer Top Cap Psychrometer
Internal Psychrometer Internal Psychrometer
0 0
' Suction ' Suction

(MPa) (MPa)
-1 -1
-2 -2
0 1 2 0 1 2 3 4
Total Mean Stress (MPa) Time (days)
Fig. 4. Measured suction change due to increments in total mean stress and with time
2.0 4
Top Cap Psychrometer Isotropic Loading
Internal Psychrometer Top Cap Psychrometer
1.5 2 Internal Psychrometer
Deviator ' Suction Shear Loading
Stress (MPa) Top Cap Psychrometer
(MPa)1.0 0 Internal Psychrometer
0.5 -2
0.0 -4
-2 -1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
' Suction (MPa) Total Mean Stress (MPa)
Fig. 5. Change in suction due to 3:1 triaxial shear loading and summary of change in suc-
tion due to both total mean stress and shear loading conditions
Figure 5 shows that suction is decreasing as the axial load is applied (along a
3:1 triaxial stress path with constant cell pressure), however the accompanying
figure shows that in fact the suction response again appears to be linked to the
change in mean stress associated with the shearing stress path examined.
In fact, the slope of the relationship is broadly similar to that of the soil suction
response associated with the change in mean stress alone. Once again, the suction
responses in both psychrometers are in close agreement after 24 hours. Some de-
viation in the suction measured by the two instruments occurred at higher shear
stress conditions. This may be due to different yielding and localized strain effects
at the center of the specimen compared with the top of the specimen in the ‘dead
zone’. The agreement is still acceptable as the difference in measured suction lev-
els is approximately 7% of the absolute value of suction.
The slope of the change in suction due to changes in mean stress has been
termed the ‘isotropic suction response relationship’. This relationship has been
found consistent by three different researchers over a number of confining pres-
sures and suction ranges. The response is believed to be related to compression of
the soil skeleton and the resulting changes in saturation that occur when volumet-
ric straining results from externally applied pressures consistent with what has
been presented in other work (Wheeler et al. 2003). This is an important feature of
behaviour that is currently being explored in more detail and one that is not ob-
served in drained tests where constant suction are achieved using axis translation.
Shrinkage Characteristics
In order to examine the behaviour of buffer at suctions beyond the measure-

ment capabilities of the psychrometers in this test program, suctions during triaxial
testing had to be inferred from initial suctions and the isotropic suction response
relationship already discussed. (The relationship was assumed to remain un-
changed at higher suctions). An alternative is to relate measurable volume changes
and water contents to suctions through a Soil Water Characteristic Curve.
Measurements of the dimensions and masses prior to placement in the desicca-
tors and after equilibration (30 days) allowed for assessment of the changes in wa-
ter content and density associated with the change in suction from the as-
compacted state to the target suction value. The results were used to determine the
soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) shown in Figure 6 and the volumetric
shrinkage curve shown in Figure 7. Suction data in Figures 6 and 7 have taken into
account the mass balance correction that occurs inside the sealed desiccators as the
vapour transfer proceeds to equilibrium. (This is the reason that the final suction in
the figures is not exactly the same as the target suction set in each desiccator.
As the suction increases the measured volumetric shrinkage increases nonline-
arly to an apparent upper limit of about 8% volume strain at approximately 30MPa
suction (Figure 7). It is postulated that shrinkage beyond the 30 to 40MPa level is
inhibited through transfer of stresses from the clay phase to the sand phase of the
material. Initially the buffer material behaviour is believed to be dominated by the
clay, with sand simply acting as filler in the clay matrix. With increasing suctions,
it is proposed that bulk volumetric shrinkage occurs until the clay matrix becomes
small enough to fit within the void space provided by the sand skeleton. This is
noted in Figure 7 as the non-linearity that occurs at 8 to 10 % strain.
294 J. Blatz et al.
160
Saskatchewan Buffer
120
Suction (MPa)
80
40
0
0 5 10 15 20
Water content (%)
Fig. 6. Soil Water Characteristic Curve for Saskatchewan buffer
0
Saskatchewan Buffer
Volume strain (%)
12
0 40 80 120
Suction (MPa)
Fig. 7. Shrinkage behaviour of Saskatchewan buffer
This suggestion is supported by observations of stiffness and strength that ap-

proach those of the sand component at suctions greater than 30MPa as well. Fur-
ther increases in suction no longer increase the volumetric straining of the buffer
mixture but the water content will continue to decrease as water is pulled from the
clay, which continues to shrink in the spaces in the sand skeleton. The relationship
in Figure 7 for volumetric shrinkage versus total suction, is not therefore the for-
mal ‘shrinkage limit’, which is defined as a water content. Parallel studies to those
in Figure 7 have been done with Wyoming bentonite. Similar results are obtained,
but the limit of volumetric shrinkage is 12% instead of the 8% for the Saskatche-
wan bentonite in Figure 7. Future work will explore these relationship by testing
specimens of pure bentonite to compare their shrinkage limits to those of sand-
bentonite buffer mixtures. This concept is important for modeling. Two separate
soil models may be required to describe the full range of behaviour of the buffer
as volumetric strains occur.
Yielding Under Isotropic Compression
Figure 8 shows volume strain versus logarithm of total mean stress for specimens
of Saskatchewan buffer specimens made with target suction levels of 10, 20, 40,
80, and 160 MPa. As mentioned earlier, the loading paths during isotropic com-
pression in these constant–mass tests has been assumed to follow a path
'S/'p = -0.83 and are not along constant-suction traces. Figure 8 indicates that the
behaviour under initial loading was stiff and that this is followed by less stiff be-
haviour beyond an apparent yield stress (or load yield (LY) pressure) for all suc-
tion levels.
1
Volume strain (%)
3 10 MPa
20 MPa
4 40 MPa
80 MPa
5 160 MPa
7
1
Mean stress (MPa)
Fig. 8. Compression results for Saskatchewan buffer at various suction levels
Definition of the yield stress is clearer at lower suction levels as compared to

higher suction levels. As expected, the response to unloading after reaching the
maximum mean stress value (5 MPa) was also stiff. The slope of the unloading
section was comparable (though slightly stiffer) to the initial portion of the loading
curve.
296 J. Blatz et al.
Figure 9 (after Blatz and Graham 2003) shows stress paths in mean stress ver-
sus total suction space for two specimens that were placed in the triaxial cell fol-
lowing compaction and isotropically compressed in increments up to 2MPa. By
compressing the specimens beyond their initial ‘as compacted’ isotropic yield
point, the position of the initial load yield line is known, as is the new load yield
line formed by plastic hardening to the new maximum mean stress of 2MPa. The
specimens were then unloaded to 1MPa, corresponding to an overconsolidation ra-
tio equal to 2.0. The controlled suction system described earlier was then used to
dry the specimens to higher suctions. This is shown in Figure 9 where the stress
paths show an increase in suction at a constant total mean stress. Following the
applied suction increases, the two specimens were again loaded isotropically and
their new yield points interpreted. Again the consistent slope for the decrease in
suction associated with increasing mean stress is apparent.
8
Total Suction (MPa)
0
0 2 4 6 8
Mean Stress (MPa)
Fig. 9. Compression behaviour observed in controlled suction tests (after Blatz and Graham
2003)
When the yield points at each suction level are summarized (Figure 10), the
variations in the load yield pressure can be examined. Specimens in the range of
suction measured with the by psychrometer (4 to 8 MPa) show acceptable agree-
ment with the additional specimens up to final suction values of 140 MPa (corre-
sponding to a target suction level of 160 MPa). In all cases the final suctions have
been corrected to take into account the decreases in soil suction associated with
mean stress. This consideration is most important at the lower suction levels
where the applied mean stress can be similar to the soil suction level. It is also in-
teresting that the load yield pressure does not appear to increase significantly after
suctions above 30MPa, which is the approximate limit of volumetric shrinkage
due to increased suctions.
160
Saskatchewan buffer
Contolled Suction Tests
120
Suction (MPa)
80
40
0
0 1 2 3 4
Mean stress (MPa)
Fig. 10. Interpreted load yield curve for compacted buffer
Yielding Under Triaxial Shearing
After isotropic compression was completed, triaxial shearing was undertaken at

a constant rate of 0.0139 mm/min. (This took the specimens to 20% axial strain in
approximately 24 hours. During shearing, the cell pressure was adjusted to main-
tain target ('q/'p) stress paths where q is deviator stress (V1 - V3) and p is total
mean stress (V1 + 2V3)/3. The chosen shearing rate was based on measurements
with embedded psychrometers to ensure that suction throughout the specimens
was constant during shearing (Blatz et al. 1999). Figure 11 shows a typical set of
stress paths that were followed in q-p space during shearing at specific target suc-
tions. The peak and end-of-test values for q and p are shown in the Figure. The
plots in q-p space show that significant strain-softening occurs after specimens
have reached peak shear strength for cases with constant-p and the 'q/'p = 3:-1
stress paths. The stress path control was achieved using the automated stress path
control system described previously.
298 J. Blatz et al.
4
Peak End of test
Saskatchewan
Deviator stress (MPa)

3
0
0 2 4 6 8
Mean stress (MPa)
Fig. 11. Typical triaxial shearing paths followed
2.0
40, 80 and 160 MPa suction
20 MPa suction
10 MPa suction
1.5
1.0
q/pc
0.5
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0
p/pc
Fig. 12. Normalized yield loci
The yield points in these tests could be interpreted relatively easily using plots
of specific volume versus logarithm mean stress. By normalizing the deviator
stress and total mean stress at yield using the preconsolidation pressure, yield loci
for the shearing stress paths could be drawn for the various initial target suctions.
Figure 12 shows normalized q and p data for the buffer material at all suction lev-
els. The figure also suggests possible yield loci. The normalized yield loci have
broadly similar shapes, but increase in size with increasing suction. Again, how-
ever, after a suction of approximately 30MPa (corresponding to the limit of volu-
metric shrinkage), the loci tend to coalesce. This indicates that after 30 MPa suc-
tion, the yield loci appear independent of suction level. This is again attributed to
transition from a clay-dominated behaviour to sand-dominated behaviour when

shrinkage is sufficient to allow the sand component to carry external forces.
Discussion and Conclusions
Results have been presented to demonstrate the reliability of suction control us-
ing the vapour equilibrium technique and suction measurement using thermocou-
ple psychrometers. Details of the methods and the triaxial apparatus have been in-
troduced and reference given to other publications with more detailed background
information. Implementation of these two techniques (suction control and suction
measurement) in triaxial testing has been shown, along with data that demonstrate
the importance of assessing changes in suction that occur in association with mean
stress increments. The data also show that the changes in suction appear relatively
independent of the deviator component of the stress tensor.
Shrinkage tests showed that the sand-bentonite ‘buffer’ in this program exhibits
a limit of volumetric shrinkage at a suction of approximately 30MPa. The limit of
shrinkage is believed to result from a stress transfer of stresses from the clay com-
ponent to the sand component of the mixture. A transition from clay-dominated
behaviour to sand-dominated behaviour has considerable impact on the mechani-
cal response under subsequent external stresses. When suctions are less than
30MPa, the material behaves as a compacted clay. At suctions greater than 30
MPa, the material appears to transition to a purely frictional sand behaviour.
Combinations of isotropic loading and deviator loading were use to investigate
yielding behaviour as a function of soil suction. The results again showed a transi-
tional behaviour corresponding to the 30MPa suction level consistent with the
shrinkage tests. The greatest improvement that can be implemented for future test-
ing will be to develop suction measurement beyond the current 8MPa limitation.
Considerable effort is being directed at finding new technologies that will remove
this barrier and provide information on suction responses at suctions higher than
8MPa. These high suctions are rare in the published literature but are likely com-
mon in practice in clay-rich soils, especially in dry climates.
The results in this paper present only a small part of an research effort that has
been ongoing for 20 years to elucidate the behaviour of the compacted clay-based
sealing materials for use in an underground repository environment.
Acknowledgements
Funding was provided by The Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council
of Canada, Atomic Energy of Canada Limited and Ontario Power Generation.
Valuable technical input was provided by David Dixon, Neil Chandler, Bruce
Kjartanson, Kerry Lynch and Narong Piamsalee.
300 J. Blatz et al.
References
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soils. Geotechnique, 40: 405-430.
Blatz, J.A., and Graham, J. 2003. Elastic plastic modeling of unsaturated high plastic clay
using results from a new triaxial test with controlled suction. Géotechnique Special
Symposium in Print on Unsaturated Soils, 53(1): 113 – 122.
Blatz, J.A., and Graham, J. 2000. A method for controlled suctions in triaxial testing.
Géotechnique, 50(4): 465 – 470.
Blatz, J.A., Tang, G.X., Graham, J., and Wan, A. 1999. Psychrometer techniques for
measuring suction in the triaxial test. Proc. of 52nd Canadian Geotechnical Confer-
ence, Regina, Vol.1, pp. 617-622.
Cui, Y.J. and Delage, P. 1996. Yielding and plastic behaviour of an unsaturated compacted
silt. Geotechnique, 46(2):291-312.
Cunningham, M.R., Ridley, A.M., Dineen, K., and Burland, J.B. 2003. The mechanical
behaviour of a reconstituted unsaturated silty clay. Géotechnique Special Symposium
in Print on Unsaturated Soils, 53(2): 183 – 194.
Delage, P. and Graham, J. 1995. Understanding the behavior of unsaturated soils requires
reliable conceptual model. State of the Art Report, Proceedings, 1st Int. Conf. on
Unsaturated Soils, Paris, France, 1995, 1223-1256.
Escario, V. and Sáez, J. (1986). The shear strength of partly saturated soils. Géotechnique
36, No. 3, 453-456.
Fredlund, D.G. and Rahardjo, H. 1993. Soil Mechanics for Unsaturated Soil. A Wiley- In-
terscience Publication. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY.
Graham, J., Chandler, N.A., Dixon, D.A., Roach, P.J., To., T., Wan, A.W.L. 1997. The
buffer container experiment: results, synthesis, issues. AECL Whiteshell laboratories,
Pinawa, Manitoba. AECL-11746.
Ridley, A.M. and Burland, J.B. 1993. A new instrument for the measurement of soil mois-
ture suction. Geotechnique 43(2):321-324.
Tang, G.X., Graham, J., Blatz, J.A., Gray, M. and Rajapakse, R.K.N.D. 2002. Suctions,
stresses and strengths in unsaturated sand-bentonite. Journal of Engineering Geology,
64(2): 147-156.
Toll, D.G. 1990. A framework for unsaturated soils behavior (discussion). Geotechnique,
41(1):159-161.
Wheeler, S.J., Sharma, R.S., and Buisson, M.S.R. 2003. Coupling of hydraulic hysteresis
and stress – strain behaviour in unsaturated soils. Géotechnique Special Symposium in
Print on Unsaturated Soils, 53(1): 41 – 54.
Wheeler, S.J. and Sivakumar, V. 1995. An elasto-plastic critical state framework for un-
saturated soil. Geotechnique, 45(1):35-53.
Wiebe, B.J. 1996. The effect of confining pressure, temperature, and suction on the
strength and stiffness of unsaturated buffer. M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Civil and
Geological Engineering, University of Manitoba, (Winnipeg, Manitoba).
A triaxial device for unsaturated sand – New
Developments
C. Lauer and J. Engel
Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, TU Dresden, Germany

carsten.lauer@mailbox.tu-dresden.de
Summary. Investigation into the mechanical and hydro-mechanical be-

haviour of unsaturated sand requires special laboratory equipment for testing
and preparing the specimens. In this paper, the requirements for a triaxial
testing device for unsaturated sand are presented. With respect to the require-
ments for testing unsaturated sand (axis-translation technique), measuring
small overall and pore-water volume change, and the control or measurement
of small values of suction, a new triaxial device has been developed. It con-
sists of a double-walled triaxial cell, a modular loading frame including the
axial power unit, and a pc for controlling and data logging. The device en-
ables the determination of the shear strength, the SWCC, and the hydraulic
conductivity of unsaturated sand.
Keywords: Unsaturated sand, SWCC, double-walled triaxial cell
1 Introduction – Requirements
To understand the mechanical and hydraulic behaviour of unsaturated soils

it is necessary to receive accurate measurements. A perfect test equipment
should allow the full control over all stresses and strains. However, this aim
can only approximately be reached. Unsaturated soils are mixtures of solids,
pore-water and pore-air. Thus, it is necessary to develop test equipment for
controlling the volume change as well as the stress change of all three phases.
In this paper, a new triaxial device for sand and silt samples is presented.
The special requirements are:
– the sand specimen have to be prepared with a reproducible fabric and
different densities,
– the transducers must allow the registration of very small changes of defor-
mations during the consolidation stage and of large deformations during
the shear stage,
– to control the suction in a wide range, the axis–translation technique
should be used,
– with the axis–translation technique it should be possible to adjust a suc-
tion gradient between the top and the bottom of the specimen.
302 C. Lauer and J. Engel
For this reason, it is necessary to consider the mechanical and hydraulic prop-
erties of the soils. In the first phase, triaxial tests were carried out on dry
Hostun sand to achieve results with a conventional and a new developed cell
and, moreover, reference results of the saturated state. Tests on a reconsti-
tuted silt are planned for a later stage.
2 Soil Mechanic Properties of saturated Hostun sand

First, all laboratory tests were performed on dry Hostun sand. Hostun sand
has been used for many tests in different soil mechanical laboratories. Thus,
test results for saturated conditions are well documented [8, 6, 4, 13]. This
results in a reliable data base to check the own test results in the design stage
of the equipment.
2.1 Classification
Hostun sand is a uniformly-graded granular siliceous medium sand with a

mean particle size of d50 = 0.355 mm and a coefficient of uniformity of Cu =
1.43. Fig. 1 shows the grain size distribution. The grain shape of Hostun sand
Sand fraction
Fine Medium Coarse

100
90 IGT Dresden 2002

Flavigny et al. 1990
80
70
Percent smaller than
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.06 0 0.2 0.63 1 2.0
Particle size [mm]
Fig. 1. Grain size distribution
is angular (Fig. 2). Fig. 3 shoes the results of a X-Ray Powder Diffraction
(XRD). According to this the principal component is silica (SiO2 ) with a
slight fraction of potash feldspar (KAlSiO8 ). More classification parameters
have been listed in Table 1.
A triaxial device for unsaturated sand – New Developments 303
Fig. 2. Grain shape of Fig. 3. Qualitative phase analysis by X-Ray Powder

Hostun sand Diffraction (XRD)
Table 1. Material parameters of Hostun sand

maximum void ratio max e [-] 1.032
minimum void ratio min e [-] 0.647
density of the solid particles ρS g/cm3 2.643
2.2 Triaxial Tests on dry Hostun sand
The shear strength of saturated Hostun sand was obtained from drained
triaxial compression tests. All tests were carried out with a conventional
triaxial testing device without lubricated ends. Specimens with a diameter
of 5.0 cm and a height of 12.5 cm (H/D = 2.5) were used. This geometry
of the specimens is identical to those in the newly developed double-walled
triaxial cell for unsaturated soils. To prepare specimens with high densities a
special pluviation technique, and specimens with low densities a combination
of pluviation and a modified dry funnel method was used. Both methods will
be described later. The surrounding latex membrane is of 0.35 mm thickness.
The constant vertical displacement speed was 0.5 mm/min. In Fig. 4 the
influence of the lateral stress σ3 on the peak friction angle ϕp for samples
with low and high initial relative densities ID is shown. The test results
correspond with the data given by [6], [4] and Al Issa (1973, cited in [3]).
To characterize the stiffness of the specimens the secant modulus at 50%
shear strength E50 was used. It’s value was determined from the stress-strain
curves of the drained triaxial compression tests. As is generally known, the
quantity of the stiffness modulus depends on the minor principal stress σ3
(Fig. 5). The stress dependency could be described by equation 1 where σref
is a free, selectable reference stress which is here assumed to 100 kPa.
Fig. 4. Influence of lateral stress σ3 on ϕp
w
E50 σ3
=v (1)
σref σref
endequation The coefficient v and the exponent w, which describes the stress
dependency, are specified in Fig. 5 for loose and dense Hostun sand. The ex-
perimentally determined values for E50 for loose Hostun sand correspondent
to tests results from [6]. In contrast, for dense Hostun sand only the values
at σ3 =100 kPa are comparable. The differences between the values for E50
for a certain lateral stress are considerable. For example E50 is determined to
53.9 and 93.2 MPa for σ3 =600 kPa. The unloading and reloading stiffness Eur
from dense Hostun sand was determined from drained triaxial compression
tests with three unloading and reloading stress paths at 50, 70 and 90 % of the
mobilization of the peak friction angle. All tests were performed on dry sand
using different cell pressures (σ3 =200, 400 and 600 kPa). The amplitude of
the unloading and reloading cycles was defined to 12.5 % of σ1,max obtained
in the triaxial compression. This special testing procedure had been chosen
to obtain measurable quantities of stress-strain changes and to investigate
the elastic behaviour without hysteresis effects [11]. For the unloading and
reloading path, the modulus coefficient vur =3758 was determined. In conse-
quence of the small amplitude of vertical deformation - ∆ε1 is approximately
7.5·10−5 - the stiffness is higher than in conventional tests with full reloading.
wur
Eur σ3
= vur (2)
σref σref
Fig. 5. Triaxial stiffness E50 of Hostun sand
It seems that there is no unique stress dependency (wur ≈0) for the tested
range of lateral pressures.
The initial stiffness is defined as the tangent on the stress-strain curve at
ε1 =0. The parameters vi and wi , which describe the stress dependency of the
initial stiffness modulus Ei (tangent modulus), are given in table 2.
Table 2. Initial stiffness for Hostun sand

ei vi wi
dense Hostun sand 0.641 840 0.38
loose Hostun sand 0.999 492 0.32
3 Requirements on the Equipment for Testing

Unsaturated Sand
The preliminary laboratory tests on Hostun sand (shear strength, SWCC)
have shown that there is an enormous request on the measuring accuracy
and the measuring range. Therefore, a new triaxial testing device has been
developed. It is intended to use this new equipment for the determination of
the shear strength, the SWCC, and the water conductivity of unsaturated
sand as well as silt.
During each test, the overall and the pore-water volume change of the
specimens should be measured. The measuring system has to be optimized
for the requirements, which are summarized in Tab. 3.
In general, the deformations of dense and loose sand during isotropic
consolidation or oedometric stress path (ε2 = ε3 =0) are relatively small. As-
suming an average stiffness Eoed = 23.3 MPa for dense Hostun sand [10] and
vertical stress of 400 kPa, a vertical displacement of 2.15 mm is calculated for
specimens with a height of 12.5 cm. Calculating the vertical displacement due
to a change of axial loading ∆σ1 =100 kPa during the unloading and reload-
ref
ing stress path (Eur =175.2 MPa [10]) yield to a vertikal displacement about
0.07 mm. This requires the registration of the vertical displacement and the
radial deformation with a high resolution and high accuracy. The vertical
displacement transducer should allow a measuring accuracy of ±1µ m. Tri-
axial tests with isotropic loading path have shown an overall volume change
of εv =0.015 at σ1 = σ3 =800 kPa [6].
Due to technical problems (deformation of the testing equipment, com-
pression of air-bubbles in the volume change system), the accurate measure-
ment is difficult. Therefore, the technical solutions for the planned triaxial
device have to be adapted to the problems of measuring small volume changes.
During shearing with vertical deformation up to 20% (2.5 cm) of the spec-
imens height, the overall volume change is much higher. In the preliminary
tests and published test data for dense Hostun sand at low stresses the
resulted volumetric strains were measured in the range of εv =0.09...0.12%
and for loose specimen εv =0.01...0.025%. Also, for the determination of the
Table 3. Required measuring accuracy for testing unsaturated sand
Consolidation and Shearing stage SWCC, kw

oedometric stress path
(Sr =1) (Sr <1) (Sr =1) (Sr <1)
ε3 <±0.005 <±0.005 <±0.005 <±0.005 <±0.005
∆h ±0.001 mm ±1 µm ±0.01 mm ±1 µm ±1 µm
∆s ≤±0.3 kPa ≤±0.3 kPa ≤±0.3 kPa
∆Vpw,i ≤±1.25 cm3 ≤±1.25 cm3 ≤±1.25 cm3
SWCC the accuracy, and the resolution of the pressure transducers and reg-
ulation valves must be very high to enable the measuring of changes during
the transition zone. The accuracy of matric suction measurement or control
by the axis-translation technique depends on the accuracy and resolution of
pore-air and pore-water pressure control and measurements. For tests with
unsaturated sand, the precise control of the matric suction is very impor-
tant. In soil-physics matric suction increments of s=0.3 kPa are normally
used. During the transition zone, there are significant changes of pore-water
volume (s=0.5 kPa: ∆Vpw =37 cm3 ), while the changes during the residual
and saturation zone are negligible. For the determination of the volumetric
water content Θ with an accuracy of ±0.005 the change of pore-water volume
has to be measured with an accuracy of ±1.25 cm3 The overall volume change
due to applied matric suction will be much smaller than during consolidation.
For the determination of the unsaturated conductivity it must be possible
to apply a matric suction gradient to the sand specimen. A great amount of
pore-water passes through the specimens if it is nearly saturated. Whereas,
with decreasing saturation, the water conductivity decreases rapidly. The
saturated hydraulic permeability for Hostun sand was experimentally deter-
mined for different densities. The relationship between the saturated perme-
ability and the void ratio e is linear (k10 = (6.1 e − 1.3)10−4 m/s).
4 Equipment for Testing Unsaturated Sand

4.1 Specimen Preparation
Systematical investigations in the mechanical and hydraulic behavior of soils

are only useful, if uniform and reproduceable specimens are guaranteed.
Hence, for the laboratory determination of mechanical or hydraulic param-
eters of unsaturated specimens the reproduceable fabric of the specimens is
important.
On the base of these assumptions it was decided to prepare the sand spec-
imens by pluviation. The aim is that afterwards no further work at the spec-
imens is necessary and that the top of the specimen is plane. For this reason
the pluviator, shown in figure 6, has been developed. First, a defined amount
of sand is given in the sand reservoir at the top of the pluviator. Through a
central outlet the sand falls on a aluminium cone, which distributes the con-
centrated sand stream in all directions. The sand bounce against the perspex
wall. To ensure a uniform sand-rain over the entire cross section of the speci-
men the sand pass two rings with several thin rods. The second one is rotated
90 degree towards the first one. Finally a close-meshed sieve is installed. The
result is a very fine and uniform sand rain. With this method it is possible to
produce specimens with a reproducible density (initial void ratio ei =0.624,
ID =1.059). According to [5] the maximum density of Hostun sand is reached
by pluviation with a low depositional intensity (0.15 g sec−1 cm−2 ). The drop
height seems to be insignificant by low pouring rates. After pluviation the
surface of the specimen is absolutely plane.
Loose specimens were prepared with a combination of pluviation and
drawing up a closed meshed sieve. First a defined amount of dry sand is
pluviated with a high drop height (29.8 cm) in a thin-walled tube (0.5 mm)
standing in the air-tight split mold. At the bottom of the tube a closed-
meshed sieve is installed. After pluviation the tube with the sieve is slowly
drawn up. Due to the problems associated with the preparation of loose
PP
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specimens (e. g. contraction at the top) the deviation of the desired density
is greater than for dense specimens. The reproducible initial void ratio with
the described method is ei =0.999 (ID =0.102).
First indication for uniform and replicable sand specimens is a repeatable
peak friction angle and the repeatability of the stress-strain curves (Fig. 7).
Both criteria are appropriate, which can be shown with the test results of
the drained triaxial compression test on dry Hostun sand. Whereas, the fluc-
tuations of the density, the peak friction angel and the stress-strain curves
for the loose specimens are greater than for dense specimens. It can be as-
sumed that the reconstituted sand specimens are uniform and replicable. It
is planned to specify the homogenity of the microstructure with convenient
methods (e. g. digital imaging techniques, mercury intrusion porosimetry).
4.2 Double-walled Triaxial Cell
The total volume change of an unsaturated soil specimen is the sum of the
pore-air and pore-water components of volume change. For the determination
of the total volume change different methods can be used, for instance: (1)
measuring pore-water and air-volume change; (2) measuring total volume
change in real double-wall triaxial cell or in modified triaxial cells with an
insert; (3) contacting or non-contacting internal instrumentation for axial
and radial strain measurements; (4) determining of the total volume change
by imaging technique (X-ray radiography, Digital imaging processing and
analysis techniques) or Laser measurement.
Fig. 7. Stress-strain curves for dense specimens (ei =0.624, ID =1.059)
With the help of the internal instrumentation, it is possible to measure

ε1 and ε3 very accurately. However, most of them are manufactured for in-
vestigation in the small strain stiffness of soils or the pre-failure behaviour.
The resolution of the imaging technique is poor [14], and even the air-volume
change is difficult to measure (compressibility of air, environmental effects
e.g. temperature) [16].
For future tests with axial strains up to 20% of specimen height, a double
wall cell has been manufactured to measure the total volume change of the
unsaturated specimen.
Over the past years several double-wall triaxial cells have been built [1,
2, 15]. Main focus was on the measurement of the volume change of the
cell fluid. The whole constructive design of this new cell has been tuned to
this aspect. The goals are (1) to reduce axial deformations of the cell; (2)
to avoid clearance volume e.g. threads, quick connects; (3) ensure optimal
deairing of the cell; (4) small volume of the inner cell; (5) unhindered specimen
preparation by air pluviation; and (6) design of an optimal measuring system
for unsaturated sand specimen.
The cell has been designed for specimens with a diameter of 50 mm and
125 mm height (height to diameter ratio of 2.5). The radial deformation of
the specimen is measured by monitoring the flow of the cell fluid into or out
of the triaxial cell. Errors due to the deformation of the cell wall are avoided
by applying the same pressure in the outer and inner cell.
The cell consists of a head plate, a base plate, and a basis plate (Fig. 8)
made of stainless steel. To avoid any splices the head plate is manufactured
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Fig. 8. Double-walled triaxial cell and modular loading frame
in one piece. The loading ram is guided by a linear roll bearing which is
installed in the upper part. It has the same diameter like the specimen. The
sealing between loading ram and head plate can be solved by using a rod seal
with a high sealing efficiency, low friction, and a minimal stick-slip effect.
Therefore, the loading ram must have a hard-chromium plated surface with
special demands on the surface profile.
During cell filling, it is possible to bleed air with an lateral air release
installed at the highest point of two inclined levels. For the cell walls, acrylic
pipes are used. The inner and outer cell have a diameter of 9 cm and 11.5 cm
respectively. Thus, the diameter of the inner cell enables radial deformation
of the specimen or even the development of shear bands by compression tests
with large axial deformation (20% from specimen height). The inner cell,
with a relative small volume, is filled with silicon oil of a low viscosity and
the outer cell with air.
The head plate, the perspex walls, and the base plate are held together
by hollow shafts. The perspex walls are collected in fluts with o-ring seals
which lie in a second flut. When the cell is put together the flut is completely
filled with the o-ring sealing. There ist no place left for the cell liquid. The
cell is connected by five 16 mm diameter stainless steel tie bars with the basis
plate. To prevent the flow of silicone oil between the two plates an o-ring
sealing is installed. The diameter of the o-ring sealing is nearly the same as
the diameter of the inner cell.
There are five stainless steel connections for the supply with the different
media. The tubes are connected with the cell by special quick connectors
with minimal spillage and air inclusion (0.3 cm3 ) while the connecting or
disconnecting process.
A stainless steel ball valve without any clearance volume is installed in
front of every connection. The pressure transducers (cell, pore-water and
pore-air pressure) are durably screwed in T-pieces. They point to the bottom
to prevent the air from becoming trapped. There are two connections for the
cell pressure and the pore-water pressure, and one for the pore-air pressure.
To separate pore-water from pore-air pressure a base pedestal is connected
with the basis plate. Leakage is prevented by an o-ring seal. Even the tubes
for the pore-water pressure and the pore-air pressure are sealed with o-rings.
Two tubes for pore-water pressure end in a water compartment under a high-
air-entry ceramic-ring (1 bar high flow). It is possible to measure the pore-
water pressure and flush the diffused air. The pore-air pressure is applied to
the specimen through a porous stone. At the end of the loading ram (top of
the specimen), the same unit is installed. Changing the units to apply or to
measure higher matric suction is simply possible. With two ceramic discs it
is possible to apply the same or different matric suction(s) at the top and the
base of the specimen. This ensures a shorter equalization stage [12], a nearly
uniform distribution of matric suction about specimen height, and a defined
matric suction gradient above the specimen height.
The absorption of water by the acrylic cell wall [1, 15] and even the
diffusion from water and air through the rubber membrane [9] are well-known.
This effects were avoided using silicon oil as cell fluid. Another advantage is,
that oil has a lower surface tension than water. The surfaces in the inner cell
will be well wetted and the risk of any air bubbles in the tubes is much lower
than using deaired water. The greater compressibility of oil demanded the
observation of the volume change due to different cell pressure stages.
Loading Frame
The cell is surrounded by a loading frame. The axial force is produced by a

servo motor with a gearbox. The rotation of the electric motor is changed to
linear motion using a recirculating roller screw. The fastest vertical deforma-
tion speed is at 25 mm/min and the slowest, but still continuous, is less than
at 0.0001 mm/min.
During the preparation of the sand specimens by pluviation the cell is
run up and driven backwards on profil rail guides without any vibration.
When the specimen is prepared the cell is driven to the starting position and
dropped down for connection with the basis plate.
Measuring the Axial Stress and Vertical Deformation
The vertical tensile or compression force is measured out of the double-walled

cell by a 10 kN load cell. The load cell is installed between the loading ram
and the recirculating roller screw without any fetch. Lateral forces can not be
excluded because of the length of the loading ram. However, preliminary tests
with conventional load cells have shown that lateral forces have an enormous
effect on the measurement. To solve this problem, a special load cell with an
integrated lateral force compensator has been used. The maximal deviation
measuring the axial stress is smaller than 1.53 kPa by a resolution of 0.16 kPa.
The axial displacement of the specimen is measured externally to the cell
with an opto-electronical displacement transducer which enables an accuracy
of ±0.001 mm. The measuring range is 35 mm.
Pressure control and measurement
The air pressure is adjusted manually with precision pressure control units.
For the cell pressure, a pressure regulating valve with an adjustable range
from 0.15 up to 10 bar and for the pore-water pressure and the pore-air
pressure four pressure regulating valves with a adjustable range from 0.03
up to 2.1 bar are used. The sensitivity is less than 0.032 kPa.
The pore-water and the pore-air pressure are measured with pressure
transducers with an effective range from 0 to 3.5 bar. The accuracy is less
than 0.04% from the final value (0.14 kPa). The cell pressure can be measured
with an accuracy less than 0.25% from the final value (10 bar).
Volume change of the specimen and the pore-water
The volumetric deformation of the unsaturated specimen is measured by

monitoring the flow of the cell fluid into or out of the double-wall cell with
double-walled burettes. Also, the flow of the pore-water into or out of the
specimen can be observed with burettes. Therefore, modular burettes-units
consisting of three burettes have been built. The height of the oil respectively
the water column is measured by differential pressure transducers. Detailed
information concerning the accuracy and resolution are given in [7]. By cir-
culating the pore-water in the pore-water drainage system with peristaltic
pumps (Fig. 9) it is possible to flush the diffused air out of the water com-
partement under the ceramic plate. The peristaltic pumps are controlled via
pc.
Data logging
All transducers are connected to a pc with a 16 channel-measurement card.

The developed software allows a continuous recording of the data. High res-
olution of the measurement is ensured by using a 16-bit card.
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Fig. 9. Scheme of the instrumentation of the double-walled triaxial cell
5 Outlook
The planned tests will be carried out in different stages. At first functional
tests are intended for checking the apparatus and the instrumentation. This
stage includes (1) tests (triaxial compression, isotropic compression) on sat-
urated specimens and the comparison with other test results (e. g. literature,
other triaxial testing apparatus); and (2) the comparison of test results (shear
strength) acquired with a conventional and the new equipment (w =const.);
(3) investigation in the influence of membrane penetration and the error es-
timation of the volume change measurement.
Thereafter a scientific testing programm for the determination of the (1)
relationship between saturation and shear strength; (2) soil-water-characteristic
curve; and (3) the unsaturated conductivity will be started. The SWCC and
the unsaturated conductivity will be examined for different isotropic stresses
with recording the total volume change. The aim is to develop and to test
models, which describe the SWCC and the unsaturated conductivity for de-
formable unsaturated soils. When the investigations on the mechanical and
hydromechanical behaviour of sand are finished, a silt will be tested.
Acknowledgements
The presented developments have been carried out during the work in the
subproject 2 “Experimental and theoretical investigation of partially satu-
rated granular material” of the DFG Research Group - Mechanics of Partially
Saturated Soils (FOR 444/1).
References
1. W. F. Anderson, A. K. Goodwin, I. C. Pyrah, and T. H. Salman. Equipment
for one-dimensional compression and triaxial testing of unsaturated granular
soils at low stress levels. Geotechnical Testing Journal, 20(1):74–89, 1997.
2. S. Aversa and M. V. Nicotera. A triaxial and oedometer apparatus for testing
unsaturated soils. Geotechnical Testing Journal, 25(1):3–15, 2002.
3. J. Biarez and P.-Y. Hicher. Elementary Mechanics of Soil Behaviour-Saturated
Remoulded Soils. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam/Brookfield, 1994.
4. J. L. Colliat-Dangus, J. Desrues, and P. Foray. Triaxial testing of granular soil
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Mechanik Lehrstuhl II, 2000. Bericht Nr. II-6.
12. E. Romero, J.A. Facio, , A. Lloret, A. Gens, and E. E. Alonso. A new suction
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13. T. Schanz. Zur Modellierung des mechanischen Verhaltens von Reibungsmate-
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of instrumentation for measuring small strains during triaxial testing of soil
specimens. Geotechnical Testing Journal, GTJODJ,, 18(2):137–156, 1995.
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16. D. Wulfsohn, B. A. Adams, and D.G. Fredlund. Triaxial testing of unsaturated
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Behaviour of unsaturated cohesive soils
subjected to cyclic loads
T. Becker1 and T. Li2

1
University of Kaiserslautern, Germany, Department of Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering beckerth@rhrk.uni-kl.de
2
Northern Jiaotong University, China, Institut of Tunnel and Geotechnical
Engineering taoli@center.njtu.edu.cn
1 Introduction
Cyclic or alternating load impact provoked e.g. by wind or traffic loads is one
of the most important types of soils strains. Beside this mechanical impact,
unsaturated soils are sometimes subjected to cyclic loads as a result of chang-
ing pore water pressures by infiltration or evapotranspiration. Therefore, it
is necessary to distinguish between the mechanical and the hydraulic cyclic
load impact on unsaturated soils.
In contrast to saturated cohesive soils, the behaviour of unsaturated co-
hesive soils subjected to mechanical induced cyclic loads is similar to the one
of non-cohesive soils. In some cases, the result of the ongoing alternating load
effect is not an increase, or more generally said, a significant change of the
pore water pressure resp. the matric suction, but rather an increase in the
stiffness of the soils skeleton below a critical stress state depending on the
number of load cycles. This effect is typically known as the cyclic shakedown
in sands, i.e. the decrease of plastic strain increments when approaching the
elastic state and is also called the ’ratcheting-effect’, especially for metallic
materials.
Besides the mentioned number of load cycles, the plastic deformation
of cohesive soils depends on the stress state as well as the initial void ra-
tio, the initial degree of saturation, the load frequency and the cyclic load
amplitude. Most importantly, the impact of matric suction concerning the
’ratcheting-effect’ is not yet clearly clarified for unsaturated soils. Systematic
cyclic triaxial tests and oedometric compression tests are carried out on a
remoulded cohesive soil to evaluate the influences on matric suction and the
degree of saturation on the plastic deformations. The results of these investi-
gations yield to a constitutive relation based on an elastoplastic two-surface
model developed by Li [7].
2 Experimental investigations
In order to ensure good specimen reproducibility, an artificial soil is used
for the laboratory tests. The model mixture is characterized as a silty soil
356 T. Becker and T. Li
containing 97 % stone powder from a phorphyrite and 3 % Na-Bentonite

and thus covers a wide range of geotechnical applications. Because of the
homogenous grain size distribution of the stone powder in combination with
the bentonite, the mixture comprises a constant plasticity and is extremely
suitable to simulate the conditions of a natural silt without any significant
variations in it’s physical composition. The non-swelling behaviour and in
particular, the sensitivity of the pore pressure to the void ratio, have been
considered by using this compound. Taking typical engineering applications
into account, e.g. build-up of a dam or a footing ground, the tested specimens
are produced with a compaction degree range of 95 % ≤ Dpr ≤ 98 %.
The grain size distribution of the model soil is shown in Figure 1. More
soil parameters are displayed in table 1.
silt sand gravel
stones
finest
fine medium coarse fine medium coarse fine medium coarse

100
90
percent finer by weight
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0,002 0,006 0,02 0,06 0,125 0,2 0,6 1 2 4 6 8 16 20 31,5 63 100
Stonepowder +3% Bentonite (Stm 3/97) Stonepowder (Stm) grain size d [mm]
Fig. 1. Grain size distribution of the used soil mixture
The experimental investigations of the stress-strain behaviour are carried

out with a triaxial cell for cylindrical soil specimens and an oedometric com-
pression cell, both equipped with a small tip tensiometer. The triaxial cell
furthermore consists of an independent two circuit load system for separate
axial and radial loading of the soil specimen. The loads can be applied as
isotropic and/or deviatoric total or effective stresses. The triaxial apparatus
is modified in three parts: a) a tensiometer for measuring the matric suction
inside the specimen, b) a load cell at the top of the specimen and c) an air
pressure control system to apply excess pore air pressure to the specimen
during the axis translation procedure. A detailed description of these modi-
fications is given in [2]. Similar to the modifications of [14], the tensiometer
is mounted inside the specimen to fit the special conditions of cyclic loading
and to avoid contact problems between the ceramic tip of the tensiometer
and the inner soil surface.
The applied excess pore air pressure is controlled by a pressure transducer
in the air supply system and a second transducer at the bottom of the spec-
Behaviour of unsaturated cohesive soils subjected to cyclic loads 357
Table 1. Soil parameters, Stm 3/97
Parameter value
optimum of dry density 1.81 t/m3
optimum of water content 16.4 %
grain density 2, 65 t/m3
saturated hydraulic conductivity 1 ∗ 10−10 m/s
liquid limit 34 %
plasticity index 13 %
water absorption 56 %
compression index Cc (Sr = 1) 0.053
swelling index Cs (Sr = 1) 0.002
angle of internal friction ϕ 22◦
cohesion c (Sr = 1) 10 kPa
imen in the pedestal. In combination with the axis translation method, the
system is able to measure and control excess pore air pressure and matric
suction up to (ua −uw ) ≤ 285 kP a. The overall volume change of the soil
specimen is measured by radial and axial applied LVDT’s. The water volume
change is taken into account by weighing the sample before and after loading
outside of the cell. Cyclic loading is possible with frequencies f ≤ 0.1 Hz in
deviatoric tests and with f ≤ 1 Hz in standard tests.
(a) (b)
Fig. 2. (a) Enlarged specimen with tensiometer after a triaxial test; (b) Bottom of
oedometric compression cell with mounted tensiometer
The cylindrical specimens with a height of 12 cm and a diameter of 10 cm

are statically compacted due to the anisotropic structure and water content
distribution as a result of dynamic compaction, e.g. from proctor mode. Be-
fore being mounted on the pedestal, the sample is drilled in the center of the
bottom to install the tensiometer without rupturing the soil. The tensiometer
itself is shielded by a stainless steel sleeve to provide mechanical impact to
the acrylic glass tube. A tensiometer is installed in the exact same manner in
the center of a conventional oedometric compression cell. The dimensions of
the specimen measure 2 cm in height and 10 cm in diameter. Figure 2 shows a
disturbed sample after a triaxial test with the contact zone of the tensiometer
tip and the soil on the left side and a picture of oedemetric compression cell
on the right.
Iσ
hydrostatic load phase deviatoric load phase yield load phase
determination of elastic determination of elastic determination of

parameters and elasto-plastic yield parameters
parameters
time
IIs (K)
1/2 checking checking
for creep for creep
depend- one way test depend-
ence ence
time
two-way test
IIs (E)
1/2
IIs (K)
1/2
Iσ
IIs (E)
1/2
Fig. 3. One-way and two-way stress path during cyclic loading
The triaxial tests are carried out as drained cyclic one-way and two-way
tests. In a one-way test there is no change in the main stress direction during
cyclic loading, while in a two-way test, the main stress directions are alter-
nating above and below the isotropic stress level. The regular stress path for
a one-way test as well as for a two-way test is shown in Figure 3. The oedo-
metric compression tests are performed according to the German standard
(DIN 18135, Entwurf 06/99) with two unloading/reloading stress paths at

different stress levels.
3 Test results and Interpretation

Figure 4 shows the soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) for an absorption
path. The measurement in the range of 0 ≤ (−uw ) ≤ 300 kPa is performed
with a tensiometer and the values in the range of 104 to 105 kPa are deter-
mined with the vacuum desiccator method, see [11].
25
e = 0,514-Stm3/97(Ads.)
e = 0,546-Stm3/97(Ads.)
water content w [mass-%]
20
e = 0,576-Stm3/97(Ads.)
e = 0,62-Stm3/97(Ads.)
15
Approximation van Genuchten
(modified), e=0,58
10
0
1E-1 1E+0 1E+1 1E+2 1E+3 1E+4 1E+5 1E+6 1E+7 1E+8 1E+9
negative pore water pressure (-uw) [kPa]
Fig. 4. Soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) for absorption paths of the used
soil mixture approximated with van Genuchten according to Eq. 1
Van Genuchten’s approximation [13] is modified for the mathematical

formulation of the soil water and pressure relation in the following form

1
w = wr − (ws − wr ) √ m , (1)
1 + (α (−uw )) m
with
wr = residual water content for the maximum suction of the soil,
ws = water content of the fully saturated soil,
α = constant form factor (α = 0.008) for the investigated soils,
m = form parameter with respect to the void ratio,
(−uw ) = negative pore water pressure for atmospheric conditions or the
matric suction.
The form parameter m can be described in a very simple way as a linear

function of the void ratio e.
The swell and compression index (Cs , Cc ) can be determined for effective
stresses from odeometric compression tests with respect to the matric suction
resp. to the degree of saturation, considering Eq. 1 and the actual void ratio.
Both parameters decrease as expected with increasing negative pore water
pressure (Figure 5).
0,1200
0,1000 compression index Cc´

swelling index Cs´
Linear (compression index Cc´)
0,0800
Linear (swelling index Cs´)
Cc´, Cs´ [-]
0,0600
0,0400
0,0200
0,0000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Fig. 5. Effective compression and swelling index depending on the soils suction
The evolution of the total deviatoric strains during the cyclic load phase is
expressed for the axial as well as for the radial specimen direction in Figure 8.
For initial load paths, the stiffness is defined with the initial shear modulus
G0 . The ongoing load process due to the cyclic loading leads to a higher shear
modulus G1 for the first load cycles and subsequently to a degradation of the
shear modulus (GN ) until the last load cycle is reached.
The degradation of the shear modulus is a function of the number of load
cycles, the initial soil parameters (void ratio and degree of saturation) as well
as the cyclic load amplitude. A simple expression is given with
GN = G 1 N b , (2)
where N is the number of load cycles and b is a form factor with respect to
the aforementioned parameters. For a constant value of the initial void ratio
as well as for a constant stress amplitude, the parameter b is expressed in
Figure 7 with respect to the negative pore water pressure.
Fig. 6. Evolution of the total deviatoric strains in a drained one-way triaxial com-
pression test
These results must be completed for other values of the initial void ra-
tio and leads into the description of the plastic modulus in the constitutive
relation (Section 4.4).
-0,20
initial pore ratio e = 0,58
Linear (initial pore ratio e = 0,58)

parameter b [ - ]
-0,15
-0,10
-0,05
0,00
0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45
Fig. 7. Dependence of the parameter b on the negative pore water pressure uw

Beside the shear modulus degradation, the soil behaviour shows a strain
hardening, i.e. an increase in volumetric strains due to the cyclic loading.
From the results in Figure 8 it can be seen that the total volumetric strains
increase with the number of load cycles while the average value of the negative
pore water pressure remains constant.
Fig. 8. Total volume change during isotropic and deviatoric stress path in a drained
one-way compression test
Measurements of the water content before and after the cyclic load phase
detected that there is no significant loss of water during the cyclic phase. An
explanation for this behaviour is the alternating expansion and contraction
of the pore volume in which the pore water is bound to the grain surfaces.
As a result of plastic deformation in the soil, the void ratio decreases and
the degree of saturation increases simultaneously. In contrast to the behaviour
of saturated cohesive soils, the pore water pressure in the unsaturated condi-
tion is not affected by the cyclic impact in the drained test even though the
load frequency of the tests are 0.01 Hz, i.e. a load velocity of 120 kPa/min.
Further investigations for undrained boundary conditions and other values of
the initial void ratio are still pending for the moment.
4 Numerical modelling
4.1 Conceptual model
A two-surface model is used to describe the behaviour of such low plasticity
cohesive soils under cyclic load impact. The model based on the work of
Li [7, 8], who formulates the behaviour of Kaolinite for fully saturated and
undrained soil conditions with respect to the bounding surface model [5,
6] and the modified Cam-Clay model [12]. Modifications of this model are
carried out for the implementation of unsaturated behaviour and for drained
conditions.
(a) section in deviatoric plane
(b) section in I-J plane
Fig. 9. Boundary and loading surface of the two-surface model from [7]
The single load cycle is modelled considering the Masing rule [9] and each
load reversal point in the stress space is defined as a memory center for the
ongoing load path.
The bounding surface represents the isotropic prestress state and the inner
loading surface the actual stress state and the stress direction, see Figure 9.
The bounding surface is allowed to expand and the loading surface is allowed
both to expand and to translate, considering a mixed hardening behaviour,
i.e. a combination of isotropic and kinematic hardening.
The mathematical formulation takes place in the three dimensional stress
space and is represented by a transformed stress tensors for the bounding
surface as well as for the loading surface with respect to their centers. The
(m)
stress state of the bounding surface is given by the stress tensors σ ij and αij ,
(m) (m)
where αij is the shift tensor between the bounding surface center (OF ,
see Figure 9) and the origin of the stress space (O)
(m) (m) (m) 1

σ ij = σij − αij ; αij = βij + Iα(m) δij . (3)
3
The index (m) identifies the actual number of load cycles. The associated
invariants are given in [7]. Similar to σ ij in Eq. 3, the stress tensor of the
(m)
ij describes the stress state with respect to its center (Of ,
loading surface σ
(m)
see Figure 9) and ξij is the assigned shift tensor.
The bounding surface is defined by Eq. 4 and the loading surface by Eq. 5.
Both surfaces, which are proportional to each other, have an elliptical form
in the I - J plane and their main axis are parallel.
2 2 (m) 2
(m)
Fm σ ij , aF = I + r 2 θ σ J − aF = 0, (4)

2
= I2 + r2 θσ J2 − af
(m) (m)
fm σij , af = 0, (5)
where
ij = transformed stresses corresponding to the center of the
σ ij , σ
boundary resp. the loading surface,

I, I = 1st invariants of the transformed stress tensor corre-
ij ,
sponding to σ ij , σ
J, J = 2nd invariant of the transformed stress tensor corre-
ij ,
sponding to σ ij , σ

θσ , θσ = corresponding Lode angles in deviatoric planes,
(m) (m)
aF , af = corresponding radius of the major axis of the Cam-Clay
ellipse with respect to the number of load cycles m,
r, r = relation of minor and major radius of the Cam-Clay
ellipse.
The critical state is specified by the extended Mohr-Coulomb yield crite-
rion for unsaturated soils. Thus, the parameters r and r are functions of the
corresponding Lode angles θσ . An approach of Agryris et al. [1] is used to
ensure a smooth transition of the yield function in the deviatoric plane.
4.2 Mixed hardening of the two-surface model
In accordance to the modified Cam-Clay model [12], the plastic volumetric

deformation pv is the unique hardening parameter for the bounding surface,
i.e.
(m)
(m) da
aF = Fp dpv . (6)
dv
The isotropic hardening of the bounding surface is then given by
(m) (0) 1 + e0
aF = aF exp {χ0 [(pv )0 − (pv )m ]} ; χ0 = , (7)
Cc − Cs
(0)
in which aF is the prestress state of the soil, defined as
(0) c
aF = aF i exp {χi [(pv )i − (pv )0 ]} ; aF i = . (8)
tan ϕ
The parameter aF i represents the tension cut-off with respect to the effective
cohesion c and the effective angle of internal friction ϕ of the soil. Taking
the unsaturated conditions into account and considering a non shrinking be-
haviour, the model parameters Cc , Cs and c in Eq. 7 and 8 are defined with
respect to the degree of saturation Sr .
Besides the isotropic loading, the bounding surface is also subjected to
deviatoric loads depending on the actual stress state of the loading surface.
That leads to a kinematic hardening formulation considering the shifting
tensor of the loading surface. Hence, Equation 9 is based on the geometrical
relationship of both similar surfaces, the bounding surface and the loading
surface, and represents the center of the bounding surface with
aF
(m)
(m) (m−1) (m−1) (m−1)
αij = σij − (m−1)
σij − ξij . (9)
af
The Eq.s 7 and 9 together describe the isotropic and kinematic (mixed) hard-
ening of the bounding surface in the general three dimensional stress space.
In the same way as Eq. 9 and with the assumption of no significant changes
in the pore pressure during the cyclic loading (which is a result of the labo-
ratory tests), the center of the loading surface is given by
af
(m)
(m) (m−1) (m−1) (m−1)
ξij = σij − (m−1)
σij − ξij . (10)
af
To describe now the hardening of the loading surface, the memory center
(point M, Figure 9) is used in the way of [5, 6]. It defines the contact point
between the boundary and the loading surface. The stress reversal during
the cyclic loading points towards the loading surface and tends to come into
contact with the opposite point of the loading surface (point P, Figure 9).
Using a three dimensional radial mapping rule of this stress path, a new
conjugating point (point R, Figure 9) exists on the bounding surface when
extrapolating the stress path to this surface. As a result of the similar shape of
both surfaces and with some geometrical and mathematical effort, described
(m)
in [7], the stress tensor σ̂ij of the conjugating point R can be denoted as
(m)
aF
(m) (m−1) (m) (m−1)
σ̂ij = σij + (m)
σij − σij . (11)
af
The geometric relations between the points P, R and M in Figure 9 are

a measure for the hardening of the loading surface during cyclic loading,
expressed later on as the plastic modulus (see Section 4.4).
Other than the model parameters given in the Eq.s 7 and 8, all stresses
mentioned above must be defined as effective stresses depending on the degree
of saturation of the soil. To achieve this, Bishop’s Equation [3] for atmospheric
conditions is used
σij = σijtot − Sr uw δij , (12)
where
σij = effective stress of the soil,
σijtot = total stress,
Sr = degree of saturation,
uw = pore water pressure.
The negative pore water pressure of the unsaturated soil uw = f (e, Sr )
can be easily obtained from laboratory tests from the SWCC (see Fig-
ure 4) providing a smooth transition between unsaturated and saturated
conditions. The approximation of the SWCC (see section 3) is given by van
Genuchten [13].
4.3 Constitutive relation for drained conditions
Based on the assumption of additive strain decomposition in kinematics, the

total strain increment is given as
dij = deij + dpij , (13)
where
deij = total elastic strain increment,
dpij = total plastic strain increment.
Considering Eq. 13, the general elastic stress-strain relation turns into

dσij = [E] dij − dpij , (14)
with [E] being the elastic constitutive matrix. σij is replaced by σ ij for the
bounding surface and by σ ij for the loading surface. The elastic material
response consists of a deviatoric as well as a volumetric part
1
deij = deeij + dekk δij (15)
3
and can be calculated from isotropic resp. deviatoric unloading and reloading
stress paths in triaxial tests with
dIσ dsij
(a) dekk = ; (b) deeij = . (16)
3K0 2G0
The initial bulk modulus K0 and the initial shear modulus G0 are determined
for unsaturated conditions with respect to the degree of saturation Sr .
The total plastic strain increments can be separated in the same way as
Eq. 15
1
dpij = depij + dpkk δij . (17)
3
The general deviatoric plastic strain increments which are based on the nor-
mality condition and take some volumetric plastic deformations occurring
from non-deviatoric incremental stress components into account, are given as

p ∂fm 1 ∂fm 1 ∂fm
(a) deij = dλ − δij ; (b) dλ = dσij . (18)
∂sij 3 ∂skk h ∂σij
dλ is a proportionality factor and h = f (σij , pij , m, Sr ) is the so called plastic
modulus. In accordance to Meißner [10], the volumetric plastic strain in-
crements arising from the incremental isotropic stress paths are given by a
volumetric flow rule with
dpkk = dIp = dλ DL . (19)
Taking the experimental results into account, that the average value of the
pore water pressure remains constant, but plastic strains occur during the
cyclic load phase, the parameter DL can be taken to fit the drainage condi-
tions during and after the cyclic load path. DL is determined from triaxial
tests (compressions tests as well as extension tests) under deviatoric condi-
tions.
Now assuming an associated deviatoric flow rule for a cohesive soil, the
second part in the brackets of Eq. 18(a) can be neglected and Eq. 17 together
with the Eq. 18 and 19 leads to

p 1 ∂fm ∂fm δij
dij = dσij − DL . (20)
h ∂σij ∂sij 3
Replacing Eq. 20 in Eq. 14 and rearranging them (e.g. in [4, 7, 10]) yields the
general elasto-plastic incremental stress-strain relation for strain hardening
and drained conditions
dσij = [D] dij , (21)

with the elasto-plastic constitutive matrix
⎡ ⎤
δij
[E] ∂f m
∂σij [E] ∂fm
∂sij − DL 3
[D] = ⎣[E] − ⎦ . (22)
δij
h + ∂σij [E] ∂sij − DL 3
∂fm ∂fm
4.4 Plastic modulus of the bounding and the loading surface
The plastic modulus h in Eq. 22 describes the evolution of the incremental

plastic deformations in the soil for all possible load paths (initial loading,
loading, unloading and reloading). Both, bounding surface and loading sur-
face are similar and of the same circumference for initial loading. In this case,
the plastic modulus is defined by the hardening rule of the bounding surface
considering the consistency condition
∂Fm ∂Fm (m)
dFm = dσ ij + (m) daF = 0. (23)
∂σ ij ∂aF
Also considering that Fm is a homogenous function in σij and σ ij for initial
pure isotropic loading, which means that only normal stresses exist in the
soil skeleton, the total plastic strain increment is given by
1 ∂Fm ∂Fm
dpkk = dσij . (24)
Hm ∂σ ij ∂σ kk
Eq. 6 together with Eq. 24 in Eq. 23 and rearranging for Hm leads to the
plastic modulus of the bounding surface
(m)

∂Fm ∂αij ∂Fm ∂Fm ∂Fm
Hm = − (m) . (25)
∂σ ij ∂a(m) ∂a ∂pkk ∂σ kk
F F
(0) (m)
Solving the derivations in Eq. 25 (e.g. in [7]) for aF resp. aF , leads to
the conditional equation for the plastic modulus of the bounding surface for
initial loading H0 and for ongoing loading events Hm .
Apart from the isotropic loading events, the plastic modulus of the loading
surface is defined by the interpolation rule according to Section 4.2. The
mathematical description depends on the distance between point P and its
conjugating point R (δ = PR) as well as the distance between M and R
(δ0 = MR) in Figure 9.
The plastic modulus hP at point P is then determined from a linear inter-
polation between the known values HM and HR , Figure 10. The geometrical
relation is given in Eq. 26.
δ0 − δ
hP = HR + (HM − HR ) . (26)
δ0
hP HM
HR
δ δ0 − δ
δ0
Fig. 10. Interpolation of the hardening modulus hP by radial mapping of the

known values HM and HR , notations according to Fig. 9
Again, from the similarity of both surfaces, the geometrical relations can
be rearranged and the actual plastic modulus of the loading surface is denoted
in a general form with respect to the number of load cycles as
(m)
γ
af
hm = Hm + (HM − Hm ) 1 − (m)
. (27)
aF
Hm is the plastic modulus of the bounding surface from Eq. 25 and HM =

(Hl ; Hu ; Hr ) is the plastic modulus defined for loading (Hl ), unloading (Hu )
and reloading (Hr ) during cyclic impact. Those modulus depending on the
initial soil and stress parameters as well as the cyclic load parameters (fre-
quency, the number of load cycles and the cyclic load amplitude). Further-
more, γ is a scalar form function that reflects the pseudo degradation of the
shear stiffness depending on the total plastic deformations.
4.5 Verification
For the verification of the aforementioned model, the mathematical formula-

c
tion is implemented by the user subroutine UMAT in the ABAQUS finite
element code. The numerical simulation of element tests as well as the solution
of some boundary value problems associated to cyclic loadings in geotechnical
engineering is still pending.
The quality of Li’s basic model [7] is determined for saturated and
undrained conditions in element test simulations for static and cyclic one-way
and two-way tests. The results of both the measured as well as the simulated
two-way test represented by the stress-strain relation and the excess pore
water degradation are displayed in Figure 11.
As one can see, there is a good agreement between the simulation and the
measurement regarding to the stress-strain relation (left side in Figure 11).
The unloading and reloading paths show a realistic behaviour in accordance
to the different values of the plastic modulus. Similar to this, the hysteresis
loops of each load cycle are displayed with an appropriate comparability.
Test dycu-3b: p0=-350 kPa; qd=130 kPa; Rp=1,0 Test dycu-4a: p0=-1780 kPa; qp=120 kPa; Rp=5,1; ub=-350kPa
number of load cycles N
Simulation for test dycu-3b (MP-series 4) Simulation for test dycu-4a (MP-series 6)
number of load cycles N
(a) (b)
Fig. 11. Comparison between the measured (upper graphs) and simulated soils
behaviour (lower graphs) for saturated conditions in an undrained two-way test:
(a) deviatoric stress-strain curve; (b) excess pore water pressure changing with
number of load cycle (OCR=5.1), from [7]
The changing of the excess pore water pressure is displayed on the right
side of Figure 11 corresponding to the number of load cycles. The cyclic load-
ing leads to a degradation of the excess pore water pressure, which is expected
for an overconsolidated soil. The simulation also shows a good comparison to
the measured behaviour.
5 Conclusion
Triaxial tests and oedometric compression tests are carried out to determine
the pre- and post-behaviour as well as the behaviour during cyclic loading
of unsaturated low plasticity cohesive soils. It can be deduced from the test
results that on one hand, no significant changes in the pore water pressure oc-
cur for certain stress levels during the non-monotone load phase even though
plastic deformations simultaneously arise with a decreasing void ratio. On
the other hand and as a consequence of the unsaturated conditions of the
soil, volumetric plastic deformations evolve from deviatoric stress paths.
Both effects are incorporated into an incremental two-surface cap model
based on [7] and modified for unsaturated soils under drained conditions.
The basic parameters of the Cam-Clay model (ei , Cs , Cc , ϕ, c and G) can be
identified from two series of standard triaxial and oedometric compressions

tests with respect to the unsaturated conditions which contains unloading
and reloading stress paths. The special parameters for the description of
the hardening modulus are determined from cyclic triaxial tests. Due to the
fact that the cyclic stiffness of the soil depends on the initial void ratio, the
prestress state as well as the cyclic stress amplitude and the initial shear
modulus, some laboratory effort is necessary to find the required parameters,
most importantly for the dependence of the initial shear modulus on the pore
pressure. Apart from this, the SWCC must be determined with respect to
the void ratio of the soil.
The model includes the incremental volumetric plastic deformations dur-
ing and after the cyclic load phase considering a dilation parameter DL . The
incremental plastic deformations in deviatoric load paths are described by the
plastic modulus for all possible load cases (loading, unloading and reloading).
It can be stated for the saturated conditions that the model of Li [7]
shows a good agreement with the laboratory test results. The verification for
unsaturated conditions are still pending.
Acknowledgement
The authors expresses their gratitude for the financial support provided by
the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) in Bonn, Germany.
References
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14. S. Zakowicz and K. Garbulewski. Modification of triaxial apparatus for predic-
tion of dam core behavior. Proc. of 2nd Conf. on Unsaturated Soils, 2:585–590,
1995. Paris.
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Remarks on consolidation in unsaturated soils from experimental results 377
Fig. 2. Typical time-settlement curve recorded during the tests on soils B.
Fig. 3. The time-settlement curve recorded during a test on soil A, with indication of the
time at which the other tests conducted on the same soil were interrupted.
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Prediction and modeling of tensile stresses and
shrinkage
Thomas Baumgartl
Institute for Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, University of Kiel,

Olshausenstrasse 40, 24118 Kiel
Abstract.
Volume change as a result of drying is often neglected in soil mechanics and
soil hydrology, despite the important influence it has in the change of mechanical
stability and water flow. Therefore, processes which lead to volume change have
to be understood. Tensile stresses as the main parameter for shrinkage are a result
of hydraulic and mechanical mechanisms in unsaturated soils or soil substrates.
Both mechanisms have to be recognised as dependent processes. Unsaturated soils
are defined as 3-phase systems. Capillary forces in soil pores act as contractive
forces of the liquid phase on the solid phase. The resulting tensile stress caused by
water increases with decreasing degree of water saturation. This causes shrinkage
in a given soil volume, including soils with small plasticity. Mechanical stress pa-
rameters will simultaneously be changed with shrinkage, which as a result also
change the hydrological parameters altering the pore system. The separation of the
mechanical from the hydraulic stress is difficult. Therefore, a method was devel-
oped, which allows the determination of tensile stress under defined boundary
conditions and is based on the general stress equation. Also a method is described
by which this information is used for general modeling of volume change by hy-
draulic stress and general empirical functions used in hydraulic modeling.
Introduction
Definition of tensile stresses
Tensile stresses occur where adhesive and cohesive bondings exist. They are
defined by the force per area, which has to be exerted to pull particles in opposite
directions. When such bonds are broken at a maximum pulling force, a yield
384 T. Baumgartl
strength or tensile strength will be reached. Tensile stresses can be distinguished

in a mechanical and hydraulic stress. The latter defines stresses, which are caused
by water menisci in a porous system. The occurrence of water menisci is, amongst
other variables, mainly based on the surface tension of the liquid in the pore and
the surface (repellency) properties of the pore. Both parameters control the curva-
ture of the water menisci and thus the contractive force. In contrast to mechanical
tensile stresses, hydraulic tensile stresses can be, in short term, very dynamic as a
result of emptying or filling of a pore volume with a certain pore size distribution.
Furthermore, due to the properties of liquid bodies, stresses are uniformly distrib-
uted within a water filled pore space with interconnected pores. Also, tensile
stresses act through the water phase in an isotropic direction (neglecting the gravi-
tational potential). Tensile stresses1 occur in the 3-phase-system of unsaturated
soils (solid-liquid-gas) as well as in quasi-saturated soils, i.e. in soil volumes,
where at the boundaries of a porous volume water menisci can be detected.
Mathematically the stresses can be summarized according to the general stress
equation of Terzaghi. The resulting effective stress is the sum of the mechanical
and hydraulic stress. In the case of a 3-phase-system it results in the effective
stress equation for unsaturated soils (Bishop, 1955), when air pressure is ne-
glected:
σ´= σ-χ.uw (1)
where σ´= effective stress; σ = total stress; χ = factor taking into account the
degree of water saturation of the pores; uw = neutral stress (= -Ψ: water potential)
The term χ.uw summarises the tensile (internal) stresses, which are responsible
for volume change.
Using the concept of independent stress state variables for describing the total
stress state, normal stresses can be defined by (Koolen & Kuipers, 1983; Fredlund
& Rahardjio, 1993):
⎡s x t xy t xz ⎤ (2)
ó = ⎢⎢t xy sy
⎥
t yz ⎥
⎢t xz t yz s z ⎥⎦
⎣
whereas the neutral stress is defined by
⎡ ( ua − u w ) 0 0 ⎤ (3)
⎢
u = ⎢ 0 (ua − uw ) 0 ⎥
⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 (ua − uw )⎥⎦
These stress state variables define the stress state more clearly than equation 1.
However, for reasons of simplification the following concept is based on the prin
1
In the following tensile stresses will be referred to as hydraulic tensile stresses.
Prediction and modeling of tensile stresses and shrinkage 385
ciple of the effective stress equation, which in this context can be assumed as
valid.
Determination and calculation of tensile stress for constant volume
Generally, any increase or decrease of the tensile stress, which causes volume
change, results in a change of the effective stress by an alteration of the orientation
of the particles. With the dynamic change of the pore size distribution caused by
each state of wetting and drying, the determination of the terms of the effective
stress equation becomes difficult. Hence the mathematical calculation of the ten-
sile stress as the product of χ and neutral stress is not based on constant boundary
conditions. A possibility to solve this problem is to keep the volume constant,
while the tensile stress changes. With the effective stress being constant:
dσ´ = 0 (4)
According to the general stress equation, tensile stresses are defined by the
product of water potential and χ-factor. The factor χ describes the stresses which
are transmitted via the water phase. For saturated soils χ has to have a value of 1
to meet the effective stress equation of Terzaghi for saturated soils (2-phase-
system solid-liquid). For completely dry soils this factor equals 0. In the literature
this value is often defined as the degree of saturation, despite many discussions as
to whether it represents a real value.
According to Richards (1966), stresses of the liquid/water phase have to be
considered as the result of capillary effects and osmotic action. However, osmotic
stresses do not appear in the equation describing the tensile stress. While the water
menisci pull solid particles together, osmotic stresses act in the (opposite) direc-
tion to the surface of the solid phase (Fig. 1). The amount of water which coats the
solid surface as a result of osmotic forces needs to be substracted from the total
amount of water, which contributes to the tensile stress. This amount of water
which is due to osmotic action is very much dependent on the total surface (i.e.
texture) of the substrate and the chemical allocation on the surface. The volume of
water which is influenced by adhesive stresses can be as high as 50% of the total
water volume in saturated conditions (Waldron et al, 1961; Low, 1958). Only wa-
ter which is not affected by these stresses can be considered as "free" water, which
can form menisci and is able to create tensile stresses. The amount of this water
corresponds with the relative water content of a soil. Therefore, χ can be approxi-
mated by the water content of soils rather than by the degree of saturation.
Using this information, equation (1) can be rewritten, using uw = Ψ, to
-dσ = d (Ψ.θ) (5)
where θ is the relative volumetric water content.
The same result is gained when using the stress state variables, when assuming
that any stress caused by the matric potential is transmitted via the water phase.
Based on the theoretical considerations given above, any change of the stress state
386 T. Baumgartl
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Fig. 1. Sketch of the adsorbed versus capillary water for different drying intensities
variable matric potential will result in an equivalent change of the total stress state. Rear-
rangement results in
- dσ dθ
=θ+ψ (6)
dψ dψ
Equation (6) describes the stresses which are caused by a change in the water
matric potential by the water retention curve.
The objective of this study was to investigate whether a derivation of hydraulic
parameters from the mechanical stress state by a change of the internal stress is
possible and if the derived water retention curve can be validated by other means,
e.g. inverse modeling of the water outflow curve.
Modeling of volume change due to tensile stress
In the case that tensile stress changes soil volume, the water retention curve
which is based on a rigid pore system has to be adapted to the alteration of the
pore size distribution. In order to achieve this, volume changes due to hydraulic
stresses have to be included. Following the concept of Fredlund and Rahardjo
(1993) or Toll (1995), who relate change of volume and moisture to each other,
volume change can be modeled by the same kind of models like moisture change,
e.g. by models used in hydrology which describe the water retention curve. Thus,
volume changes due to mechanical stress can be considered equivalent to volume
changes by hydraulic stresses. This allows a general possibility for modeling the
dynamic of the water retention curve as a result of either the influence of me-
chanical or hydraulic stress. Using this concept, the shrinkage curve of a porous
system can be depicted by the combination of the water retention curve and the
shrinkage-strain relationship, both based on the same stress state variable water
potential.
A typical result is given in Fig. 2. A variety of different stages can be found for
a shrinkage curve, which are described as structural shrinkage – normal shrinkage
– residual shrinkage and zero shrinkage. Only in the case of normal shrinkage
does the ∆ moisture ratio = ∆ void ratio. This range of shrinkage is usually ex-
plained by a volume reduction of saturated soils. If structural shrinkage can be de-
fined, then moisture ratio decreases with no adequate reduction of void ratio. Of-
ten this behaviour is explained by the existence of a secondary pore system as a
result of aggregate formation. This would also mean that shrinkage of a volume
would eventually take place on different scales, namely the aggregate and the ag-
gregated scale. However, structural shrinkage can also occur when the soil has
been exposed to mechanical or hydraulic pre-stressing and no structural elements.
Up to a certain pre-compression stress or pre-shrinkage stress, the pore system is
stable in respect to mechanical or hydraulic stresses. Within this range of stresses,
the tensile stress will only cause little shrinkage, because volume reduction will
follow the elastic part of the stress-strain relationship. The behaviour of the
shrinkage curve is in addition influenced also by mechanical stresses, which will
in general regard only residual and zero shrinkage. The complete stress state of a
porous systems can be well explained with such an analysis of volume change due
to shrinkage at a given mechanical stress state (Groenevelt and Bolt, 1972).
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388 T. Baumgartl
Methods and material
Determination and calculation of tensile stress at constant volume
In order to calculate the tensile stress for constant volume and to solve equation
(6), an experimental design had to be developed, which allows to maintain a con-
stant soil volume throughout any wetting and drying events. Only the knowledge
of the total stress and the matric water potential are sufficient to solve equation (6)
by iterative determination of the water retention curve which matches the slope of
the total stress and matric water potential relationship. In order to calculate the
tensile stress the total stress has to vary. this was achieved by using the swelling
capacity of soils. Relatively dry soil with high swelling capacity was filled into a
cylinder, which was closed on one end. The other end was placed onto a ceramic
plate through which the soil was wetted and desiccated. When water is added to a
relatively dry soil, the soil starts to swell. However in the test any extension of the
soil volume was prevented by the metal cylinder. Swelling pressure build up due
to wetting was measured by stress transducers which were attached horizontally
(σ3) and vertically (σ1) in the centre of the metal cylinder. The soil sample was
wetted via the ceramic plate until maximum saturation was reached. Desiccation
by vacuum pressure resulted in water outflow, decrease of both the matric water
potential and the swelling pressure. The difference between actual swelling pres-
sure and maximum swelling pressure at saturation was equated to the tensile stress
caused by the matric water potential acting via the liquid phase. Therefore
dστ = -dσ (7)
where dστ = tensile stress
Figure 3 shows the experimental setup. The dimensions of the metal cylinder
were: height: 59mm; radius: 36mm. The ratio of axial an radial length was close to
1 and the soil sample. The soil was watered until saturation (Ψ = 0) followed by
desiccation with shrinkage ceased. The derivation of the tensile stress could only
be carried out as long as the swelling pressure > 0. Once the tensile stress reached
a value of 0 no contact of the soil onto the cylinder wall could be proven and the
soil was considered to be in the state of shrinking.
For reasons of validation of the water retention curve derived by the measure-
ment of the tensile stress an additional test was performed with which the water
retention curve was determined using the information of the change of the water
matric potential with water content as a typical inverse model (outflow experi-
ment). Both results of the water retention curve are compared.
Fig. 3. Experimental setup for determination of tensile stress at constant volume
Modeling of volume change
Volume change was modeled using the hydraulic model of van Genuchten
(1981). On the basis of one and the same model a set of parameters could be de-
termined, for both, the water retention curve and shrinkage curve , which describe
the water potential dependent emptying of water filled pores and the reduction of
pores due to loss of volume, respectively. Based on this parameterisation, it is eas-
ily possible to create a shrinkage characteristic (equivalent to Fig. 2), by relating
water content (moisture ratio) and volume loss (void ratio) to the same stress state
variable water potential.
Material
In the experiments for determination of tensile stress at constant volume a soil

substrate was used with a clay content of 42% (Griffith-clay, Australia). The soil
was compacted to a bulk density of 1.36 g cm-3 with a water content of 10% g g-1.
390 T. Baumgartl
The volume change as a result of tensile stresses and decreasing water potential
was determined at soil samples of the top soil of an agriculturally used field (Luvi-
sol derived from Loess, Hildesheim, Germany)
Results
Determination and calculation of tensile stress at constant volume
Wetting of the soil through the ceramic plate created swelling pressure which
was recorded as horizontal and vertical stress. The mean of both stresses of differ-
ent directions was calculated by
σQ = (σ1 + 2σ3)/3 (8)
where σQ = swelling pressure
The soil was wetted until saturation and a maximum swelling pressure is
reached. Thereafter the soil was desiccated by negative pressure in three steps (-
25, -50 and -75 kPa). The application of a negative pressure causes reduction of
the swelling pressure, matric water potential and water content (measured as water
outflow) with decreasing vacuum pressures. At saturation the tensile stresses,
which are caused by capillary action, are zero. With the decrease of the matric wa-
ter potential the tensile stress increases while the swelling pressure decreases (Fig.
4). Using equation 6 the slope of this relationship can be modeled by fitting the
data according to water retention curve. Integration enables the calculation of the
tensile stresses. The calculations were pertained using the van Genuchten equation
(van Genuchten, 1981). For the investigated stress range a very good correlation
could be found (Fig. 4). The fitted pore size distribution, which is necessary to
create tensile stresses, can be used to quantify stresses which are caused by capil-
lary forces dependent on the water filled pore volume. The fitted pore size distri-
bution is shown in Figure 5.
In order to validate the water retention curve obtained by using the dependence
of the mechanical stress states from the matric water potential, the existing data set
was used to calculate the water retention curve by inverse modeling (Simunek et
al, 1998). Figure 5 shows the comparison of the results obtained. The water reten-
tion curves, which are derived on the basis of two different concepts (mechanical
properties; hydraulic properties) are very similar in the range where no volume
change occurs, i.e. down to water matric potentials of ca. -60 kPa in the example
of Figure 5. Once the measured swelling pressure equals 0, volume reduction due
to shrinkage begins. This will change the effective stress and the volume change
as well as the change of the pore size distribution have to be included (Baumgartl,
2000).
5
tensile stress [kPa]
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
m atric water potential [kPa] * (-1)
model data
Fig. 4. Measured and modeled tensile stresses as a result of a change in water matric
potential

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Fig. 5. Modeled water retention curve based on measurements of swelling pressure

(mechanical model) and water outflow curve (hydraulic model)
392 T. Baumgartl
Modeling of volume change
Fig. 6 shows an example of a reduction of void ratio with decreasing matric po-
tential. At the same time the moisture ratio (i.e. the water retention curve) de-
creases, however, more intensively as pores are emptied of water and shrinkage
cannot compensate the volume decrease. As long as the course of the two curves
is parallel and the derivation is > 0, the soil will show normal shrinkage. When
the air entry point of the water retention curve is not exceeded and the total vol-
ume does not change structural shrinkage can be defined. As for a stress-strain re-
lationship a pre-consolidation value can be derived in the semi-logarithmic plot,
for the shrinkage-strain relationship a pre-shrinkage stress can be defined, which is
equivalent to the air-entry value of the water retention curve. In Fig. 6 this value
would be around a stress (water potential) of ca. 10 hPa. Fig. 6 also shows that
modeling of the volume change using the van Genuchten model fits very well the
shrinkage data.
Relating moisture ratio and void ratio to the same stress state variable matric
water potential results in the well known shrinkage curve. As is shown in Fig. 7
the data do not fit well at high moisture ratios, i.e. close to saturation. Using a bi-
modal approach for modeling the water retention curve (see also fit of data of the
moisture ratio at high matric water potentials), the fit of the shrinkage curve is
significantly improved. A bi-modal pore size distribution is often used when struc-
tural elements or secondary pores have to be distinguished from textural (primary)
pores. Modeling of moisture ratio and void ratio using the same (hydrological)
model fits data very well and also is capable to reveal very clearly the mechanical
behaviour of a soil.
1.8
void ratio moisture ratio
1.6
data data
void ratio / moisture ratio [-]
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 100000
0
-matric water potential [hPa]
Fig. 6. Water retention and shrinkage curve described by moisture ratio and void ra-
tio with decreasing water matric potential
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
void ratio [-]
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4 data
bi-modal model
0.2 uni-modal model
0 l h i k
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
moisture ratio [-]
Fig. 7. Shrinkage characteristic of a top soil, modeled using a uni- and bi-modal pore
size distribution
Conclusions
Mechanical and hydraulic stresses have to be considered as combined proc-

esses in case of changes of the stress state variables of the mechanical stress equa-
tion. This aspect is important when tensile stresses are determined. As each
change of mechanical stress changes the hydraulic stress, pore size distributions
cannot be considered as constant. Therefore, the measurement of tensile stresses,
that are caused by water loss and shrinkage (hydraulic tensile stress), requires as a
main precondition either the understanding of the dynamics of changes of the pore
size distribution with drying or constant volume. In case of constant volume the
water retention curve can be predicted by the stress state variable total stress and
matric water potential. This may be of advantage in comparison of e.g. the inverse
method, which is commonly used as this latter method relies on time dependent
flow processes.
If tensile stresses cause a volume reduction, the course of the water retention
curve is dynamic. Modeling shrinkage based on the stress state variable matric
water potential, allows the combination of deformation and energy state of the
bound water. For a known shrinkage characteristic the dynamic of the water reten-
tion curve can be considered easily.
394 T. Baumgartl
The possibility to model (hydraulic) tensile stresses gives rise to the possibility
to predict cracking of soils as a function of the mechanical properties. Neverthe-
less, the processes of the dynamics of the water retention curve have to be under-
stood more clearly.
References
Baumgartl, T. and Horn, R. 1999. Influence of mechanical and hydraulic stresses on hy-
draulic properties of swelling soils. In: M.T. van Genuchten and F.J. Leij (Editors),
Characterization and measurement of the hydraulic properties of unsaturated porous
media. University of California, Riverside, California, pp. 449-458.
Baumgartl, T., Rostek, J. and Horn, R. 2000. Internal and external stresses affecting the wa-
ter retention curve. In: R. Horn, J.J.H. van den Akker and J. Arvidsson (Editors), Sub-
soil compaction. Distribution, Processes, consequences. Advances in Geoecology. Ca-
tena Verlag, Reiskirchen, pp. 3-12.
Bishop, A.W. 1961. The measurement of pore pressure in the triaxial test. Pore pressure
and suction in soils. Butterworths, London, pp. 38-46.
Fredlund, D.G. and Rahardjo, H. 1993. Soil mechanics for unsaturated soils. A. Wiley,
New York
Groenevelt, P.H., and G.H. Bolt. 1972. Water retention in soils. Soil Sci. 113:238-245.
Low, P.F. 1958. Movement and equilibrium of water in soil systems as affected by soil-
water forces. High Res. Bd. Spec. Rept., No.40.: 55-63.
Matyas, E.L. and Radhakrishna, H.S. 1968. Volume change characteristics of partially satu-
rated soils. Geotechnique, 18: 432-448.
Richards, B.G. 1966. The significance of moisture flow and equilibria in unsaturated soils
in relation to the design of engineering structures built on shallow foundations in Aus-
tralia, Symp. on Permeability and Capillary. Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, Atlantic
City, NJ.
Simunek, J., van Genuchten, M.T. and Sejna, M., 1998. Code for simulating the one-
dimensional movement of water, heat and multiple solutes in variably saturated porous
media. US Salinity Laboratory, USDA, ARS, Riverside, CA, USA.
Toll, D. G. (1995): A conceptual model for the drying and wetting of soil. E. E. Alonso and
P. Delage: First International Conference on unsaturated soil. Balkema, Rotterdam,
Paris/France, 805-810.
van Genuchten, M.T. 1980. A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductiv-
ity of unsaturated soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 44: 892-898.
Waldron, L.J., McMurdie, J.L. and Vomocil, J.A. 1961. Water retention by capillary forces
in an ideal soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc., 25: 265-267.
Tensile Strength of Compacted Clays
G. Heibrock*, R.M. Zeh#, and K.J. Witt#

*
PHi Consult, Marburg, Germany
#
Professorship of Foundation Engineering, Bauhaus-University Weimar, Germany
(E-mail: rainer.zeh@bauing.uni-weimar.de)
SYNOPSIS - The paper presents experimental results linking matric suction and
tensile strength of compacted clays. Test results from a cohesive soil are presented
and discussed with respect to the soil structure and the interaction of soil and
water. It is assumed that two main groups of pores can be clearly identified in
compacted clays; the pores between aggregates (interaggregate pores) and pores
between particles (intraaggregate pores). Based on a description of soil-water-
interaction an expected behaviour, describing tensile strength as a function of
matric suction, is derived and compared with the experimental results. The
laboratory test results indicate that there is a strong correlation between the pore
size distribution (assessed by interpretation of the soil water characteristic curve
SWCC) and the tensile strength of compacted soils. Furthermore, the test results
are compared by using micro-mechanical considerations of the interaction
between the skeleton of unsaturated soils (interparticle contact force) and by using
numerical calculations with an elastic relationship.
1. Introduction
Tensile strength of soils is usually not taken into account when dealing with
soil related problems. Generally it is accepted that soils are not capable of resisting
significant tensile forces over a longer time and there is almost no information on
the influence of creep on the tensile strength of fine grained, i.e. clay, soils. Thus,
the focus of the paper is not to investigate the meaning of tensile strength from an
engineering point of view, but from a soil mechanics perspective. The results of
some relatively simple investigations may contribute somewhat to the
understanding and discussion on the soil water interaction and its meaning for the
behaviour of fine grained soils used as compacted clay liners in landfills.
396 G. Heibrock, R. Zeh, and K.J. Witt
2. Soil Structure and Soil Water Interaction
Since the early days of clay colloid chemistry investigations (Endell, 1941) it is
known that the engineering properties of fine grained soils are closely related to
the soil water interaction. Investigations indicated that the amount of water that is
absorbed by fine soils correlates to many properties of the soil (e.g. swelling
behaviour, shear strength, compressibility etc.).
Fig. 2.1a (modified from Nagaraj et al., 1990) shows a schematic drawing of
the fabric (arrangement of particles) of a fine grained soil. This kind of fabric is
somewhat characteristic for a clay soil compacted dry of optimum (Proctor curve).
Groups of clay particles are tied together and form aggregates of a 2 - 10 µm size.
Pores between these aggregates (called interaggregate pores) usually show sizes
clearly above 0,1 µm (10-7 m). The number and the size of interaggregate pores
depend on the type of compaction and the water content at compaction (and
indirectly on the suction). Jasmud & Lagaly (1993) and Nagaraj et al. (1986)
showed that soil water is not bonded by clay particle surface forces (diffuse
double layer forces, see Fig. 2.1c) at distances larger than about 6 x 10-9 m to
particle surfaces. Therefore, water trapped in interaggregate pores will be
considered as capillary water. It is assumed that interaction of soil and water can
be described by the capillary theory in these pores.
Depending on the clay type, pore fluid chemistry, the soil preparation and the
water content, the particles forming an aggregate show face to face, edge to edge
or edge to face orientation. Pores inside the aggregates will be called
intraaggregate pores and usually show sizes clearly below 0,1 µm. The number
and size of these pores is not significantly influenced by compaction but from
interparticle forces (Fig 2.1b, modified from Mitchell, 1993). Water trapped in
intraaggregate pores is influenced by particle surface forces and capillary forces.
A clay soil compacted wet of optimum (Proctor curve) will show low volumes
of interaggregate pores. Nevertheless, boundaries between aggregates, which form
mechanically weak points exist. Fig. 2.1a gives an idea on the sizes of the
mentioned elements. Note that the numbers have been taken from different but
few sources, and therefore should be considered as orientation values.
The simple model will be used to derive an idea of the development of tensile
strength of a compacted clay soil as a function of the water content. Taking into
account the described bimodal pore structure it is assumed that the overall tensile
strength is determined by forces which can be transmitted from aggregate to
aggregate – since the tensile strength of the aggregates themselves will obviously
be higher. Therefore, tensile strength of a compacted clay could be described by
the tensile strength of an equivalent soil consisting of particles of the same size
and shape as the aggregates (considering that these particles will decrease in size
at lower water contents) and therefore, the capillary theory may be used to
describe the process of tensile strength as a function of the water content.
Fig. 2.2 (taken from Schubert, 1982) shows the development of tensile strength
of lime-stone. Starting from nearly saturated conditions the tensile strength t
equals capillary pressure pk times saturation S (capillary range). When pores begin
to desaturate, tensile forces have to be transmitted by water bridges between
Tensile Strength of Compacted Clays
Fig. 2.1. Fine grained soil fabric (schematic) and water (modified from Nagaraj et al., 1990)
397
Translation
Flüssigkeitsgrad = degree of saturation
Kapillardruck = capillary pressure
Zugfestigkeit = tensile strength
Kalkstein = lime stone
Partikelgröße = particle size
Fig. 2.2. Tensile strength of a lime-stone (Schubert, 1982)
particles and still water filled pores. Schubert calls this stage the transition
phase and he calculates the tensile strength as the sum of forces transmitted by
water bridges Vt and still saturated pores (t = Vt + (S pk)). When all pores have
become desaturated the pendular state is reached and tensile strength is equal to Vt.
Therefore, if we transfer this behaviour to compacted clay soils we should
expect increasing tensile stresses with decreasing water contents reaching their
maximum at a saturation of about 90 percent and decreasing tensile strength with
further lowering of water contents.
3. Experimental Investigations
The following section describes sample preparation, the mode and results of
direct tensile strength tests which were conducted by Brüggemann (1998).
Furthermore, results are discussed with respect to the pore size distribution of the
compacted soils assessed by interpretation of the soil water characteristic curve.
3.1 Sample Preparation and Test Procedure
Samples were Proctor compacted (3 layers compacted by 25 blows with 2,5 kg

hammer) at optimum water content (e.g. 25,5 % gravimetric water content for the
Kaolin samples). The sample of about 100 mm x 120 mm size was cut parallel to
Tensile Strength of Compacted Clays 399
the layer surfaces preparing samples from the upper, middle and lower part.
Besides, the characteristic of the compaction differs over the height. Thus,
differences in the soil structure and the tensile strength are expected for the
samples (upper, middle and lower part). Each of the three samples is carefully
trimmed using a wire-string creating three cylindrical samples of about 90 mm x
24 mm (height x diameter) size. At the end of this stage, the gravimetric water
content of the samples is controlled by analysing soil residues from the trimming
process. Water content losses up to 2% (related to the compaction stage) were
observed. To investigate the influence of water content on tensile strength samples
were air dried (at same conditions in a climatic chamber) or wetted (by spraying
water on the sample surface, water content controlled by weighing the sample
during the process). Subsequently, the samples were coated with wax to prevent
further changes in the water content. In addition, the sample volume and hence the
volumetric water content can be measured by dip-weighing. This is necessary to
read the matric suction of the soil water characteristic curve measured separately
from samples Proctor compacted at the same water content (middle part samples).
The soil water characteristic curves were measured by Stoffregen (1997).
After wax coating the sample is stored in a climatic chamber for about 48 hours
to ensure a homogeneous distribution of water in the sample. The final step is
drilling bore holes of 8 mm diameter creating a hollow cylinder. A filter textile is
placed in the centre of the sample, the right and left remaining part of the bore
hole is filled with epoxy resin and two hooks are fastened with dowels placed in
the bore holes. The reason for choosing the hollow-cylinder form is that maximum
tensile stresses occur in the middle of the sample, and thus influences of
‘spreading’ forces to the sample are minimised (see results of elastic FE-
calculations in section 4.3). Figure 3.1 shows a picture of the sample placed in the
test device.
After carefully removing the wax coating the sample is placed in the test device
(see Fig. 3.1) and is slowly torn apart (# 0,06 mm/min). Tests showed that lower
velocities did not result in any changes in the measured tensile strength. During
this process, tensile forces are measured. Fig 3.2 shows a typical test result.
Tensile strength rises linearly with time as well as with strain until the sample
rupture occurs. Axial tensile strength of the sample is defined as maximum tensile
force measured during the test. Tensile strength is higher for samples taken from
the lower part of the proctor sample indicating that compaction resulted in smaller
interaggregate pores than in the middle and upper part of the proctor sample.
24 mm
90
90
Fig 3.1. Sample and tensile strength test device
middle and lower sample

300
250
upper sample
strength
tensile force [kpA]
200
upper part
150
tensile
100
(kPa)
50
0
0 200 400 600 800
time [sec]
Fig. 3.2. Typical test result of the direct tensile strength test (test at 20% water
content)
3.2 Test Results
The tests were conducted at a medium plastic clay (Kaolin clay - 61 % clay,
39 % silt; Proctor density 1,55 g/cm3; Liquid limit 44,4 %, plastic limit 28,1%,
shrinkage limit 25%, plasticity index 16,3 %, Proctor water content 25,5 %,
activity 0,26). Figure 3.3 shows the parametrised soil water characteristic curve
using a weighted sum of two Van-Genuchten functions (Durner, 1991):
4 = (T - Tr) / (Ts - Tr) = ¦ wi (1/(1 + D (ua – uw))ni)mi (3.1)
where 4: water saturation [-], T: volumetric water content [-],
Tr: residual water content [-],
Ts: volumetric water content at saturation [-]
wi: weights [-]
ua: pore air pressure [kPa], uw: pore water pressure [kPa]
ua – uw: suction [kPa]
mi, ni : parameters [-], D : skaling [1/kPa].
d4/dlog(ua – uw) describes the change in saturation with a change in suction.
Therefore, if a change in suction corresponds to a relatively large change in
saturation this means that many pores desaturate at the applied suction. Thus, the
maximum of d4/dlog(ua – uw) gives the pore size which is most frequent (filling
bimodal
raw data
vol. water content (%)
bimodal
realistic
matric suction (pF = log hPa)
Fig. 3.3. Measured and parametrised soil water characteristic curve of Kaolin clay
shrinkage limit (volumetric)
pore size distribution (%)
plastic limit
matric suction (pF = log hPa)

optimum water content
shrinkage limit (DIN)
Fig. 3.4. Pore size distribution of Kaolin clay (d4/dlog(ua – uw))
300
280
260
240
220
200
Tensile strength [kPa]
180
160 upper part
middle part
140 lower part
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
Saturation
Fig. 3.5. Tensile strength as a function of suction

400 40
shrinkage limit
pore size distribution
350
samples top
300 30
samples middle
Po r e size d ist r ib u t io n (% )
T e n sil e st r e n g t h (k Pa )
250
samples bottom
200 20
150
100 10
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
M a t rmat
i c su
ric csuct
t i o ion
n (lo Pa )
g hhPa)
( log
Fig 3.6. Pore size distribution and tensile strength of the compacted Kaolin
the largest volume) in the soil. Assuming that the soil pore system can be
described as a bundle of capillary tubes of different sizes, d4/dlog(ua – uw) gives
an idea of the distribution of capillary tube diameters and thus, the pore size
distribution. Fig 3.4 shows the “pore size distribution” of Kaolin clay. Two
regions can be identified. One region in the range of pF = 2 to about pF =4,5
(showing a maximum at pF = 4,2 – 4,3), which belongs to pore sizes larger than
0,1 Pm (diameter calculated from capillary pressure) and therefore representing
the water in the interaggregate pores. A second region ranging from about pF =
4,5 to about pF = 7 linked to pore sizes clearly lower than 0,1 Pm and therefore
representing water in the intraaggregate pores.
Figure 3.5 shows the results of tensile strength tests as a function of saturation
(Brüggemann, 1998). The maximum value of tensile strength is reached at about
87 percent saturation corresponding to suctions of about pF = 4,3. Samples with
lower water contents show decreasing values of the tensile strength, except the
samples with lowest water content (gravimetric) of about 0,3 %. A slight
reincrease of tensile strength can be identified. Generally, the samples taken from
the upper part of the Proctor sample show lower tensile strengths than the samples
from the middle and lower part.
Fig. 3.6 shows the measured tensile strength values as a function of suction
combined with the “pore size distribution” of the Kaolin. In addition, the suction
at shrinkage limit is marked. It can be seen that maximum tensile stress is reached
at suctions just below the maximum of the pore size distribution which represents
the most frequent interaggregate pores. This maximum corresponds to the

shrinkage limit (determined by volumetric shrinkage tests). Thus, maximum
tensile strength seems to occur when interaggagate pores are almost desaturated.
The soil has left the normal shrinkage region, and forces between aggregates are
transmitted more and more via water bridges. In terms of capillary theory (see
section 2) this means that the soil develops from the transition to the pendular
state. The next section deals with tensile forces calculated by means of the
capillary theory assuming the pendular state.
4. Calculations and Comparison
According to the theory of porous solid systems (Schubert 1982, Heibrock,

1997, 1996), soil water in the pendular state occurs only in water bridges between
the particles. Schubert (1982) and Molenkamp & Nazemi (2003) developed
different approaches to calculate the forces between particles (smooth, rough) in
the pendular state. Based on these approaches simple calculations of possible
tensile strengths of homogeneous, undisturbed particle fabrics are presented, and
show that the capillary theory gives the correct magnitude of tensile strength,
when the pendular state is reached.
4.1 Interparticle Contact Forces
4.1.1 Calculations Based on Schubert (1982)

Schubert’s calculations are theoretically based on the capillary theory of porous
solid systems. In addition, different contact forms (e. g. identical spheres, spheres
with different diameters, sphere to plate, etc.) are described in his book. Results of
numerical calculations are combined in diagrams as shown in Fig. 4.1 b).
The following computations use i) the ratio of the water bridge volume and the
sphere volume (Vl / Vs) and ii) the bridge angle E to read out the dimensionless
contact force F/Jx (compare with Fig. 4.1 a), where J is the surface tension (for
pure water and air, at a temperature of 293°K, the surface tension is J # 0,0727
N/m) and x is the diameter of the sphere. Besides, the decisive tensile stress Vt is
derived from (Rumpf & Schubert, 1978)
Vt = (1-e)F / ex² (4.1)
where e is the void ratio of the soil.
Figure 4.1. (a) Spheres with water bridge , (b) contact force versus contact forms
and ratio of the water bridge volume and the sphere volume Vl / Vs (Schubert,
1982)
The Kaolin clay was used for all example calculations. The average void ratio
of the samples is assumed as e = 0,6 (Brüggemann, 1998). The initial sphere
diameter is usually 10 to 2 Pm for a Kaolin, Snyder & Miller (1985) recommend
an average diameter of 5 Pm. After the shrinkage process, and consequently, for
thependular state, a diameter of 1 to 3 Pm is expected. Table 4.1a-c represents the
results based on the described assumptions i) – the tensile strength versus the
contact form, the ratio Vl / Vs and the diameter of the sphere.
Cohesive soils have naturally a mixture of the different contact forms (e. g.
Mitchell, 1993). Therefore, a combination of the calculated contact form values
(Table 4.1) could give similar tensile strengths as they were obtained by the
laboratory tests.
The second calculation algorithm ii) uses the capillary pressure pk (the suction)
in the soil. By using the dimensionless capillary pressure pkx/J, the bridge angle E
of the different sphere diameter is collected. According to that, the dimensionless
force is collected likewise, then the tensile stress is calculated with equation 4.1.
The authors consider only sphere systems with the same diameter x, no
othercontact forms. As the suction value, 1995 kPa was chosen for the Kaolin (the
shrinkage limit). The calculation results are represented in Table 4.2 by using two
different ratios of sphere distance a/d (Fig. 4.1a). Table 4.3 shows the stresses
according to the proportions of the grain size distribution of the Kaolin. It is
evident that the size of the sphere distance a/d (at small values) does not play an
important role for the tensile strength. The results are very similar.
Table 4.1a. Tensile strength Vt (kPa) versus contact form, ratio Vl / Vs = 10–2 and
diameter x
Form x = 1,5 Pm x = 3,0 Pm x = 5,0 Pm
80,78 40,39 24,23
x1/x2 = 2 117,12 58,56 34,80
x1/x2 = 10 163,17 81,59 48,95
190,64 95,32 57,19
3231,11 1615,01 969,33
Table 4.1b. Tensile strength Vt (kPa) versus contact form, ratio Vl / Vs = 10–3 and
diameter x
Form x = 1,5 Pm x = 3,0 Pm x = 5,0 Pm
90,47 45,24 27,14
x1/x2 = 2 126,01 63,00 37,80
x1/x2 = 10 172,86 86,43 51,86
203,59 101,80 61,07
339,27 169,64 101,78
Table 4.1c. Tensile strength Vt (kPa) versus contact form, ratio Vl / Vs = 10–4 and
diameter x
Form x = 1,5 Pm x = 3,0 Pm x = 5,0 Pm
96,93 48,47 29,20
x1/x2 = 2 132,48 66,24 39,74
x1/x2 = 10 177,71 88,86 53,31
210,02 105,01 63,01
35,54 17,77 10,66
Table 4.2. Tensile strength Vt (kPa) versus diameter x (Pm) and ratio of sphere
distance a/x
sphere sphere distance sphere sphere
distance a/x = 10-3 distance distance
a/x = 0 a/x = 0 a/x = 10-3
diameter x bridge angle E bridge angle E Vt (kPa) Vt (kPa)
(°) (°)
2 Pm 14,8 13,4 70,28 70,28
6 Pm 8,6 7,6 24,23 23,02
20 Pm 4,0 3,3 7,46 5,09
60 Pm 1,8 1,5 2,52 0,87
Table 4.3. Tensile strength Vt (kPa) versus grain size distribution

proportional - grain sphere distance sphere distance
size distribution Kaolin a/x = 0 a/x = 10-3
diameter x Vt (kPa) Vt (kPa)
2 Pm 0,62 43,57 43,57
6 Pm 0,24 5,82 5,53
20 Pm 0,13 0,97 0,66
60 Pm 0,01 0,03 0,01
total sum 50,39 49,77
4.1.2 Calculations Based on Molenkamp & Nazemi (2003)
Molenkamp & Nazemi (2003) consider the interactions between two rough
spheres in detail (similar diameter, Fig. 4.2). These calculations ought to be
compared to the computing for ii) above - the approach of Schubert. Fig. 4.2
shows the geometry of the problem. As a first value the dimensionless pressure
differences have to be obtained –
\ = (ua – uw)x / J (4.2)
with (ua – uw)as suction, x as the diameter of the spheres and J as the surface
tension (in our example, the suction is 1995 kPa and the surface tension J # 0,0727
N/m assuming a temperature of 293°K).
The force between the spheres is
F = f / xJ = \SYc2 + 2SYc sin(E+T) (4.3)
with Yc = sin E, E as the bridge angle (Table 4.2). T - the liquid-solid contact
angle - is taken as 0. As above, the tensile strength is Vt = (1-e)F / ex² and it is in
accordance to the proportions of the grain size distribution of the Kaolin. The
results of the calculations are represented in Table 4.4 and 4.5. Compared with the
calculation results based on the approaches (ii) of Schubert (Table 4.3), higher
tensile strengths are obtained.
Fig. 4.2. Illustration of geometry of right-hand side of liquid bridge and actions on
it (Molenkamp & Nazemi, 2003)
Table 4.4. Tensile strength Vt (kPa) versus grain size distribution, a/x = 0 (a =2s,
Fig. 4.2)
diamet contact force F (- proportional -grain tensile strength Vt
er x ) size distribution - Kaolin (kPa)
2 Pm 1,6897 10-6 0,62 174,60
6 Pm 5,1064 10-6 0,24 22,70
20 Pm 1,2243 10-5 0,13 2,65
60 Pm 2,2224 10-5 0,01 0,04
total sum 199,99
Table 4.5. Tensile strength Vt (kPa) versus grain size distribution, a/x = 10-3 (a
=2s, Fig. 4.2)
diamet contact force F (- proportional -grain tensile strength Vt
er x ) size distribution - Kaolin (kPa)
2 Pm 1,2557 10-6 0,62 129,76
6 Pm 3,9942 10-6 0,24 17,75
20 Pm 8,3369 10-6 0,13 1,81
60 Pm 1,5479 10-5 0,01 0,03
total sum 149,35
4.2 Numerical Analyses
Simple numerical calculations with the FE-code COMPASS (Thomas et al.,

2002), using the standard elastic relationship (Hook), showed the expected stress
concentration in the middle of the hollow-cylinder-sample (Fig. 4.3) and parallel
the contraction in the middle of the sample (see Fig 4.4). Typical soil parameter
for the Kaolin clay were taken from Brüggemann (1998) and Alonso et al. (1990)
- e. g. : n = 0,4, G = 3300 kPa, Q = 0,4.
Fig. 4.3. a) Stress (Pa) in y-direction, sample scheme, b) in x-direction, after 122 s
Fig. 4.4. a) Displacement (m) in y-direction, sample scheme, b) in x-direction,

after 122 s
4.3 Comparison
The comparison of the test results in the laboratory and the analytic calculations
based on the approaches of Schubert (1982) and Molenkamp & Nazemi (2003)
shows that the correct magnitude of tensile strength could be obtained by using
equations derived from the capillary theory. Obviously, the calculation of tensile
strength as a product of ‘total’ saturation and suction overestimates tensile
strength by an order of magnitude. In order to transfer the equations of Schubert /
Molenkamp & Nazemi onto fine grained soils, the overall saturation S has to be
replaced by SI representing the degree of saturation of the interaggregate pores.
Assuming that 7 % of the interaggregate pores remain saturated at pF = 4,3, where
the maximum tensile strength was observed, the tensile strength calculated from t
= Vt + (SI pk) equals 189 kN/m2 – 289 or 339 kN/m2 depending on the
assumptions with respect to aggregate size distribution and contact form (see
Tables 4.3 – 4.5). This range matches with the measured maximum values (see
Fig. 3.5) although calculated tensile strength is about 20 % higher compared to the
measured strength. This could be explained from the rough estimation of the still
saturated part of the interaggregate pores. Assuming that the pendular state is
reached at S = 0,2 and thus tensile stresses could be calculated only from forces
transmitted by water bridges, the resulting tensile strength calculated from the
equation of Schubert / Molenkamp & Nazemi equals 50 kN/m2 – 140 or 200

kN/m2 (see Tables 4.3 – 4.5) which again matches the observed values between 80
kN/m2 and 140 kN/m2. The equation of Molenkamp & Nazemi seems to give a
better approximation indicating that contact forces between aggregates should be
described by assuming rough contact conditions.
5. Conclusion
By now, the tensile strength’s characteristics of compacted clays as a function

of water content have been rarely investigated. Although the results documented
above are not sufficient to confine the hypothesis that tensile strength of
compacted clays could be explained by capillary theory assuming that tensile
strength is governed by forces that could be transmitted at the boundaries between
clay aggregates, the results indicate that the basic approach is promising.
The shape of the measured tensile strengths can be explained through the
capillary theory as well as the magnitude of the measured values. This does not
apply to very low water contents below saturation of 0,2.
Further investigations will take different soils (high and low plastic clays) into
account, and attempts will be made to identify water volumes with different water
contents which are trapped in interaggregate pores.
Acknowledgements
The second author acknowledges the support by the German Academic Exchange Service
DAAD to his stay as a research visitor at the Geoenvironmental Research Centre GRC,
Cardiff University, United Kingdom. Thanks are also to Prof. H. R. Thomas and Dr. P. J.
Cleall for their support and supervision.
References
Alonso, E. E., Gens, E., Josa, A. 1990. A constitutive model for partially saturated
soils. Géotechnique 40, No. 4, pp. 405-430
Brüggemann, R. 1998. Zugfestigkeit verdichteter Tone als Funktion des
Wassergehalts. Diplomarbeit. Institut für Grundbau und Bodenmechanik,
Ruhr-Universität Bochum. unveröffentlicht
Durner, W. 1991. Vorhersage der hydraulischen Leitfähigkeit strukturierter
Böden. Diss., Bayreuther Bodenkundliche Berichte, Band 20
Endell, K. 1941. Stand der Erkenntnisse über die Quellfähigkeit von Tonen, ihre
innere Ursache und Bestimmung, Bautechnik, Heft 19, Berlin
Heibrock, G. 1996. Zur Rissbildung durch Austrocknung in mineralischen
Abdichtungsschichten an der Basis von Deponien. Schriftenreihe des Instituts
für Grundbau an der Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Heft 26
Heibrock, G. 1997. Desiccation cracking of mineral sealing liners. in: Proceedings

Sardinia 1997, 6. International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium,
CISA, Cagliari
Jasmund, K., Lagaly, G. 1993. Tonminerale und Tone: Struktur, Eigenschaften
Anwendungen in Industrie und Umgebung. Stenkopff, Darmstadt
Mitchell, J. K. 1993. Fundamentals of Soil Behaviour. J. Wiley & Sons, London
Molenkamp, F., Nazemi, A. H. 2003. Interactions between two rough spheres,
water bridge and water vapour. Géotechnique 53, No. 2, pp. 255 – 264
Nagaraj, T. et al. 1990. Discussion on « Change in pore size distribution due to
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Bodenkunde und Regionale Bodenkunde, Institut für Ökologie, TU Berlin
Thomas, H. R., Cleall, P. J., Seetharam, S. C. 2002. Numerical modelling of the
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Effects of unsaturation on the stability of a
moraine slope
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Abstract:6JGRCRGTURTGUGPVUCPWOGTKECNCPCN[UKUQHVJGUVCDKNKV[QHCOQ
TCKPGUNQRGVJCVTGCEVKXCVGFCHVGTVYQJGCX[TCKPHCNNGXGPVUKP0QXGODGT6Q
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VJGUG EQGHHKEKGPVU YGTG CPCN[UGF 6JG HCEVQT QH UCHGV[ QH VJG UNQRG YCU VJGP
ECNEWNCVGF CV VJG VKOG YJGTG VJG UNQRG OQXGF CU TGEQTFGF D[ VJG KPENKPQOGVGT
OGCUWTGOGPVU 6JKU OCFG KV RQUUKDNG VQ XGTKH[ YJKEJ EQODKPCVKQPU QH UCVWTCVGF
J[FTCWNKEEQPFWEVKXKVKGUYGTGEQORCVKDNGYKVJVJGUNQRGOQXGOGPVU
Keywords: case study, evapotranspiration, numerical analysis, slope stability, un-
saturated flow.
1 Introduction
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6JG$KUJQRŏUUKORNKHKGFOGVJQFYCUWUGFKPVJKUUVWF[
3.1 Geometry
6JGETQUUUGEVKQP 5 QH VJGNCPFUNKFGCPCN[\GFKPVJKURCRGTKUKNNWUVTCVGFKP(KI
+V KPVGTUGEVUYKVJVJGKPENKPQOGVGT+CPFKUQTKGPVGFCNQPIVJGFKTGEVKQPQHNCPF
UNKFG FKURNCEGOGPV CUTGEQTFGFD[VJKUKPENKPQOGVGT6JGKPENKPCVKQPQHVJGUNQRG
CNQPIVJKUETQUUUGEVKQPKUu6JKUKPENKPCVKQPKU PQV VTWN[TGRTGUGPVCVKXGQHUNQRG
KPENKPCVKQPVJCVECPTGCEJuCVVJGPQTVJGTPRCTVQHVJGNCPFUNKFG*KIJGTHCEVQTU
QHUCHGV[VJCPVJGCEVWCNQPGUUJQWNFDGVJGPGZRGEVGFHQTUNQRGUVCDKNKV[CPCN[UKU
DWV VJG WUG QH C VYQFKOGPUKQPCN OQFGN PGINGEVU VJG UKFGGHHGEVU CPF NKMGN[ TG
FWEGUVJKUQXGTGUVKOCVG
6JGFGRQUKVYCUFKXKFGFKPVJTGGNC[GTUVJGEQCTUGTWRRGTINCEKCN UQKNVJGNQYGT
INCEKCNUQKNCPFVJGYGCVJGTGFOCTN
6JGOGUJWUGFHQTVJGUGGRCIGCPCN[UGUEQORTKUGFPQFGUCPFVTKCP
IWNCT QT SWCFTKNCVGTCN GNGOGPVU 5NQRG UVCDKNKV[ CPCN[UGU YGTG RGTHQTOGF HQT VJG
UCOGUNKFKPIUWTHCEGVJCVKPVGTUGEVUVJGKPENKPQOGVGT+YJGTGNQECNFKURNCEGOGPVU
YGTGOGCUWTGF6JKUUWTHCEGYCUFGHKPGFCUCRQN[IQPCNUWTHCEGUQCUVQCRRTQZK
OCVGFCEKTEWNCTUJCRG
&DVWOH
8SSHUJODFLDOVRLO
,
/RZHUJODFLDOVRLO
HOHYDWLRQP

6OLGLQJVXUIDFH

:HDWKHUHGPDUO

GLVWDQFHP
Fig. 3.%TQUUUGEVKQP5WUGFKPVJGCPCN[UGU
3.2 Boundary conditions
6JGDQWPFCT[EQPFKVKQPUYGTGIKXGPCUVQVCNJGCFQTWPKVHNWZ#EQPUVCPVVQVCN
JGCFYCUURGEKHKGFCV VJGTKIJVDQWPFCT[EQTTGURQPFKPIVQCYCVGTNGXGNQHODG
NQYVJGITQWPFUWTHCEG6JKUXCNWGEQTTGURQPFUVQVJGCXGTCIGXCNWGOGCUWTGFKP
VJG RKG\QOGVGT 2 # EQPFKVKQP QH \GTQ HNWZ YCU URGEKHKGF CV VJG DQVVQO QH VJG
UNQRG #NQPI VJG UNQRG UWTHCEG VYQ HNWZ EQPFKVKQPU YGTG CRRNKGF FCKN[ TCKPHCNN
YCVGT KPHNQY VQ VJG ITQWPF UWTHCEG CPF GXCRQVTCPURKTCVKQP

YCVGT QWVHNQY VQ
EODGNQYVJGITQWPFUWTHCEGVQCEEQWPVHQTVJGWRVCMGQHYCVGTD[TQQVU
3.2.1 Rainfall
4CKPHCNN FCVC YGTG QDVCKPGF HTQO VJG ENQUGUV UVCVKQP
%NGUMOHCTHTQO%CUVGN
8CNGTCPFOJKIJGTKPGNGXCVKQP&CKN[TCKPHCNNU
(KIHTQO,CPWCT[
VQ&GEGODGTYGTGCRRNKGFVQVJGUNQRG+VYCUCUUWOGFVJCVRQPFKPIQP
VJGUWTHCEGEQWNFPQVQEEWT#EEQTFKPIN[CRQTGYCVGTRTGUUWTGITGCVGTVJCP\GTQ
YCU PQV CNNQYGF QP VJG UNQRG UWTHCEGD[UYKVEJKPIVJGDQWPFCT[EQPFKVKQPHTQO
WPKVHNWZVQ\GTQRQTGYCVGTRTGUUWTG
3.2.2 Evapotranspiration
'XCRQVTCPURKTCVKQPYCUECNEWNCVGFWUKPIVJG(#12GPOCP/QPVGKVJGSWCVKQPCE
EQTFKPI VQ VJG OGVJQF TGEQOOGPFGF D[ VJG (#1 HQT EQORWVKPI YCVGT TGSWKTG
OGPVU
#NNGPGVCN6JGOGVJQFRTQXKFGUVJGTGHGTGPEGGXCRQVTCPURKTCVKQP
ET0ECNEWNCVGFHQTVJGJ[RQVJGVKECNTGHGTGPEGETQRJCXKPIJGKIJVQHOUWTHCEG
TGUKUVCPEGQHUO CPFCNDGFQQHYJKEJENQUGN[TGUGODNGUVQVJGGXCRQTC
VKQPQHCPGZVGPUKQPUWTHCEGQHITGGPITCUUQHWPKHQTOJGKIJVCEVKXGN[ITQYKPICPF
CFGSWCVGN[YCVGTGF
ET0 YCU FGTKXGF HTQO VJG QTKIKPCN 2GPOCP/QPVJGKVJ GSWCVKQP
/QPVGKVJ

HV HD
' 5 Q * U D F S
UD
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YJGTG ONCVGPVJGCVQHXCRQTKUCVKQPQHYCVGT=,MI?ETGXCRQVTCPURKTCVKQP=OO
FC[?RnPGVTCFKCVKQPCVVJGETQRUWTHCEG=/,OFC[ Ō?GUQKNJGCVHNWZFGP
UKV[ =/, O FC[ Ō? Ua OGCP CKT FGPUKV[ CV EQPUVCPV RTGUUWTG =-I O?
cpURGEKHKEJGCVCVEQPUVCPVRTGUUWTG=/,MIu%?es-eaUCVWTCVKQPXCRQWTRTGU
UWTGFGHKEKV=M2C?raCGTQF[PCOKETGUKUVCPEG=UO?rsDWNMUWTHCEGTGUKUVCPEG=U
O? 'UNQRG XCRQWT RTGUUWTG EWTXG =M2C u%? JRU[EJTQOGVTKE EQPUVCPV =M2C
u%?#UUWOKPIVJGCGTQF[PCOKETGUKUVCPEGCU

UD

X
YJGTG W2 KU VJG YKPF URGGF =O U? CV O VJG UWTHCEG TGUKUVCPEG rs GSWCN VQ
UO, CPFVJGNCVGPVJGCVQHXCRQTKUCVKQPQHYCVGT OGSWCN,MIET0DG
EQOGU

'5 Q * J X H V H D
(7 7

' J X
6JGRU[EJTQOGVTKEEQPUVCPV JFGRGPFUQPVJGCVOQURJGTKERTGUUWTG*QYGXGTKV
ECPDGCUUWOGFEQPUVCPVHQTGCEJNQECVKQPCUKVKUUNKIJVN[CHHGEVGFD[CVOQURJGTKE
RTGUUWTGHNWEVWCVKQPU JKUGSWCNVQM2Cu%HQT%CUVGN8CNGTYJQUGGNGXC
VKQPKUCDQWVOCDQXGUGCNGXGN'XCRQVTCPURKTCVKQPET0 YCUECNEWNCVGFD[WU
KPIVJGENKOCVKEFCVCHTQOVJGUVCVKQPQH%NGU
6JGCEVWCNGXCRQVTCPURKTCVKQPETcHTQOQVJGTETQRUECPDGECNEWNCVGFD[OWNVK
RN[KPIET0D[VJGETQREQGHHKEKGPV KcYJKEJ KUTGNCVGFVQVJGV[RGQHXGIGVCVKQP
6JGETQREQGHHKEKGPVKcCEEQWPVHQTVJGFKHHGTGPEGUKPGXCRQTCVKQPCPFVTCPURKTC
VKQPFWGVQVJGITQWPFEQXGTHGCVWTGU
UVCPFCTFEQPFKVKQPUTGHGTVQETQRUKPNCTIG
HKGNFUWPFGTGZEGNNGPVCITQPQOKECPFUQKNYCVGTEQPFKVKQPUECPQR[RTQRGTVKGUCPF
CGTQF[PCOKETGUKUVCPEG
/QUVQHVJGGHHGEVUQHVJGXCTKQWUYGCVJGTEQPFKVKQPUCTGKPEQTRQTCVGFKPVQVJG
ET0 GUVKOCVGET0VJGTGHQTGTGRTGUGPVUCPKPFGZQHENKOCVKEFGOCPFYJGTGCUKc
XCTKGU RTGFQOKPCVGN[ YKVJ VJG URGEKHKE ETQR EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU CPF QPN[ VQ C NKOKVGF
GZVGPV YKVJ ENKOCVG 6JKU GPCDNGU VJG WUG QH UVCPFCTF XCNWGU HQT Kc
#NNGP GV CN
HQTFKHHGTGPVNQECVKQPUCPFENKOCVGU
Kc TGRTGUGPVU CP KPVGITCVKQP QH VJG GHHGEVU QH HQWT RTKOCT[ EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU VJCV
FKUVKPIWKUJ VJG ETQR HTQO VJG TGHGTGPEG ITCUU 6JGUG EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU CTG ETQR
JGKIJV CNDGFQ ECPQR[ TGUKUVCPEG CPF GXCRQTCVKQP HTQO UQKN #U C EQPUGSWGPEG
VJGETQREQGHHKEKGPVKc OC[XCT[FWTKPIVJGITQYKPIRGTKQFQHVJGETQR(QTVJG
ITQWPFQHVJG%CUVGN8CNGTNCPFUNKFGKc YCUCUUWOGFYKVJTGHGTGPEGVQCRRNGVTGGU
CPFKVUXCNWGUCTGTGRQTVGFKPVCDNGETcXCNWGUCTGUJQYPKP(KI
Table 1.8CNWGUQHETQREQGHHKEKGPV-ECUUWOGFHQT%CUVGN8CNGT
/QPVJ , ( / # / , , # 5 1 0 &
-E

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GD\VDIWHU-DQXDU\
(KI&CKN[TCKPHCNNCPFGXCRQVTCPURKTCVKQPCPFEWOWNCVGFTCKPHCNNOKPWUGXCRQVTCPURKTC
VKQP
3.3 Unsaturated soil properties
6JG UQKNOQKUVWTG EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU QH VJG NQYGT INCEKCN UQKN YCU CUUGUUGF KP VJG
NCDQTCVQT[WUKPI6TGPVQVGPUKQOGVGTU
FKTGEVOGCUWTGOGPVUQHOCVTKE UWEVKQPCPF
VTCPUKUVQT RU[EJTQOGVGTU
KPFKTGEV OGCUWTGOGPVU QH VQVCN UWEVKQP 6JG UQKN
OQKUVWTGEJCTCEVGTKUVKEUHQTVJGWRRGTINCEKCNUQKNYCUGUVKOCVGFD[WUKPICRGFQ
VTCPUHGTHWPEVKQP
26(DCUGFQPVJGITCKPUK\GFKUVTKDWVKQP
5CZVQPGV CN
6JG TGNCVKXG WPUCVWTCVGF J[FTCWNKE EQPFWEVKXKVKGU YGTG VJGP GUVKOCVGF HTQO VJG
YCVGT TGVGPVKQP EWTXGU
(KI WUKPI VJG GSWCVKQP RTQRQUGF D[ 8CP )GPWEJVGP
6YQ XCNWGU QH UCVWTCVGF J[FTCWNKE EQPFWEVKXKV[ YGTG CUUWOGF HQT VJG
NQYGT INCEKCN UQKN MU OU CEEQTFKPI VQ QPG HKGNF OGCUWTGOGPV CPF
MU OUVYQQTFGTUQHOCIPKVWFGITGCVGTVJCPVJGXCNWGQHOUOGCUWTGF
KPVJGNCDQTCVQT[QPCUOCNNUCORNG
5CVWTCVGF J[FTCWNKE EQPFWEVKXKV[ QH VJG WRRGT INCEKCN UQKN YCU CUUWOGF VQ DG
QPGQTFGTQHOCIPKVWFGITGCVGTVJCPVJGXCNWGQHVJGNQYGTINCEKCNUQKNCEEQTFKPIN[
VQVJGNCTIGTFKCOGVGTEQTTGURQPFKPIVQVJGQHRCUUKPI
5GGRCIGCPCN[UGUYGTGVJGTGHQTGRGTHQTOGFYKVJVJGUGVYQEQWRNGUQHUCVWTCVGF
J[FTCWNKEEQPFWEVKXKV[MUOUCPFMUOU
(QT UNQRG UVCDKNKV[ CPCN[UGU VJG /QJT%QWNQOD ETKVGTKQP YCU CFQRVKPI YKVJ
EŏM2CCPF)ŏ)ŏDu6JGJKIJCKTGPVT[XCNWGUQHVJGINCEKCNUQKNUOC[LWUVK
HKGUVJGCUUWORVKQP)ŏ)ŏD

9ROXPHWULFZDWHUFRQWHQW T

8SSHUJODFLDOVRLO

/RZHUJODFLDO VRLO

6XFWLRQN3D
Fig. 5.5QKNOQKUVWTGEJCTCEVGTKUVKEUQHVJGVYQINCEKCNUQKNU
3.4 Initial conditions
5VGCF[UVCVGEQPFKVKQPEQTTGURQPFKPIVQVJGYCVGTNGXGNQHODGNQYVJGITQWPF
UWTHCEGCVVJGTKIJVDQWPFCT[CPFC\GTQKPHNWZVQVJGUNQRGUWTHCEGYCUCUUWOGFCU
KPKVKCN EQPFKVKQP 6JKU KPKVKCN EQPFKVKQP KU CTDKVTCT[ DWV KVU GHHGEVU QP RQTGYCVGT
RTGUUWTG FKUVTKDWVKQPU YGTG ECPEGNNGF D[ CRRN[KPI C ENKOCVKE JKUVQT[ HQT C UWHHK
EKGPVN[NQPIRGTKQF
HQWT[GCTURTGEGFKPIVJGNCUVNCPFUNKFGTGCEVKXCVKQP
4 Results and discussion
+P VJG HQNNQYKPI VJG CPCN[UKU YKVJ MU OU YKNN DG KFGPVKHKGF YKVJ *
JKIJGTJ[FTCWNKEEQPFWEVKXKVKGUYJGTGCUVJGCPCN[UKUYKVJMUOUYKNN
DGKFGPVKHKGFYKVJ.
NQYGTJ[FTCWNKEEQPFWEVKXKVKGU4GUWNVUQHUGGRCIGCPCN[UGU
CTGTGRQTVGFHQTVKOGKPVGTXCNUQHFC[U(KIWTGUCPFUJQYVJGRTGUUWTGXCTKC
VKQPU ECNEWNCVGF CV RQKPV CPF QP VJG UNKFKPI UWTHCEG HQT DQVJ ECUGU * CPF .
2QKPV
(KIKUNQECVGFCVVJGVQGQHVJGUNKFGODGNQYVJGITQWPFUWTHCEGCPF
YKVJKPVJGWRRGTINCEKCNUQKNRQKPVYCUEJQUGPODGNQYVJGITQWPFUWTHCEG
QPVJGKPENKPQOGVGTXGTVKECNCPFYKVJKPVJGNQYGTINCEKCNUQKN
2QTGYCVGTRTGUUWTGUCVRQKPVUJQYCRRTQZKOCVGN[ UKOKNCTE[ENKE DGJCXKQTUHQT
DQVJ ECUGU * CPF . +V ECP DG UGGP VJCVRQTGYCVGT RTGUUWTG XCNWGU CTG KP RJCUG
YKVJ VJG GHHGEVKXG TCKPHCNN
TCKPHCNN OKPWU GXCRQVTCPURKTCVKQP TGRQTVGF KP (KI
RQTGYCVGTRTGUUWTGKUOKPKOWOYJGPVJGGHHGEVKXGTCKPHCNNKUPGICVKXG
OQPVJUQH
#WIWUVCPF5GRVGODGT6JKUKUDGECWUGRQKPVKUNQECVGFCVUOCNNFKUVCPEGHTQO
VJGITQWPFUWTHCEGCPFRQTGYCVGTRTGUUWTGUCTGFKTGEVN[CHHGEVGFD[VJGENKOCVKE
EQPFKVKQPU #NVJQWIJ E[ENKE DGJCXKQWTU CTG UKOKNCT RQTGYCVGT RTGUUWTG XCNWGU
HTQOVJGVYQCPCN[UGUEQPUKFGTCDN[FKHHGT 2QTGYCVGTRTGUUWTGUHTQOVJGCPCN[UKU
*CTGCNYC[URQUKVKXGYJGTGCUXCNWGUHTQOVJGCPCN[UKU.CTGIGPGTCNN[ PGICVKXG
CPFITGCVGTKPOCIPKVWFG

3RUHSUHVVXUHN3D
3RUHSUHVVXUHN3D

NV PV NV PV

'D\VDIWHU-DQXDU\ 'D\VDIWHU-DQXDU\
Fig. 6.2QTGYCVGTRTGUUWTGUCVRQKPVHTQOCPCN[UKU*
NGHVCPFCPCN[UKU.
TKIJV
#VRQKPV RQTGYCVGTRTGUUWTGUCNYC[UTGOCKPGFRQUKVKXGHQTECUG*YJGTGCU
RQTGYCVGTRTGUUWTGUTCPIGFHTQOPGICVKXGVQRQUKVKXGXCNWGUHQTVJGECUG.+VKU
YQTVJ PQVKPI VJCV RQTGYCVGT RTGUUWTGU CV RQKPV HQT VJG ECUG . KU QWV QH RJCUG
YKVJTGURGEVVQVJGGHHGEVKXGTCKPHCNN6JKUKUFWGVQVJGNQYGTUCVWTCVGFJ[FTCWNKE
EQPFWEVKXKVKGUCPFVJGITGCVGTFGRVJQHRQKPVHTQOVJGITQWPFUWTHCEG

3RUHSUHVVXUHN3D
3RUHSUHVVXUH N3D

NV PV NV PV

'D\VDIWHU-DQXDU\ 'D\VDIWHU-DQXDU\
Fig. 7.2QTGYCVGTRTGUUWTGUCVRQKPVHTQOCPCN[UKU*
NGHVCPFCPCN[UKU.
TKIJV
+P(KIVJGRQTGYCVGTRTGUUWTGEQPVQWTUHTQOCPCN[UGU*CPF.CTGEQORCTGF
CVFC[
FT[RGTKQFYJGTGVJGFKHHGTGPEGDGVYGGPTCKPHCNN CPFGXCRQVTCPURKTC
VKQPKU PGICVKXGCPFFC[
TCKPHCNNGXGPVQH0QXGODGTYJGTGGHHGEVKXG
TCKPHCNNKURQUKVKXG
9JGP GXCRQVTCPURKTCVKQP RTGFQOKPCVGU
FC[ RQTGYCVGT RTGUUWTGU CTG
PGICVKXG DGNQY VJG UNQRG UWTHCEG +P VJG CPCN[UKU.VJGJ[FTCWNKEEQPFWEVKXKV[KU
NQYGTCPFCUCTGUWNVRTGUUWTGITCFKGPVUCTGJKIJGTCPFRTGUUWTGUCTGOQTGPGIC
VKXG +P VJG CPCN[UKU * J[FTCWNKE EQPFWEVKXKV[ KU JKIJGT RTGUUWTG ITCFKGPVU CTG
NQYGT CPF VJG RQTGYCVGT RTGUUWTG FKUVTKDWVKQP CDQXG VJG YCVGT VCDNG KU SWCUK
J[FTQUVCVKE
9JGPKPHKNVTCVKQPKURTGFQOKPCPV
FC[CUJCTRKPHKNVTCVKQPHTQPVHQTOUDG
NQYVJGITQWPFUWTHCEGHQTVJGCPCN[UKU.+PEQPVTCUVHQTVJGCPCN[UKU*VJGKPHKN
VTCVKPITCKPYCVGTTCRKFN[TGCEJGUVJGYCVGTVCDNGYJKEJTCKUGUWRVQVJGUNQRGUWT
HCEG 6JKU FKHHGTGPV DGJCXKQWT ECP CICKP DG GZRNCKPGF D[ VJG FKHHGTGPV J[FTCWNKE
EQPFWEVKXKVKGU
+V KU CNUQ KPVGTGUVKPI VQ EQORCTG VJG RQTG RTGUUWTG EQPVQWTU CV FC[VQ FC[
HQTVJGECUGU*CPF.(QTVJGECUG*KVECPDGPQVGFVJCVVJGYCVGTVCDNGKU
FKTGEVN[CHHGEVGFD[ENKOCVKEEQPFKVKQPUCUKVTKUGUFWTKPIYGVRGTKQFUCPFNQYGTU
FWTKPIFT[RGTKQFU(QTVJGECUG.VJGYCVGTVCDNGCVFC[KUFGGRGTVJCPCV
$QDO\VLV/NV PV
&DVWOH &DVWOH
FC[ FC[

, ,

HOHYDWLRQP
HOHYDWLRQP

GLVWDQFHP GLVWDQFHP
$QDO\VLV/NV PV
&DVWOH &DVWOH
FC[ FC[

, ,

HOHYDWLRQP
HOHYDWLRQP

GLVWDQFHP GLVWDQFHP
Fig. 8.2QTGYCVGTRTGUUWTGUEQPVQWTUHTQOCPCN[UKU*
VQRCPFCPCN[UKU.
DQVVQOFWTKPI
CFT[RGTKQF
FC[CPFCYGVRGTKQF
FC[
FC[DGECWUGQHVJGVKOGNCIKPVJGTGURQPUGQHVJGUNQRG$GUKFGUCVFC[
RQTGYCVGTRTGUUWTGUKPETGCUGKPCTGNCVKXGVJKP\QPGDGNQYVJGITQWPFUWTHCEGCPF
RQUKVKXGRQTGYCVGTRTGUUWTGUFGXGNQRUQPN[CVVJGVQGQHVJGUNQRG
6JGFKHHGTGPVTGURQPUGQHVJGUNQRGU*CPF.VQTCKPHCNNECPDGGZRNCKPGFD[VJG
FKHHGTGPVTCVKQUQHTCKPHCNNKPVGPUKV[VQUCVWTCVGFJ[FTCWNKEEQPFWEVKXKV[
6CTCPVKPQ
CPF $QUEQ (QT VJG ECUG * VJKU TCVKQ KU UOCNN
ŭ MU CPF RQTGYCVGT
RTGUUWTG EJCPIGU RTQRCICVGUFQYPVQVJGYCVGTVCDNG(QTVJGECUG.VJGTCVKQKU
VKOGUJKIJGTCPFCUCTGUWNVRQTGYCVGTRTGUUWTGEJCPIGUVCMGRNCEGKPC\QPG
ENQUGVQVJGITQWPFUWTHCEG
6JGVYQECUGU.CPF*RTQXKFGFUKIPKHKECPVN[FKHHGTGPVRQTGYCVGTRTGUUWTGRCV
VGTPUKPVJGUNQRGDWVPGKVJGTQHVJGOEQWNFDGEQTTQDQTCVGFD[HKGNFOGCUWTGUCU
YCVGTNGXGNOGCUWTGOGPVUYGTGPQVTGNKCDNG6JGOQUVTGCNKUVKEECUGYCUVJGPCU
UGUUGFD[FGVGTOKPKPIVJGHCEVQTQHUCHGV[ CVVJGFCVGUYJGTGFKURNCEGOGPVUYGTG
QDUGTXGF KP VJG HKGNF #NVJQWIJ VJKU CRRTQCEJ KU PQV TKIQTQWU DGECWUG FKURNCEG
OGPVUECPPQV DGFKTGEVN[TGNCVGFVQVJGHCEVQTQHUCHGV[KVYCUGZRGEVGFVJCVHCEVQTU
QHUCHGV[ECNEWNCVGFYJGPPQFKURNCEGOGPVUQEEWTTGFJCFVQDGITGCVGTVJCPVJQUG
QDVCKPGFYJGPVJGNCPFUNKFGOQXGF9KVJTGHGTGPEGVQVJGFKURNCEGOGPVUOGCUWTGF
CVVJGKPENKPQOGVGT+
(KIVJTGGFKHHGTGPVFC[KPVGTXCNUYJGTGFKURNCEGOGPVUQH
JKIJGTOGCPXGNQEKVKGUQEEWTTGF
KPVGTXCNUCPFCPF
VYQFC[KPVGTXCNUYJGTGPQFKURNCEGOGPVUQEEWTTGF
KPVGTXCNUCPF
YGTGVCMGPKPVQCEEQWPV
(QTUGGRCIGCPCN[UKU*VJGOKPKOWOHCEVQTQHUCHGV[ECNEWNCVGFYJGPPQFKU
RNCEGOGPVU QEEWTTGF KU GSWCN VQ 6JG HCEVQTU QH UCHGV[ ECNEWNCVGF YJGPFKU
RNCEGOGPVUQEEWTTGFYGTGCNYC[UNGUUVJCP YKVJCOKPKOWOQH+VOC[
DGUWTRTKUKPIVJCVCHCEVQTQHUCHGV[QH
YCUQDVCKPGFHQTVJGECUGYJGTG
PQOQXGOGPVUYGTGTGEQTFGF*QYGXGTKVUJQWNFDGPQVGFVJCVFKHHGTGPVRQUKVKQPU
QHVJGHCKNWTGUWTHCEGCPFFKHHGTGPVXCNWGUQHGHHGEVKXGEQJGUKQPEQWNFJCXGDGGP
CUUWOGF
(QTCPCN[UKU.VJGOKPKOWOHCEVQTQHUCHGV[ECNEWNCVGFYJGPPQFKURNCEGOGPVU
QEEWTTGF KU GSWCN VQ 5QOGHCEVQTUQHUCHGV[ECNEWNCVGFYJGPFKURNCEGOGPVU
QEEWTTGFYGTGITGCVGTVJCP
+VECPDGVJGTGHQTGKPHGTTGFVJCVVJGQPN[ECUG*RTQXKFGUHCEVQTUQHUCHGV[ EQP
UKUVGPV YKVJ VJG NCPFUNKFG OQXGOGPVU #EEQTFKPIN[ UCVWTCVGF J[FTCWNKE
EQPFWEVKXKVKGU QH OU CPF QH OU HQT VJG WRRGT CPF NQYGT INCEKCN UQKN
TGURGEVKXGN[CTGNKMGN[VQTGRTQFWEGEQTTGEVN[VJGRQTGYCVGTRTGUUWTGFKUVTKDWVKQPU
YKVJKPVJGUNQRG

)DFWRURIVDIHW\

)V

)V

'LVSODFHPHQWPP
GLVSODFHPHQW
N PV
N PV

'D\VDIWHU-DQXDU\
Fig. 9.+PENKPQOGVGTFKURNCEGOGPVUCPFHCEVQTUQHUCHGV[FWTKPINCPFUNKFGOQXGOGPVU
5 Conclusions
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springer proceedings in physics
50 Magnetic Properties 65 Present and Future of High-Energy Physics
of Low-Dimensional Systems II Editors: K.-I. Aoki and M. Kobayashi
New Developments
Editors: L.M. Falicov, F. Mejı́a-Lira, 66 The Structure and Conformation
and J.L. Morán-López of Amphiphilic Membranes
Editors: R. Lipowsky, D. Richter,
51 The Physics and Chemistry and K. Kremer
of Organic Superconductors
Editors: G. Saito and S. Kagoshima 67 Nonlinearity with Disorder
Editors: F. Abdullaev, A.R. Bishop,
52 Dynamics and Patterns in Complex Fluids and S. Pnevmatikos
New Aspects
of the Physics–Chemistry Interface 68 Time-Resolved Vibrational Spectroscopy V
Editors: A. Onuki and K. Kawasaki Editor: H. Takahashi
53 Computer Simulation Studies 69 Evolution of Dynamical Structures

in Condensed-Matter Physics III in Complex Systems
Editors: D.P. Landau, K.K. Mon, Editors: R. Friedrich and A. Wunderlin
and H.-B. Schüttler 70 Computational Approaches
54 Polycrystalline Semiconducturs II in Condensed-Matter Physics
Editors: J.H. Werner and H.P. Strunk Editors: S. Miyashita, M. Imada,
and H. Takayama
55 Nonlinear Dynamics
and Quantum Phenomena 71 Amorphous and Crystalline
in Optical Systems Silicon Carbide IV
Editors: R. Vilaseca and R. Corbalán Editors: C.Y. Yang, M.M. Rahman,
and G.L. Harris
56 Amorphous and Crystalline Silicon Carbide
III, and Other Group IV–IV Materials 72 Computer Simulation Studies
Editors: G.L. Harris, M.G. Spencer, in Condensed-Matter Physics IV
and C.Y. Yang Editors: D.P. Landau, K.K. Mon,
and H.-B. Schüttler
57 Evolutionaly Trends in the Physical Sciences
Editors: M. Suzuki and R. Kubo 73 Surface Science
Principles and Applications
58 New Trends in Nuclear Collective Dynamics Editors: R.F. Howe, R.N: Lamb,
Editors: Y. Abe, H. Horiuchi, and K. Wandelt
and K. Matsuyanagi
74 Time-Resolved Vibrational Spectroscopy VI
59 Exotic Atoms in Condensed Matter Editors: A. Lau, F. Siebert, and W. Werncke
Editors: G. Benedek and H. Schneuwly
75 Computer Simulation Studies
60 The Physics and Chemistry in Condensed-Matter Physics V
of Oxide Superconductors Editors: D.P. Landau, K.K. Mon,
Editors: Y. Iye and H. Yasuoka and H.-B. Schüttler
61 Surface X-Ray and Neutron Scattering 76 Computer Simulation Studies
Editors: H. Zabel and I.K. Robinson in Condensed-Matter Physics VI
62 Surface Science and H.-B. Schüttler
Lectures on Basic Concepts and Applications
Editors: F.A. Ponce and M. Cardona 77 Quantum Optics VI
Editors: D.F. Walls and J.D. Harvey
63 Coherent Raman Spectroscopy
Recent Advances 78 Computer Simulation Studies
Editors: G. Marowsky and V.V. Smirnov in Condensed-Matter Physics VII
64 Superconducting Devices and H.-B. Schüttler
and Their Applications
Editors: H. Koch and H. Lübbing

2005 Book UnsaturatedSoilsExperimentalSt PDF

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springer proceedings in physics 93

springer proceedings in physics

Volumes 50–78 are listed at the end of the book.

With 212 Figures and 44 Tables

Library of Congress Control Number: 2004109958

Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek

Final processing by PTP-Berlin Protago-TeX-Production GmbH, Berlin

Printed on acid-free paper SPIN: 10942154 62/3020/YU 543210

2. What are the deficiencies we are facing today?

3. Which major questions are still open ended?

4. Which are the goals for the next 5 years

Saskatchewan, October 2003 Delwyn G. Fredlund

Laboratory Experiments and Simulations on the Significance

Determination of hydro-mechanical Properties of Sand....................................... 15

Column test apparatus for the inverse estimation

Water permeability of unsaturated compacted kaolin .......................................... 45

Moisture retention curve in landfilled waste ........................................................ 59

The pF-curve of fine-grained soils at high pore water suction ............................. 69

STRUCTURAL CHARACTERIZATION – MEASUREMENT OF SUCTION

Influence of microstructure on geotechnical properties of clays .......................... 89

Suction induced by static compaction ................................................................ 101

Suction of compacted residual soils ................................................................... 111

Creation of artificial loess soils .......................................................................... 123

Analysis of the mechanical response of an artificial collapsible soil.................. 135

Fabric Evolution of an Unsaturated Compacted Soil

Measurement of osmotic suction using the squeezing technique ....................... 159

The use of different suction measurement techniques

Measurement of Suction of Thick Textured Soil

Laboratory measurement of matric suction in pyroclastic soil

Volume Change Behaviour of Fine Grained Soils ............................................. 209

Volume change behaviour of cohesive soils ...................................................... 227

Swelling Pressures and Wetting-Drying Curves

Results and interpretation of bentonite resaturation experiments

Shear strength of unsaturated bentonite buffer material ..................................... 273

Evaluation of Yielding in Unsaturated Clays

A triaxial device for unsaturated sand – New Developments............................. 301

Undrained Isotropic Compression of Soil .......................................................... 315

Hydro-mechanical behaviour of clayey silt under isotropic compression .......... 331

The concept of “apparent” Compression Index.................................................. 343

Behaviour of unsaturated cohesive soils subjected to cyclic loads..................... 355

Remarks on consolidation in unsaturated soils from experimental results ......... 373

Prediction and modeling of tensile stresses and shrinkage ................................. 383

Tensile Strength of Compacted Clays ................................................................ 395

From experimental evidence towards the assessment

The effect of soil suction in stability of partially submerged slopes................... 483

Effects of unsaturation on the stability of a moraine slope................................. 497

Experimental testing and modelling of a Design for HLW Disposal

3. Analysis of Experimental Data

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4. Simulation of the Experiments

4.1 Description of the numerical model

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4.2 Medium properties

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4.3 Initial and boundary conditions

4.4 Local and average variables

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6. Discussion and Conclusion

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