Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2—2004
AP-G15.2/04
(Incorporating Amendment No. 1)
AS 5100.2—2004
Australian Standard®
Bridge design
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contributed to the development of this Standard through their representation on the
Committee and through the public comment period.
Standards may also be withdrawn. It is important that readers assure themselves they are
using a current Standard, which should include any amendments that may have been
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be found by visiting www.standards.org.au
Australian Standard®
Bridge design
Originated as HB 77.2—1996.
Revised and redesignated as AS 5100.2—2004.
Reissued incorporating Amendment No. 1 (April 2010).
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COPYRIGHT
© Standards Australia
All rights are reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or copied in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without the written
permission of the publisher.
Published by Standards Australia GPO Box 476, Sydney, NSW 2001, Australia
PREFACE
This Standard was prepared by the Standards Australia Committee BD-090, Bridge Design,
to supersede HB 77.2—1996, Australian Bridge Design Code, Section 2: Design loads.
This Standard incorporates Amendment No. 1 (April 2010). The changes required by the
Amendment are indicated in the text by a marginal bar and amendment number against the
clause, note, table, figure or part thereof affected.
The AS 5100 series represents a revision of the 1996 HB 77 series, Australian Bridge
Design Code, which contained a separate Railway Supplement to Sections 1 to 5, together
with Section 6, Steel and composite construction, and Section 7, Rating. AS 5100 takes the
requirements of the Railway Supplement and incorporates them into Parts 1 to 5 of the
present series, to form integrated documents covering requirements for both road and rail
bridges. In addition, technical material has been updated.
This Standard is also designated as AUSTROADS publication AP-G15.2/04.
The objectives of AS 5100 are to provide nationally acceptable requirements for—
(a) the design of road, rail, pedestrian and bicycle-path bridges;
(b) the specific application of concrete, steel and composite construction, which embody
principles that may be applied to other materials in association with relevant
Standards; and
(c) the assessment of the load capacity of existing bridges.
These requirements are based on the principles of structural mechanics and knowledge of
material properties, for both the conceptual and detailed design, to achieve acceptable
probabilities that the bridge or associated structure being designed will not become unfit for
use during its design life.
Whereas earlier editions of the Australian Bridge Design Code were essentially
administered by the infrastructure owners and applied to their own inventory, an increasing
number of bridges are being built under the design-construct-operate principle and being
handed over to the relevant statutory authority after several years of operation. This
Standard includes Clauses intended to facilitate the specification to the designer of the
functional requirements of the owner to ensure the long-term performance and
serviceability of the structure.
Significant differences between this Standard and HB 77.2 are the following:
(i) Highway bridge design loads The design model for road traffic loads has been
completely redefined to make provision for potential future increases in legal load
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limits. Not only does the design load reflect the projected increased loads but it has
also been modified so that it more closely represents the full spectrum of vehicle
configurations and traffic patterns. It no longer ‘looks like’ a semi-trailer but is
purely a mathematical model. This new model incorporates both moving traffic loads
and stationary traffic loads, and also incorporates the effects of special vehicles. The
width of the design load, the standard design load and the standard design lane have
been increased to 3.2 m, to reflect future loads and truck configurations. Provision
has been made for the heavy load platform (HLP) design load, which may be
specified by the relevant authority if required.
(ii) Dynamic load allowance The dynamic load allowance for railway bridges has been
modified to incorporate the results of experience and investigations of fatigue in
transom top steel railway bridges. The dynamic load allowance for road bridges has
been adapted to reflect the recent changes in the Canadian Highway Bridge Design
Code, modified to suit Australian conditions.
3 AS 5100.2—2004
(iii) Bridge barriers The clauses for design loads of road bridge barriers have been
updated to be consistent with performance level definition and selection specified in
AS 5100.1. Many of the clauses are based on recently developed AASHTO*
documentation, suitably modified to reflect local Australian conditions.
(v) Earthquake loading The earthquake loading clause has been updated to reflect the
intent of AS 1170.4 as applicable to bridges.
In line with Standards Australia policy, the words ‘shall’ and ‘may’ are used consistently
throughout this Standard to indicate, respectively, a mandatory provision and an acceptable
or permissible alternative.
Statements expressed in mandatory terms in Notes to Tables are deemed to be requirements
of this Standard.
The term ‘informative’ has been used in this Standard to define the application of the
appendix to which it applies. An ‘informative’ appendix is only for information and
guidance.
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CONTENTS
Page
1 SCOPE AND GENERAL ........................................................................................... 5
2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS.................................................................................. 6
3 DEFINITIONS............................................................................................................ 6
4 NOTATION................................................................................................................ 6
5 DEAD LOADS ......................................................................................................... 10
6 ROAD TRAFFIC ...................................................................................................... 12
7 PEDESTRIAN AND BICYCLE-PATH LOAD ........................................................ 21
8 RAILWAY TRAFFIC............................................................................................... 22
9 MINIMUM LATERAL RESTRAINT CAPACITY .................................................. 30
10 COLLISION LOADS ............................................................................................... 31
11 KERB AND BARRIER DESIGN LOADS AND OTHER REQUIREMENTS FOR
ROAD TRAFFIC BRIDGES .................................................................................... 33
12 DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR........................................................................................ 37
13 EARTH PRESSURE................................................................................................. 40
14 EARTHQUAKE FORCES........................................................................................ 42
15 FORCES RESULTING FROM WATER FLOW ...................................................... 48
16 WIND LOADS ......................................................................................................... 57
17 THERMAL EFFECTS .............................................................................................. 60
18 SHRINKAGE, CREEP AND PRESTRESS EFFECTS ............................................. 64
19 DIFFERENTIAL MOVEMENT OF SUPPORTS ..................................................... 64
20 FORCES FROM BEARINGS ................................................................................... 65
21 CONSTRUCTION FORCES AND EFFECTS.......................................................... 65
22 LOAD COMBINATIONS ........................................................................................ 66
23 ROAD SIGNS AND LIGHTING STRUCTURES .................................................... 67
24 NOISE BARRIERS .................................................................................................. 69
STANDARDS AUSTRALIA
Australian Standard
Bridge design
(g) Collision load on piers, where applicable, or alternative load paths provided.
(h) Design wind speeds.
(i) Flood data, e.g., design velocities, levels, debris, and the like.
(j) Earthquake zone.
(k) Differential settlements and mining subsidence effects allowed for in the design.
(l) Foundation data where not shown elsewhere.
(m) Barrier performance level.
Where required, the construction methods and sequence, or any other specific limitations,
shall be indicated on the bridge drawings.
2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS
The following documents are referred to in this Standard:
AS
A1
1170 Minimum design loads on structures
1170.4* Part 4: Earthquake loads
1726 Geotechnical site investigations
4678 Earth-retaining structures
5100 Bridge design
5100.1 Part 1: Scope and general principles
5100.3 Part 3: Foundations and soil-supporting structures
5100.4 Part 4: Bearings and deck joints
5100.5 Part 5: Concrete
5100.6 Part 6: Steel and composite construction
5100.7 Part 7: Rating of existing bridges
AS/NZS
1170 Structural design actions
1170.0 Part 0: General principles
1170.1 Part 1: Permanent, imposed and other actions
1170.2 Part 2: Wind actions
Austroads Vehicle Classification Scheme
TRB-NCHRP 350 Recommended Procedures for the Safety Performance Evaluation of
Highway Features
3 DEFINITIONS
For the purpose of this Standard, the definitions in AS 5100.1 apply.
4 NOTATION
The symbols used in this Standard are listed in Table 4.
Where non-dimensional ratios are involved, both the numerator and denominator are
expressed in identical units.
The units for length and load in all expressions or equations are to be taken as metres (m)
and kilonewtons (kN) respectively, unless specifically noted otherwise. The unit for
velocity is in metres per second, unless specified otherwise.
An asterisk ( * ) placed after a symbol as a superscript denotes a design action effect due to
the design load for either the ultimate limit state or the serviceability limit state.
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* This Standard refers to the superseded 1993 edition of AS 1170.4 and not to the current
edition of AS 1170.4, published in 2007.
TABLE 4
NOTATION
Symbols Description Clause reference
A axle load 8.6.1
Ad area, equal to the thickness of the pier normal to the 15.3.1
direction of the water flow, multiplied by the height of the
water flow
A deb projected area of debris 15.5.4
AL area, equal to the width of the pier parallel to the direction 15.3.2
of the water flow, multiplied by the height of the flow; or
plan deck area of the superstructure 15.4.3
Ap bridge area in plan 16.5
As wetted area of the superstructure, including any railings or 15.4.2 and 15.4.4
parapets, projected on a plane normal to the water flow; or
projected area of debris
At area of the structure for calculation of wind load 16.3.1
a acceleration coefficient 14.3.3
b width between traffic barriers; or 6.5
overall width of the bridge between outer faces of parapets 16.3.3
C earthquake design coefficient 14.5.4
Cd drag coefficient 15.3.1
Ch earthquake design coefficient 14.5.7
CL lift coefficient 15.3.2
Cm moment coefficient 15.4.4
CT base number of load cycles 8.7.4
d depth of the superstructure, including solid parapet, if 16.3.3
applicable
d sp wetted depth of the superstructure (including any railings 15.4.2
or parapets) projected on a plane normal to the water flow
(see Figure 15.4.2(B))
d ss wetted depth of the solid superstructure, excluding any 15.4.2
railings but including solid parapets, projected on a plane
normal to the water flow
d wgs vertical distance from the girder soffit to the flood water 15.4.2
surface upstream of the bridge
F Froude number 15.5.4(B)
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*
Fdu ultimate design drag force 15.3.1
*
FLs serviceability design lift force 15.3.2
(continued)
TABLE 4 (continued)
*
M gu ultimate design superstructure moment 15.4.4
TABLE 4 (continued)
*
Wvs serviceability design vertical wind load 16.5
*
Wvu ultimate design vertical wind load 16.5
5 DEAD LOADS
5.1 General
The nominal dead load shall be calculated from the dimensions shown on the drawings and
the mean value of the weight per unit volume of the materials. A figure based on the
densities of the materials, the percentage of reinforcement and other appropriate factors
shall be adopted. Wherever possible, design densities shall be based on measurements of
the materials to be used.
Selecting a high value of density may be conservative when considering some limit states,
but may not be conservative when considering stability, stresses at transfer of prestress and
the like. If insufficient information is available to accurately assess the mean weight per
unit volume, calculations shall be performed using a range of values and the most critical
case shall be used for the design.
5.2 Dead load of structure
Dead load shall be considered as the weight of the parts of the structure that are structural
elements and any non-structural elements that are considered unlikely to vary during
construction and use of the structure, such as parapets and kerbs of steel or concrete.
To obtain the design dead loads for ultimate and serviceability limit states, the nominal
dead load shall be multiplied by the appropriate load factor (γ g ) given in Table 5.2.
For all types of structures, except structures of balanced cantilever or anchor cantilever
design, or similar, the appropriate value of γ g shall be applied to the dead load of all parts of
the structure. For the exceptions, the values of γ g given in Item (b) or Item (c) of Table 5.2
for unfavourable or favourable dead load shall be applied to the appropriate parts of the
structure.
TABLE 5.2
LOAD FACTORS (γg) FOR DEAD LOAD OF STRUCTURE
Ultimate limit states
Type of where dead load Serviceability
Type of structure
construction Reduces Increases limit states
safety safety
(a) All structures, except for Items (b) and (c) Steel 1.1 0.9 1.0
Concrete 1.2 0.85 1.0
(b) Balanced cantilever structures At a
section subjected to approximately equal All 1.1 1.0 1.0
favourable and unfavourable dead loads
(c) Anchor cantilever structures At a section
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TABLE 5.3
LOAD FACTORS (γgs) FOR SUPERIMPOSED DEAD LOAD (SDL)
Ultimate limit states
where SDL Serviceability
Type of structure Type of load
Reduces Increases limit states
safety safety
Permanent 2.0 0.7 1.3
(a) All structures, except for Item (b)
Removable 2.0 0 1.3
(b) Special cases On major structures where
Permanent 1.4 0.8 1.0
superimposed dead loads are controlled by
Removable 1.4 0 1.0
the relevant authority.
TABLE 5.4
LOAD FACTORS (γge) FOR THE DENSITY OF SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
Ultimate limit states where soil Serviceability
Type of soil
Increases load Reduces load limit state
Controlled fill with regular testing of soil density 1.25 0.85 1.0
All other fills and in-situ soils 1.5 0.7 1.2
Groundwater 1.0 1.0 1.0
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NOTE: Variation in water levels shall be taken into account by using design levels based on a return period
of 1000 years for the ultimate limit state or 100 years for the serviceability limit state.
TABLE 5.5
LOAD FACTORS (γgb) FOR RAILWAY BALLAST AND TRACK LOADS
6 ROAD TRAFFIC
6.1 General
Road traffic load is the load resulting from the passage of vehicles, either singly or in
groups, or pedestrians. The magnitude, direction and positioning of loads in this Standard
produce effects in structures that approximate the effects of vehicles or groups of vehicles.
The load models are not intended to be the same as actual vehicles.
6.2 SM1600 loads
The abbreviation SM1600 represents the design loads W80, A160, M1600 and S1600 traffic
design loads.
All road bridges shall be designed to resist the following:
(a) The traffic loads specified in this Standard, which approximate the effects induced by
moving traffic, stationary queues of traffic and pedestrian traffic.
(b) The most adverse effects induced by the following loading elements, combinations of
these elements and their corresponding load factors:
(i) W80 wheel load.
(ii) A160 axle load.
(iii) M1600 moving traffic load.
(iv) S1600 stationary traffic load.
(v) HLP320 or HLP400, if required by the authority.
(vi) Dynamic load allowance (α).
(vii) Number and position of traffic lanes.
(viii) Accompanying lane factors (ALF).
(ix) Centrifugal forces (F c).
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Where the two standard design lanes containing the heavy load platform loads are
positioned such that one or more design traffic lanes are unobstructed, then a load of half of
either the M1600 moving traffic load or the S1600 stationary traffic load, to create the
worst effect, shall be placed in those lanes, unless the authority specifies otherwise.
6.4 Tramway and railway loads
Where road bridges are to carry tramway or railway traffic, the operating authority for the
utility shall be consulted to determine the appropriate design loads and load factors.
TABLE 6.6
ACCOMPANYING LANE FACTORS
Standard design lane number, n Accompanying lane factor, ALFi
1 lane loaded 1.0
2 lanes loaded 1.0 for first lane; and
0.8 for second lane
3 or more lanes loaded 1.0 for first lane;
0.8 for second lane; and
0.4 for third and subsequent lanes
NOTES:
1 First lane—the loaded lane giving the largest effect.
2 Second lane—the loaded lane giving the second largest effect.
3 Third lane—the loaded lane giving the third largest effect.
The number of standard design lanes loaded and the load patterning (standard design lane
numbering) shall be selected to produce the most adverse effects.
For bridges that support vehicle and pedestrian traffic, the accompanying load factors shall
be applied to both the vehicle and the pedestrian traffic. The total pedestrian load shall be
considered as one standard design lane.
6.7 Dynamic load allowance
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6.7.1 General
The dynamic load allowance (α) set out in this Clause specifies an increase in the traffic
load resulting from the interaction of moving vehicles and the bridge structure, and shall be
described in terms of the static equivalent of the dynamic and vibratory effects. For design
purposes, α shall be specified as a proportion of the traffic load and shall be applied as
specified in Clause 6.7.2. The dynamic load allowance applies to both the ultimate and
serviceability limit states.
The dynamic load allowance models the dynamic effects of vehicles moving over bridges
with typical road profile irregularities.
6.7.2 Magnitude
The design action is equal to (1 + α) × the load factor × the action under consideration.
The value of α for the appropriate loading shall be as given in Table 6.7.2.
For deck joints, the values for α specified in AS 5100.4 shall be used.
TABLE 6.7.2
DYNAMIC LOAD ALLOWANCE (α)
Loading Dynamic load allowance (α)
W80 wheel load 0.4
A160 axle load 0.4
M1600 tri-axle group (see Note 2) 0.35
M1600 load (see Note 2) 0.30
S1600 load (see Note 2) 0
HLP loading 0.1
NOTES:
1 Dynamic load allowance is not required for centrifugal forces,
braking forces or pedestrian load.
2 Including the UDL component of the traffic load.
6.7.3 Application
The dynamic load allowance shall be applied to all parts of the structure extending down to
the ground level.
For parts of the structure below the ground level, the dynamic load allowance to be applied
to each part shall be—
(a) the ground level value for a cover depth of zero;
(b) zero for a cover depth of 2 m or more; or
(c) a linear interpolation between depths of zero and 2 m.
For buried structures such as culverts and soil-steel structures, the dynamic load allowance
to be applied to the entire structure shall be—
(i) the ground level value for a cover depth of zero;
A1
(ii) 0.1 for a cover depth of 2 m or more for loads excluding S1600. For S1600 loads, the
dynamic load allowance is zero; or
(iii) a linear interpolation between depths of zero and 2 m.
6.7.4 Dynamic load reversal
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Consideration shall be given to the reversal of the dynamic response to live load. Vibrations
may continue and slowly decay after passing of traffic. In particular, the minimum reaction
on bearings shall take into consideration any reduction that may occur as a result of
dynamic effects.
6.8 Horizontal forces
6.8.1 Centrifugal forces
For bridges on horizontal curves, allowance shall be made for the centrifugal effects of
traffic load on all parts of the structure. The bridge shall be designed to resist the most
adverse co-existing effects induced by the M1600 moving traffic load and the centrifugal
force (Fc), in kilonewtons.
The centrifugal force (Fc) shall be assumed to act at deck level and shall be applied in
accordance with the distribution of load in the M1600 moving traffic load. The centrifugal
force (Fc) shall be calculated as follows:
V2
Fc = Wc . . . 6.8.1(1)
rg
where
F BS = braking force applied by a single vehicle
W BS = load due to a single lane of the M1600 moving traffic load for the
length under consideration, in kilonewtons, up to a maximum of
1600 kN. No dynamic load allowance is to be included
F BS shall be applied to any lane of a multi-lane bridge to produce the most adverse
effects.
(b) Multi-lane moving traffic stream stopping The braking force for multi-lane moving
traffic stream stopping (FBM ) shall be calculated as follows:
FBM = 0.15WBM . . . 6.8.2(2)
where
F BM = braking force applied by multiple vehicles
W BM = load due to multiple lanes of the M1600 moving traffic load for the
length under consideration, in kilonewtons. No dynamic load
allowance is to be included.
Accompanying lane factors shall be applied, i.e.—
j
= Σ ALF
i =1
i × M1600 i . . . 6.8.2(3)
The number of lanes to be included shall be limited to those likely to carry traffic in a
single direction, unless specified otherwise by the relevant authority.
When assessing the effects of longitudinal forces on bridge bearings and substructures, the
friction or shear displacement characteristics of expansion bearings and the stiffness of the
substructure shall be taken into account.
6.9 Fatigue load effects
The fatigue design traffic load effects shall be determined from 70% of the effects of a
single A160 axle or 70% of a single M1600 moving traffic load, without UDL, whichever is
more severe. In both cases, a load factor of 1.0 shall be used and the load effects shall be
increased by the dynamic load allowance (α).
The single A160 axle load or M1600 moving traffic load, without UDL, shall be placed
within any design traffic lane to maximize the fatigue effects for the component under
consideration.
Unless determined otherwise by the relevant authority, the number of fatigue stress cycles
to be used for the calculation of the fatigue capacity of the structural element under
consideration shall be as follows:
(a) For the fatigue design load of 0.70 × (A160 axle load) × (1 + α):
(current number of heavy vehicles per lane per day) × 4 × 10 4 × (route factor).
(b) For the fatigue design load of 0.70 × (M1600 moving traffic load without UDL)
× (1 + α):
(current number of heavy vehicles per lane per day) × 2 × 10 4(L−0.5 ) × (route factor).
Unless specified otherwise by the relevant authority, the route factor shall be—
(i) for principal interstate freeways and highways ..................................................... 1.0;
(ii) for urban freeways............................................................................................... 0.7;
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(A) For positive bending moments, L is the actual span in which the bending moment is
being considered.
(B) For negative moment over interior supports, L is the average of the adjacent spans.
(C) For end shear, L is the actual span.
(D) For reactions, L is the sum of the adjacent spans.
(E) For cross-girders, L is twice the longitudinal spacing of the cross-girders.
A fatigue stress cycle shall be taken to be the maximum peak to peak stress from the
passage of the relevant fatigue design load.
Heavy vehicles shall be as defined by the Austroads Vehicle Classification Scheme, i.e.,
Classes 3 to 12.
The current number of heavy vehicles shall be based on the year the bridge is to be put into
service.
This Clause does not apply to fatigue design of roadway expansion joints.
6.10 Load factors
For ultimate and serviceability limit state design loads, the load factors for design road
traffic loads shall be as given in Table 6.10(A).
TABLE 6.10(A)
LOAD FACTORS FOR DESIGN ROAD TRAFFIC LOADS
Limit state
Traffic load
Ultimate Serviceability
W80 wheel load 1.8 1.0
A160 axle load 1.8 1.0
M1600 moving traffic load 1.8 1.0
S1600 stationary traffic load 1.8 1.0
Heavy load platform load 1.5 1.0
The load factor to be applied in calculating the design centrifugal and braking forces shall
be as given in Table 6.10(B).
TABLE 6.10(B)
LOAD FACTORS FOR DESIGN
CENTRIFUGAL AND BRAKING FORCES
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Limit state
Force
Ultimate Serviceability
Centrifugal force 1.8 1.0
Braking force 1.8 1.0
Each of the design horizontal forces due to road traffic load shall be applied simultaneously
with the vertical road traffic load and such load cases or any combination thereof shall be
considered as a single vehicular traffic load specified in Clause 22.1.3.
6.11 Deflection
The deflection limits of a road bridge under traffic for serviceability limit state shall be
appropriate to the structure and its intended use, the nature of the loading and the elements
supported by it.
Notwithstanding this requirement, the deflection for serviceability limit state under live
load plus dynamic load allowance shall be not greater than 1/600 of the span or 1/300 of the
cantilever projection, as applicable.
The live load to be used for calculating deflection shall be one M1600 moving traffic load,
without UDL, including dynamic load allowance, placed longitudinally in each design lane
to produce the maximum deflection, taking into account the accompanying lane factors.
NOTE: In calculating the deflection, the following assumptions may be made:
(a) The deflection of the bridge may be averaged across all beams.
(b) The design cross-section of the bridge may include continuous portions of road furniture
contributing to stiffness, provided that adequate connection is included to ensure composite
action with the bridge deck.
In addition, road traffic bridges shall be designed so that—
(a) deflections do not infringe on clearance diagrams;
(b) hog deflection does not exceed 1/300 of the span; and
(c) no sag deflection occurs under permanent loads.
6.12 Distribution of road traffic loads through fill
For all types of roadway pavements above structures, the distribution of SM1600 design
loads, with the factors and allowances applied in accordance with this Standard, shall be as
specified below, unless calculated otherwise by an analytical modelling procedure approved
by the authority. This requirement shall apply to all types of roadway pavements.
SM1600 design wheel loads shall be distributed through the fill cover over the structure,
from the imprint of the rectangular wheel contact area at the road surface to a rectangular
distribution area on the surface of the structure, proportioned in accordance with the wheel
contact area dimensions.
The length of the sides of the distribution rectangle shall be determined as follows:
(a) For depths of fill cover from 0 to 200 mm—sides of distribution rectangle = sides of
wheel contact rectangle + 0.5 h, where h is the depth of fill cover in millimetres.
(b) For depths of fill cover greater than 200 mm—sides of distribution rectangle = sides
of wheel contact rectangles + 100 mm + 1.2 × (h − 200).
Where distribution areas from several wheel loads overlap, the total load may be considered
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TABLE 7.3
LOAD FACTORS FOR DESIGN PEDESTRIAN
AND SERVICE LIVE LOADS
Limit state
Load
Ultimate Serviceability
Pedestrian load 1.8 1.0
Service live loads 2.0 1.0
8 RAILWAY TRAFFIC
8.1 General
Railway bridges shall be designed for the loads specified in Clause 8, unless specified
otherwise by the rail authority. Bridges carrying light rail, cane railways and the like shall
be designed for loads specified by the relevant authority.
8.2 300LA railway traffic load
The 300LA load shall consist of groups of vehicles with four axles each having a load of
300 kN, and have axle spacings of 1.7 m, 1.1 m and 1.7 m. To simulate coupled
locomotives, a 360 kN axle load shall be added 2 m in front of the axle group, as shown in
Figure 8.2(A). The spacing between the centres of each vehicle axle group shall vary
between 12 m and 20 m to give maximum effect in the member under consideration, as
shown in Figure 8.2(B).
The position of the loads and the number of axle groups shall be selected so as to give
maximum load effects in the member under consideration.
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TABLE 8.3
MULTIPLE TRACK FACTORS
Number of tracks loaded Multiple track factor
1 1.00
2 1.00
3 0.85
4 0.70
5 or more 0.60
For intermediate piers, L α shall be the sum of the lengths of the adjacent spans.
For bearings supporting floor members, L α shall be as given in Table 8.4.2.
TABLE 8.4.2
CHARACTERISTIC LENGTH (Lα)
Case Characteristic length (L α)
Bridge members, types of bridge
No. m
Floor members
1 Stringers Cross-girder spacing +3.0
2 End stringers Cross-girder spacing
3 Cantilevered stringers 0.5
4 Cross-girders, including cantilevered cross-
girders, loaded by simply supported stringers Twice the cross-girder spacing +3.0
and continuous deck elements
5 End cross-girders, including cantilevered end
4.0
cross-girders
6 Deck slabs between supports Span of the main girders or twice the span of the
deck slab, whichever is less
7 Cantilevered deck slabs Span of the main girders or twice the distance
between each support, whichever is less
8 Suspension bars or supports loaded by cross- The values to be used shall correspond to those
girders only applying to the cross-girder, as given in Cases 4
and 5
Main girders
9 Simply supported main girders Span of main girders
10 Continuous main girders over n spans where— for—
L m = 1/n (L 1 + L 2……+L n ) n = 2 3 4 ≥5
x = 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
L α = xL m , but ≤ L max.
11 Cantilever portions of cantilever bridges Length of the cantilevered portion plus the span of
any suspended girder supported by the cantilever
12 Suspended girders of suspended span bridges Span of the suspended girder
13 Arches Half span
14 Plate web girders at bottom of welded stiffeners 0.5
15 Truss members:
(a) Top and bottom chords Three times the length from adjacent panel points
(b) Verticals Three times the length between chords
(c) Diagonals not intersected by members Three times the horizontal or vertical projection,
complying with this Standard whichever is the shorter
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(d) Diagonals intersected by members Six times the horizontal or vertical projection of the
complying with this Standard overall length, whichever is the shorter
16 Lattice girder members:
(a) Top and bottom flanges and webs As for main girders
(b) Lattice members Six times the horizontal or vertical projection of the
overall length from web to web, whichever is the
shorter
(continued)
TABLE 8.4.3.1
VALUES OF α FOR BENDING MOMENT
FOR BALLASTED DECK SPAN
Characteristic length (L α)
Dynamic load allowance (α)
m
≤3.6 1.0
2.16
>3.6 − 0.27
Lα0.5 − 0.20
8.4.3.2 Open deck spans and spans with direct rail fixation
The value of the dynamic load allowance (α) for bending moment for open deck spans or
spans with direct rail fixation shall be as given in Table 8.4.3.2.
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TABLE 8.4.3.2
VALUES OF α FOR BENDING MOMENT
FOR OPEN DECK SPANS AND SPANS
WITH DIRECT RAIL FIXATION
Characteristic length (Lα)
Dynamic load allowance (α)
m
≤ 2.0 1.6
2.16
> 2.0 − 0.17
L0.5
α − 0.20
8.4.4 Application
For all parts of the structure extending down to the ground level, the dynamic load
allowance (α) shall be as specified in Clauses 8.4.3.
For culverts and soil steel structures below the ground level, α shall be linearly transitioned
from the ground level value to zero at a cover depth of 2 m. For structures in embankments,
the ground level shall be taken as the underside of the ballast.
The dynamic load allowance established for the appropriate cover depth shall apply to the
entire structure. The depth of the cover shall be measured from the underside of the ballast.
8.4.5 Dynamic load allowance for other load effects
The dynamic load allowance (α) for shear, torsion and reactions shall be taken as 2/3 of the
value for bending moment.
Where the application of the dynamic load allowance leads to greater safety or stability,
e.g., against overturning, α shall be taken as 0.
Where deflections are to be calculated for serviceability loads, including dynamic load
allowance, 2/3 of the dynamic load allowance shall be used.
8.4.6 Dynamic load reversal
Consideration shall be given to the reversal of the dynamic response to live load. Vibrations
may continue and slowly decay after passing of traffic. The frequency and rate of strain in
dynamic load reversal are critical in fatigue damage accumulation. In particular, the
minimum reaction on bearings shall permit for the reduction, which may occur from the
results of the dynamic effects.
8.4.7 Application to dedicated lines and traffic
Where detailed information is available for specific structures and track standard, and
where train speeds are known, α may be determined as required by the authority.
NOTE: A procedure for the determination of α is described in AS 5100.2 Supp 1.
8.5 Distribution of railway traffic load
8.5.1 General
The distribution of railway live load to the supporting members shall be calculated using a
rigorous analysis in accordance with the appropriate clauses of the relevant material Section
of the Standard.
A1
In the absence of a rigorous analysis, railway traffic loads shall be distributed as set out in
Clauses 8.5.2 to 8.5.5, as appropriate.
A1
8.5.2 Open deck steel railway bridges
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Timber bridge transoms shall be designed on the assumption that the maximum wheel load
on each rail shall be distributed equally to all transoms or fractions thereof within a length
of 1.2 m, but shall not be greater than three transoms, and the load shall be applied with a
dynamic load allowance of 1.0.
For the design of beams, the live load shall be distributed and shall be applied via the
transoms as above. In such cases, additional longitudinal distribution of such loads shall not
be assumed, and the full dynamic load allowance shall be applied to the beams.
TABLE 8.6.2
BRAKING AND TRACTION FORCES
FOR 300LA LOAD
Loaded length (L) Horizontal force
Track type
m kN
Discontinuous All 200 + 20L
L < 50 m 100
Continuous
L > 50 m 100 + 15(L − 50)
For continuous track, the loaded length shall be taken to be the full length of the bridge.
The total longitudinal load on the bridge, as calculated from Table 8.6.2, shall be
distributed to the supports in proportion to their stiffnesses.
For bridges with discontinuous track, the loaded length shall be taken as the length between
the discontinuity and an abutment, or as the length between discontinuities. The
longitudinal load shall be distributed to the supports under the loaded length, in proportion
to their stiffnesses.
Continuous tracks, for the purpose of determining the longitudinal forces specified in this
Clause, shall be those tracks that have no rail discontinuities either on the bridge or within
20 m of either end of the bridge.
Where a structure or element carries two tracks, both tracks shall be considered as being
occupied simultaneously. Loads in either direction shall be applied simultaneous to both
tracks.
Where elements carry more than two tracks, longitudinal loads shall be applied
simultaneously to two tracks only.
8.6.3 Nosing loads
Railway bridges that are intended to carry 300LA traffic loads shall be designed to resist a
lateral nosing load of 100 kN applied at top of rail level in either direction and at any point
along the structure. This load shall be adjusted in proportion to the actual design traffic
load. Nosing loads shall not be increased by the dynamic load allowance. Nosing loads are
independent from the speed and shall not be reduced at low speeds.
8.7 Fatigue load
8.7.1 Fatigue design traffic load
The fatigue design traffic load for railway bridges shall be the design railway traffic load
and half of the design dynamic load allowance, with a load factor of 1.0. The distance
between the centre of the axle groups (L v) shall be varied between 12 m and 20 m to
produce the maximum fatigue design stress range (f* ) (see Clause 8.7.3).
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where
C T = base number of load cycles for the track category as given in Table 8.7.4
n T = number of equivalent stress cycles of amplitude (f * ) per train, which depends
on L f and L v (see Table 8.7.3)
L f = span of main girders, trusses or stringers; or
cross-girder spacing for cross-girders
L v = distance between the centres of the axle groups (i.e., the length of the
vehicle)
TABLE 8.7.3
VALUES OF nT
Lf nT
< 2.5 240
2.5 < L f < 9.0 60.0
3
⎛ ( 2 L v − Lf ) ⎞
60 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 2
9.0 < L f < 25.0 ⎝ Lf ⎠
Max . 60
Min . 2
> 25.0 2.0
TABLE 8.7.4
VALUES OF CT
Track category CT
Heavy haul 6 × 10 5
Main line freight 1 × 10 5
Branch line 1 × 10 4
track, the fatigue loads, both the fatigue design traffic load specified in Clause 8.7.1 and the
fatigue design stress range specified in Clause 8.7.2, shall be determined from the full
fatigue design traffic load on one track, and a load on the other track(s) of 80% of their full
fatigue design traffic load with no dynamic load allowance.
NOTE: A more accurate calculation may be carried out by estimating the number of load events
in the life of the element in which two or more trains will be loading the element under
consideration at any one time. If the effect of the load from multiple tracks results in a stress
range more severe than that due to a single track, a cumulative damage calculation for the cases
of single-track and multiple-track loads should be performed.
8.8 Load factors
For ultimate and serviceability limit state design loads, the load factors for the design
railway traffic load shall be as given in Table 8.8(A).
TABLE 8.8(A)
LOAD FACTORS FOR
DESIGN RAILWAY TRAFFIC LOADS
Limit state
Loads
Ultimate Serviceability
300LA railway traffic load 1.6 1.0
The load factors to be applied in calculating centrifugal, nosing and longitudinal forces
shall be as given in Table 8.8(B).
TABLE 8.8(B)
LOAD FACTORS FOR
DESIGN RAILWAY TRAFFIC LOADS
Limit state
Traffic load
Ultimate Serviceability
Centrifugal forces 1.6 1.0
Nosing forces 1.6 1.0
Longitudinal braking and traction forces 1.6 1.0
Each of the design horizontal forces due to railway load shall be applied simultaneously
with the vertical railway load and such load cases shall be considered a single load, as
specified in Clause 22.1.3.
Centrifugal forces and nosing loads shall not be applied simultaneously.
8.9 Deflection limits
The deflection limits of a railway bridge under traffic for serviceability limit state shall be
appropriate to the structure and its intended use, the nature of the loading and the elements
supported by it.
Notwithstanding this requirement, the deflection of railway bridges for serviceability limit
state under live load plus dynamic load allowance shall be not greater than 1/640 of the
span and 1/320 of the cantilever projection.
NOTE: In order not to detract from their appearance, bridges should be designed so that their hog
does not exceed 1/300 of the span and they do not sag under permanent loads.
Railway bridges shall not deflect so that they infringe clearance diagrams.
To ensure that the superstructure has sufficient lateral restraint to resist lateral forces not
otherwise accounted for in the design, a positive lateral restraint system between the
superstructure and the substructure shall be provided at piers and abutments.
For continuous superstructures, lateral restraints may be omitted at some piers provided
each continuous section of the superstructure between expansion joints is adequately
restrained.
The restraint system for each continuous section of the superstructure shall be capable of
resisting an ultimate design horizontal force normal to the bridge centre-line of 500 kN or
5% of the superstructure dead load at that support, whichever is greater. Supports providing
this lateral restraint shall also be designed to resist this design force. A load factor of 1.0
shall be used.
Restraints shall have sufficient lateral clearance to allow thermal movements, especially on
wide and curved superstructures.
If the transverse load requirement specified in other Parts of AS 5100 is greater than the
requirements of this Clause, then the restraints may be deemed to satisfy the requirements
of this Clause.
10 COLLISION LOADS
10.1 General
Collision protection shall be considered in accordance with AS 5100.1. The design collision
loads shall be as specified in Clauses 10.2 to 10.4, where applicable.
10.2 Collision load from road traffic
Where the supports for a road bridge or a railway bridge are not located behind appropriate
protective traffic barriers, they shall be designed to resist a minimum equivalent static load
of 2000 kN applied at an angle of 10° from the direction of the road centre-line passing
under the bridge. The load shall be applied 1.2 m above ground level. This load, in
conjunction with the ultimate design dead loads on the structure, shall be considered at
ultimate limit states, with a load factor of 1.0.
10.3 Loads on protection beams
Where required by the relevant authority, protection beams shall be installed to protect the
superstructure of low clearance bridges from impact from road vehicles. They shall be
designed for the ultimate loads given in Table 10.3, with a load factor of 1.0.
TABLE 10.3
ULTIMATE LOADS ON PROTECTION BEAMS
Ultimate limit state
Loads
kN
1000 (towards the bridge)
Horizontal loads
750 (away from the bridge)
Vertical load (uplift) 500
Protection beam supports shall be capable of resisting loads 25% greater than the capacity
of the protection beam itself.
10.4 Collision load from rail traffic
10.4.1 General
This Clause applies to all structures above the railway track including railway bridges over
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whichever gives the worst case. Relaxation of the 500 kN collision load on supporting
members complying with the redundancy provisions of Clause 10.4.2 is permitted, but not
for members of the superstructure.
Platforms shall not be assumed to provide a degree of protection to permit reduction of the
500 kN collision load.
The 500 kN collision load shall not be applied in conjunction with the loads specified in
Clause 10.4.3.
(b) Designing minor modifications to a barrier system which has been validated by either
crash testing or performance review to develop a geometrically and structurally
equivalent barrier. The modified barrier shall not have features that are absent in the
validated configuration, which might detract from the performance of the barrier
system.
The design of any modified barrier system shall ensure that the locations and capacities of
components are capable of safely redirecting all vehicles nominated in the crash test vehicle
criteria for that barrier performance level in AS 5100.1.
In order to minimize damage to bridge decks and for safety considerations, bridge barriers
shall be designed as progressive strength systems in which barriers and then their
connections fail prior to the failure of the supporting elements.
11.2.2 Traffic barrier design loads
The ultimate design loads and load distribution lengths for low and regular traffic barrier
performance levels as defined in AS 5100.1 are given in Table 11.2.2.
The ultimate design loads and load distribution lengths for the barrier performance levels,
medium and special, shall be the subject of specific investigations consistent with the
criteria specified in Clause 11 and AS 5100.1, and shall be determined by the authority.
NOTE: Typical design loads for medium and special performance level barriers are given in
Appendix A.
A load factor of 1.0 shall apply to the design of bridge barriers.
TABLE 11.2.2
TRAFFIC BARRIER DESIGN LOADS AND CONTACT LENGTHS
Vehicle contact
Ultimate
Ultimate length for Vehicle contact
longitudinal or Ultimate vertical
Barrier transverse transverse loads length for
transverse downward load
performance outward load (L T) and vertical loads
inward load (F V)
level (F T) longitudinal loads (LV )
(F L)
(L L)
kN kN m kN m
Low 125 40 1.1 20 5.5
Regular 250 80 1.1 80 5.5
NOTE: The data given in the Table is based on a lateral combined barrier/vehicle deformation of 0.3 m for the
low and regular performance levels.
The design of a barrier system using Table 11.2.2 requires a detailed analysis, such as a
yield line analysis for a concrete parapet or an inelastic plastic moment analysis for a steel
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TABLE 11.2.3
MINIMUM EFFECTIVE HEIGHT
OF TRAFFIC BARRIER
Barrier Minimum effective height (H e)
performance level mm
Low 500
Regular 800
11.2.4 Anchorage
The yield strength of steel anchor bolts for the barrier shall be fully developed by bond,
hooks, attachment to embedded plates or any combination thereof. Other means of
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where
L = span of the member between posts
h = height of the top rail
The load factor to be applied in calculating the design barrier loadings shall be as given in
Table 11.5.
TABLE 11.5
LOAD FACTOR FOR DESIGN
PEDESTRIAN BARRIER LOAD
Limit state
Load
Ultimate Serviceability
Pedestrian load 1.8 1.0
12 DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR
12.1 General
Vibration induced in bridges by the passage of vehicles and in pedestrian bridges by
pedestrians may constitute a serviceability limit state if the level of vibration causes alarm
or public unease as to the safety of the structures.
12.2 Road bridges
12.2.1 With walkways
The vibration of a road bridge shall be investigated as a serviceability limit state if the
structure is fitted with a walkway intended for public use. The serviceability design load of
0.7 × (M1600 moving traffic load without UDL), including dynamic load allowance, shall
be positioned along the spans and within any design traffic lane to produce the maximum
static deflection of the walkway. The deflection at the centre of the walkway shall be not
greater than that shown in Figure 12.2.1, unless an investigation complying with
Clause 12.2.3 is undertaken.
This Clause shall be applied to bridges and similar structures that support platforms or other
areas intended for public use.
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AS 5100.2—2004
© Standards Australia
38
FIGURE 12.2.1 STATIC DEFLECTION LIMITS FOR ROAD BRIDGES WITH WALKWAYS
www.standards.org.au
39 AS 5100.2—2004
A1
13 EARTH PRESSURE
13.1 General
The load effects on a retaining structure due to earth pressure loads shall be determined in
accordance with AS 5100.3.
13.2 Surcharge loads from road traffic loads
Where highway live loads can approach within a distance equal to the effective height of
the wall from the backface of the structure, an equivalent load caused by an additional
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height of fill, which diminishes over the height of the wall, as shown in Figure 13.2, shall
be assumed for the purpose of calculating design earth pressure. This load shall be assumed
to act above the finished grade and over the entire length of the retaining structure. The
effect of foundations or other loads placed in or on the backfill, within a distance equal to
the effective height of the wall, shall also be included.
The live load surcharge shall be applied irrespective of whether or not there is provision for
an approach slab in the bridge design.
uniformly distributed over the area defined by the outside limits of the individual rail load
distributions at that depth. The total width of the distribution so determined shall not exceed
the total width of the structure supporting the fill and, if the centroid of the load is not
coincident with the loaded area, the load distribution shall be taken to vary linearly to
satisfy statics.
When determining lateral earth pressures on retaining walls and abutments, the areas of
surcharge at the underside of sleepers shall be taken to apply pressures to the structure if
they are located within the zone of a 45° projection from the heel or base of the retaining
structure.
14 EARTHQUAKE FORCES
14.1 General
For the design of bridge structures, earthquake effects shall be considered in accordance
with this Clause. However, some factors to be used in the calculation of earthquake effects,
which are in common with those given in AS 1170.4, are not repeated in this Clause. When
specifically referred to, the factors given in AS 1170.4 shall be used. Other parts of
AS 1170.4 shall not be used for earthquake design of bridges.
The provisions for earthquake design in this Clause are applicable to bridges of
conventional superstructure types, such as slab, beam and slab, box girder and truss types,
with spans not greater than 100 m. For other bridges, specialist advice shall be sought for
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TABLE 14.3.1
BRIDGE EARTHQUAKE DESIGN CATEGORY (BEDC)
Product of acceleration Bridge classification
coefficient and site factor
(aS) Type III Type II Type I
in AS 1170.4 is permitted.
14.4 Requirements for earthquake design
14.4.1 General
The method of analysis of earthquake effects and any additional requirements shall be as
specified in Clauses 14.4.2 to 14.4.5, depending on the bridge earthquake design category.
Where the relevant authority considers that a bridge structure is particularly important or
has unusual or special features, the requirements for earthquake design for a more severe
BEDC may be adopted.
14.4.2 Requirements for BEDC-1
Bridge structures in BEDC-1, where the maximum span is less than or equal to 20 m, need
not be analysed for earthquake forces.
For bridge structures in BEDC-1, where the maximum span exceeds 20 m, effects of
horizontal earthquake forces, determined using static analysis in accordance with
Clause 14.5, shall be considered.
For bridge structures in BEDC-1, which do not require analysis for earthquake forces, the
minimum lateral restraint provisions of Clause 9 apply. For other bridges in BEDC-1, the
detailing of restraining devices, bearings and deck joints shall be in accordance with
Clause 14.7.
14.4.3 Requirements for BEDC-2
For bridge structures in BEDC-2, the effects of earthquake forces shall be determined using
either static analysis, in accordance with Clause 14.5, or a dynamic analysis in accordance
with Clause 14.6.
Where the maximum span is less than or equal to 35 m, the effects of horizontal earthquake
forces only need be considered. Where the maximum span exceeds 35 m, the effects of both
horizontal and vertical earthquake forces shall be considered.
For all bridges in BEDC-2, the detailing of structural members, restraining devices,
bearings and deck joints shall be in accordance with Clause 14.7.
14.4.4 Requirements for BEDC-3
For bridge structures in BEDC-3, the effects of both horizontal and vertical earthquake
forces shall be considered.
Where there is one dominant mode of free vibration in a particular direction, horizontal or
vertical, the effects of earthquake forces in that direction shall be determined using either
static analysis in accordance with Clause 14.5, or a dynamic analysis in accordance with
Clause 14.6.
Where more than one mode of free vibration contributes to the dynamic response or the
bridge structure is complicated or irregular in its mass or stiffness distribution in any
direction, or both, the effects of earthquake forces shall be determined using a dynamic
analysis in accordance with Clause 14.6.
For all bridges in BEDC-3, the detailing of structural members, retaining devices, bearings
and deck joints shall be in accordance with Clause 14.7.
14.4.5 Requirements for BEDC-4
For bridge structures in BEDC-4, the effects of both horizontal and vertical earthquake
forces shall be determined using a dynamic analysis in accordance with Clause 14.6, and
the detailing of structural members, restraining devices, bearings and deck joints shall be in
accordance with Clause 14.7.
14.5 Static analysis
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14.5.1 General
Horizontal design earthquake forces shall be determined in the direction of each principal
axis or in the major orthogonal directions of the structure. These horizontal forces shall be
assumed to act non-concurrently and shall be considered as separate load cases.
Where required, a vertical design earthquake force shall be determined, and shall be
considered independently of the horizontal design earthquake forces.
14.5.2 Horizontal earthquake force
( )
The total horizontal design earthquake force H u* in each direction shall be applied at a
vertical level that corresponds to the mass centroid of the bridge deck when considered in
elevation. The design force shall be distributed along the length of the bridge, in accordance
with the distribution of the mass of the bridge deck. A separate design force shall be
determined for and applied to each continuous section of the bridge deck considered in each
principal direction.
The horizontal design earthquake force (H )
*
u shall be determined from the following
equation:
⎛ CS ⎞
H u* = I ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟G g . . . 14.5.2(1)
⎝ Rf ⎠
within the limits—
H u* ≥ 0.02G g ; and . . . 14.5.2(2)
⎛ 2.5a ⎞
H u* ≤ I ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟G g . . . 14.5.2(3)
⎝ Rf ⎠
where
I = importance factor (see Clause 14.5.3)
C = earthquake design coefficient (see Clause 14.5.4)
S = site factor (see Clause 14.3.4)
R f = structural response factor (see Clause 14.5.5)
G g = total unfactored dead load including superimposed dead load (see Clause 5)
a = acceleration coefficient (see Clause 14.3.3)
14.5.3 Importance factor
The importance factor (I) shall be as given in Table 14.5.3.
TABLE 14.5.3
IMPORTANCE FACTOR
Structure type Importance factor, I
III 1.25
II and I 1.00
1.25a
C= 2
. . . 14.5.4(1)
T 3
where T (in seconds) is the structure period of the first dominant mode of free vibration in
the direction under consideration.
The structure period (T) shall be determined by structural analysis based on a recognized
theoretical approach.
For bridge structures in BEDC-1 only, T may be approximated from—
T = 0.063 δ . . . 14.5.4(2)
where δ is the displacement under self-weight, in millimetres, with gravity applied in the
direction of interest, i.e., horizontal or vertical.
For bridge structures in BEDC-1 only and with a more general mass distribution, T may be
approximated from—
Σmi (δ i )
2
T = 2π . . . 14.5.4(3)
gΣ (miδ i )
TABLE 14.5.5
STRUCTURAL RESPONSE FACTOR
Bridge structural system Structural response factor (R f)
Piers and deck form a continuous frame to resist
6.0
horizontal earthquake force
Deck continuous over piers, supported on bearings 5.0
Bridges with single column piers to resist horizontal
3.5
earthquake force
Bridges with simply supported spans 3.0
The seismic design of abutments and retaining walls shall take into account forces from
static earth pressures, seismically induced lateral earth pressures, additional forces arising
from wall and backfill inertia effects and the transfer of seismic forces from the bridge
deck. The effects of vertical acceleration shall be omitted. The calculation of seismically
induced lateral earth pressures shall be in accordance with accepted engineering principals
such as the pseudo-static Mononobe-Okabe method.
For freestanding abutments or retaining walls that may displace horizontally without
significant restraint, the earthquake design coefficient equals to one half the acceleration
coefficient (C h = 0.5a). Abutments shall be proportioned to slide rather than tilt and
provisions shall be made to accommodate horizontal seismically induced abutment
displacements of up to 250a mm.
For freestanding abutments and retaining walls that are restrained from horizontal
displacement by anchors or batter piles, the earthquake design coefficient (C h) equal to
1.5a.
14.6 Dynamic analysis
Dynamic analysis, when used, shall be performed generally in accordance with AS 1170.4.
The analysis method may be either a response spectrum analysis or a time history analysis.
For the response spectrum analysis method in accordance with AS 1170.4, scaling of
results, directional effects and torsion are not applicable to bridge structures, and shall be
ignored. A sufficient number of modes of free vibration shall be included in the total
response so that, for each direction, at least 90% of the structure’s mass has been accounted
for in the participating mass.
The effects of dynamic earthquake forces shall be considered in the horizontal directions
corresponding to the direction of each principal axis, or in the major orthogonal directions
of the structure and the vertical direction, as specified in Clause 14.4. The effects in each
direction shall be considered independently.
The analysis shall take account of torsional effects by use of a suitable three-dimensional
mathematical model of the structure, which represents the spatial distribution of the mass
and stiffness of the structure to an extent which is adequate for the determination of the
significant features of its dynamic response.
14.7 Structural detailing requirements for earthquake effects
14.7.1 General
For all bridges, good detailing practices and design for ductile behaviour shall be employed
where practicable, to guard against the effects of unexpected seismic disturbances.
Sufficient ductility to deal with unexpected seismic disturbances shall be deemed to be
A1
achieved in bridges with a Bridge Design Category of BEDC-1 or BEDC-2 if the structure
is analysed using a response factor (R f ) equal to 2.0, and the elements designed for the
resulting actions. Particular attention shall be given to the prevention of dislodgment of the
superstructure from its support system and the provision of viable, continuous and direct
load paths from the level of the bridge deck to the foundation system.
14.7.2 Restraining devices
Where the horizontal restraints of conventional bearings are inadequate under earthquake
effects, restraining devices, such as ties, shear keys, stops and dowels, shall be provided
with the specific aim of preventing dislodgment of the superstructure from the support
structure. Restraining devices and connections shall be designed to withstand the horizontal
design earthquake forces calculated in accordance with Clause 14.5 or Clause 14.6, but not
less than the minimum lateral restraint force specified in Clause 9. Vertical restraint devices
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shall be provided at all supports where the vertical design earthquake force opposes and is
greater than 50% of the static reaction under permanent loads. The vertical restraint device
shall be designed to resist not less than 10% of the vertical reaction from the permanent
effects of the support.
Due to the nature of earthquake loads, horizontal restraints cannot be assumed to rely on
any component of friction. For assessment of the structure under any load combination
which includes earthquake effects, the friction coefficient between any material types shall
be equal to zero.
14.7.3 Provision for horizontal movements
Bearings and deck joints shall accommodate the horizontal movements due to earthquake
effects calculated in accordance with Clause 14.5 or Clause 14.6.
Where excessive movements, which are outside the range of conventional bearings or deck
joints are expected, additional devices may be used to limit movements under earthquake
loadings only. These special devices, such as buffer bearings, shall be designed to be
activated after a large, but tolerable, horizontal movement to prevent failure of sliding
bearings and deck joints.
Bearing seats supporting expansion ends of the superstructure for bridges in BEDC-2,
BEDC-3 and BEDC-4 shall be designed to provide a minimum support length measured
normal to the face of an abutment or pier (Lbs ) of—
( )
Lbs = (200 + 1.7 Ld + 6.7 hd ) 1 + 0.000125θ 2s × 10 −3 . . . 14.7.3
where
L d = length of the superstructure to the next expansion joint
h d = average height of the columns or piers supporting the superstructure length Ld
θ s = angle of skew of the support measured from a line normal to the span
14.7.4 Soil behaviour
For soil behaviour, the following shall be taken into consideration:
(a) The effects of excessive settlement of approach embankments and allowances made
for increased earth pressure on earth retaining structures.
(b) Loose granular soils, when subjected to seismic loading of sufficient duration and
intensity, may suddenly lose their strength and behave as viscous liquids. This
possibility of soil liquefaction shall be investigated where saturated sandy and silty
soils within 10 m of the ground surface have a standard penetration test value of 10 or
less.
14.7.5 Ductile behaviour
14.7.5.1 General requirements
For bridge structures in BEDC-2, BEDC-3 and BEDC-4, a clearly defined collapse
mechanism shall be established. The structural members shall be ductile at the potential
plastic hinge locations defined in the mechanism.
Minimum ductility requirements for the design of these structural members under
earthquake design loads shall be as specified in AS 5100.5 and AS 5100.6. These
requirements are to ensure that the required ductility at potential plastic hinges can be
achieved.
14.7.5.2 Pile to pile cap connection
For bridge structures in BEDC-2, BEDC-3 and BEDC-4, the connection between each pile
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and its pile cap shall be designed to resist a tensile force of not less than 10% of N * for the
pile.
A1
The value of C d for superstructures shall be obtained from Figure 15.4.2(A). The relative
submergence (S r) and the proximity ratio (P r) shall be calculated as follows:
d wgs
Sr = . . . 15.4.2(3)
d sp
y gs
Pr = . . . 15.4.2(4)
d ss
where
d wgs = vertical distance from the girder soffit to the flood water surface upstream of
the bridge (see Figure 15.4.2(B))
d sp = wetted depth of the superstructure (including any railings or parapets)
projected on a plane normal to the water flow (see Figure 15.4.2(B))
y gs = vertical average distance from the girder soffit to the bed assuming no scour
at the span under consideration (see Figure 15.4.2(B))
d ss = wetted depth of the solid superstructure (excluding any railings but
including solid parapets) projected on a plane normal to the water flow (see
Figure 15.4.2(B))
where
C L = lift coefficient
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where
C m = moment coefficient
The value of C m shall be obtained from Figure 15.4.4.
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where
Cd = obtained from Figure 15.5.4(A), for debris acting on piers
obtained from Figure 15.5.4(B), for debris acting on superstructures
A deb = projected area of debris
NOTE: The depth of debris varies depending on the catchment vegetation.
Debris forces shall not be used concurrently with water flow forces except that, in
determining the resistance of the structure to overturning, an upward lift force shall be
assumed when the debris is acting on the superstructure. The upward lift force shall be the
sum of the lift force, calculated using Equations 15.4.3(1) and 15.4.3(2) given in
Clause 15.4.3 and the buoyancy force. A value of 0.5 for C L shall be used.
distance shall be increased. The design forces shall be calculated using the mean velocity of
water flow at flood level V s for serviceability limit states, or V u for ultimate limit states, as
appropriate.
The forces due to log impact and debris shall not be applied concurrently. Log impact shall
be applied with such other water flow forces as appropriate.
15.7 Effects due to buoyancy and lift
In assessing the effects of buoyancy and lift on bridge structures, consideration shall be
given to the following:
(a) The effects of buoyancy and lift on substructure, including piling, and superstructure
dead loads. Buoyancy shall be applied concurrently with other water flow forces.
(b) For beam and slab or box girder bridges, the provision of horizontal bleed holes in
webs or diaphragms, or both, or vertical bleed holes in the deck to dissipate air, which
may be trapped between high water level and the underside of the deck slab. Several
escape paths and a minimum diameter of 50 mm for vertical bleed holes and 75 mm
for horizontal bleed holes shall be used.
(c) Provision of drainage from internal cells.
The provision of a positive tie-down system for the superstructure shall be provided for an
*
ultimate force equal to 1.5 FLu + Buoyancy − γ g DL , where γ g shall be the lower value given
in Table 5.2.
16 WIND LOADS
16.1 General
This Clause specifies design wind loads for conventional bridge structures. For wind-
sensitive structures, such as suspension or long-span cable-stayed bridges, which may be
subject to wind excited oscillations, special investigations into the dynamic behaviour of
the structure shall be carried out. Wind loads on lighting, traffic signal and traffic sign
structures shall be in accordance with Clause 23. Wind loads on noise barriers shall be in
accordance with Clause 24.
16.2 Design wind speed
16.2.1 General
The design wind speed shall be derived from the appropriate regional basic design wind
speeds, after adjustment for—
(a) average return interval;
(b) geographical location;
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(c) Drag coefficients for beams during erection The drag coefficient for beams and
girders during erection shall be calculated for individual beams as shown in
Figure 16.3.3. Shielding shall not be considered for individual beams, but may be
allowed for when two or more beams are connected, provided the ratio of the clear
distance between beams to the depth is not be greater than 7. Where the ratio of the
clear distance between connected beams to the depth is greater than 7, the drag
coefficient for the combination shall be taken as 1.5 times the value for an individual
beam.
(d) Aerodynamic shape factor for parapet railings, parapet barriers and
substructures Aerodynamic shape factors shall be obtained from AS/NZS 1170.2.
A1
NOTES:
1 The values given assume a vertical elevation and a horizontal wind.
2 Where the windward face is inclined to the vertical, the drag coefficient (Cd ) may be reduced by 0.5% per
degree of inclination from the vertical, subject to a maximum reduction of 30%.
3 Where the windward face consists of a vertical and a sloping part or two sloping parts inclined at different
angles, the wind load shall be derived as follows:
(a) The basic drag coefficient (C d) shall be calculated using the total depth of the structure.
(b) For each non-vertical face, the basic drag coefficient calculated above shall be reduced in accordance
with Note 2.
(c) The total wind load shall be calculated by applying the appropriate drag coefficients to the relevant
areas.
4 Where a superstructure is superelevated, Cd shall be increased by 3% per degree of inclination to the
horizontal, but not by more than 25%.
5 Where a superstructure is subject to wind inclined at not more than 5° to the horizontal, C d shall be
increased by 15%. Where the angle of inclination exceeds 5°, the drag coefficient shall be derived from
tests.
6 Where a superstructure is superelevated and also subject to inclined wind, the drag coefficient shall be the
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where
V u = design wind speed for ultimate limit states
V s = design wind speed for serviceability limit states
A p = bridge area in plan
C L = lift coefficient
= 0.75
Equations 16.5(1) and 16.5(2) may be used provided the angle of inclination of the wind to
the structure is less than 5°. For inclinations greater than 5°, the lift coefficient shall be
investigated by testing.
16.6 Wind on railway live load
The effect of wind on railway live load shall be included in both ultimate and serviceability
limit state load combinations and shall be considered to act with the design railway traffic
load.
The area to be considered in the calculation of the wind load on railway live load shall be
the solid area in normal projected elevation of the train area where it protrudes beyond the
projected elevation of the bridge structure. For the calculation of the projected area, a train
on the bridge shall be assumed to be 3.7 m in height, taken from the top of rails. The point
of application shall be taken as 1.85 m above the top of the rails.
The drag factor to be used in calculating the force for wind on the bridge plus live load
shall be obtained from Clause 16.3.3(a), with the height d taken as the projected area of the
train and the bridge, and the width b as specified in Clause 16.3.3(a).
17 THERMAL EFFECTS
17.1 General
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Daily and seasonal fluctuations in air temperature and solar radiation cause both variations
in average bridge temperature and differential temperature gradients across structural
members.
Variation in average bridge temperature shall be used as a basis for—
(a) assessment of bearing and deck joint movement requirements; and
(b) evaluation of design loads or load effects resulting from the restraint of associated
expansion or contraction by either the form of the structure, e.g., as in portal frames
and arches, or by the support and bearing stiffnesses.
Differential temperatures within bridge superstructures result in load effects within the
section. In the case of statically indeterminate or restrained structural forms, these
differential temperatures also cause both longitudinal and transverse parasitic load effects,
which shall be taken into account in the design.
17.2 Variation in average bridge temperature
Extremes of shade air temperature appropriate to the structure location shall be as given in
Table 17.2(1).
Consideration shall be given to particular site characteristics, e.g., frost pockets and
sheltered low-lying areas where the minimum shade air temperature may be substantially
lower; and in urban and coastal areas where the minimum values may be higher than the
values given in Table 17.2(1).
For major or special structures, extreme shade air temperatures for the actual site shall be
determined. For minor structures, consideration shall be given to increase displacements
determined for the range of average bridge temperatures to allow for limited supervision
and control of setting bearings and deck joints.
For concrete superstructures (Types 1 and 2 shown in Figure 17.3), the minimum and
maximum average bridge temperatures shall be derived from the minimum and maximum
shade air temperatures by reference to Table 17.2(2). Average temperature values indicated
relate to bridge cross-sections with a depth of up to 2 m. Where sections are greater than
2 m in depth, an allowance shall be made in average temperatures to account for the heat
sink effect.
For superstructures consisting of a concrete deck on steel girders (Type 3 shown in
Figure 17.3), the range of average bridge temperatures given in Table 17.2(2) shall be
extended by reducing the minimum average temperature by 5°C and increasing the
maximum average by 10°C.
For superstructures consisting of a steel deck on steel girders, such as pedestrian bridges,
the range of average bridge temperatures given in Table 17.2(2) shall be extended by
reducing the minimum average temperature by 10°C and increasing the maximum average
by 20°C.
TABLE 17.2(1)
SHADE AIR TEMPERATURES
Shade air temperature
Height °C
above sea
Location Region I Region II Region III
level
North of 22.5°S South of 22.5°S Tasmania
m
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TABLE 17.2(2)
AVERAGE BRIDGE TEMPERATURES
Min.
Shade air temp Average bridge temp
°C °C
−8 2
−2 4
4 8
10 12
Max.
50 54
46 50
42 46
38 43
34 40
30 37
NOTE: Linear interpolation of intermediate values is
permitted.
2 Concrete box
girders
3 Concrete slab
on steel trough,
box or I girders
NOTE: The temperature gradient given for deck slabs forming closed box cells should only apply for slab thicknesses,
including any internal fillets, of d less than 300 mm. Therefore, any deck slab, or part thereof, over a box cell with a
thickness greater than 300 mm, should be subject to the general effective vertical temperature gradient shown.
the nominal dead loads of the structure, except that for railway bridges, the additional
settlement due to traffic load, including the dynamic load allowance, shall be included.
The differential settlement or rotation shall take account of the relief afforded by creep and
soil-structure interaction.
Design differential settlement effects shall be included in the serviceability limit states for
the structure, including bearings and deck joints, using a load factor of 1.0. For railway
bridges, spans shall be proportioned such that there is no net uplift at bearings.
Consideration shall be given to whether differential settlement effects need to be included
in the ultimate limit states loads for the structure. Where a structure has negligible plastic
capacity, differential settlement effects shall be included in the ultimate limit states using a
load factor of 1.5.
capable of safely sustaining all construction loads, and these constraints inherent in the
design shall be clearly detailed in the drawings and specifications.
The ability of bridge supporting members to withstand the effect of flood and wind forces
occurring during construction shall also be investigated.
Time related relaxation of construction effects shall be considered where appropriate.
21.2 Temporary structures
Temporary structures shall be designed in accordance with the appropriate Standards.
22 LOAD COMBINATIONS
22.1 Classification of loads and load effects
Loads and load effects are divided into permanent effects (PE), thermal effects and transient
effects.
22.1.1 Permanent effects (PE)
Permanent effects shall include the following:
(a) Structure dead load.
(b) Additional permanent loads (superimposed dead loads).
(c) Earth pressure loads.
(d) Normal water flow loads and buoyancy.
(e) Shrinkage and creep effects (zero effects and full effects).
(f) Prestress effects (before and after losses).
(g) Bearing friction or stiffness forces and effects.
(h) Differential settlement and/or mining subsidence effects.
22.1.2 Thermal effects
Thermal effects shall include the following:
(a) Effects due to variation in average bridge temperature.
(b) Differential temperature effects.
22.1.3 Transient effects
Transient effects shall include the following:
(a) Vehicular traffic loads, including dynamic effects.
(b) Pedestrian traffic loads.
(c) Wind loads.
(d) Earthquake loads.
(e) Flood loads including debris and impact loadings.
Wind on both the structure and the railway live load, in combination with the railway traffic
load, shall be considered to be a single transient effect.
22.2 Ultimate limit state load combinations
The ultimate limit state load combinations to be considered for ultimate analyses shall
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For Items (a) and (f), where they produce more severe loading, the serviceability traffic
loads shall be included in these combinations, provided that the structure is open to traffic
under ultimate conditions.
For Items (b) and (e), where they produce more severe loading, the serviceability thermal
effects shall be included in these combinations, if they produce an adverse effect.
Permanent effects and ultimate wind load on the structure together with the railway traffic
load using a load factor of 1.0, and no dynamic load allowance shall be one of the ultimate
limit state load combinations considered. If the effect of the vertical railway traffic load is
beneficial to the structure, a load factor of 0.25 on the railway traffic load shall be
considered.
22.3 Serviceability limit state load combinations
At serviceability limit states, more than one transient load can co-exist at any time. The
basic combination to be considered for serviceability limit states shall be as follows:
PE + (serviceability design load for one transient effect)
+ k (serviceability design load for one or more other transient or thermal effect)
where
k = coefficient
= 0.7 for one additional effect
= 0.5 for two additional effects
22.4 Design loads specific to an element
Many elements of a bridge, such as traffic barriers and piers have a specified accidental
collision load. In such cases, in addition to any other applicable load combination, the
element shall be designed for—
PE + collision load
TABLE 23.4
DRAG COEFFICIENTS FOR ELEVATED SIGN
PANELS, LUMINAIRES AND TRAFFIC SIGNALS
Sign panels
(more than 2 m above ground level)
Drag coefficient (C d)
Width to height ratio of sign
(see Note)
1.0 1.18
2.0 1.19
5.0 1.20
10.0 1.23
15.0 1.30
Luminaires
With rounded surface 0.5
With rectangular, flat-sided shape 1.2
Traffic signals 1.2
NOTE: For immediate values, use linear interpolation.
24 NOISE BARRIERS
24.1 Wind pressure on noise barriers
Wind pressures on noise barriers shall be determined in accordance with AS/NZS 1170.2
and subject to the requirements of Clauses 24.2 to 24.8 and this Standard.
24.2 Average return interval
A1
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The average return interval to be used for the calculation of the ultimate limit state wind
forces for design shall conform to the situation descriptions given as follows, subject to
approval by the authority:
(a) 200 for noise barriers that are located on road or rail authority property and cannot
fall onto or slide down a slope onto other property, roadway, walkway or onto traffic
areas;
A1
(b) 2000 for noise barriers that can fall onto railways and onto roadways designated as
essential to post-disaster functions; and
(c) 500 for all other noise barriers.
APPENDIX A
DESIGN LOADS FOR MEDIUM AND SPECIAL PERFORMANCE LEVEL
BARRIERS
(Informative)
A1 GENERAL
This Appendix provides guidance for the authority to assist in determining the ultimate
design loads and load distribution lengths for medium and special performance level
barriers.
The loads given in Tables A1 and A2 are based on a lateral combined vehicle/barrier
deformation of 0.5 m.
A2 DESIGN LOADS
A2.1 Medium performance level barriers
For medium performance level barriers, the loads and distribution lengths given in
Table A1 may be adopted unless the authority determines that other values are appropriate.
TABLE A1
DESIGN LOADS FOR MEDIUM PERFORMANCE LEVEL BARRIERS
Ultimate Ultimate Vehicle contact Ultimate Vehicle
transverse longitudinal or length for transverse vertical contact length
Barrier outward transverse loads, L T and downward for vertical
performance level load inward load longitudinal loads load loads
(F T) (F L) (L L) (F V) (LV )
kN kN m kN m
Medium 500 170 2.4 350 12.0
TABLE A2
DESIGN LOADS FOR SPECIAL PERFORMANCE LEVEL BARRIERS
Ultimate Ultimate Vehicle contact length Ultimate Vehicle
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For other special performance level barriers, the loading criteria are to be determined by the
authority.
A3 EFFECTIVE HEIGHTS
The minimum effective heights given in Table A3 may be adopted for medium and special
performance level barriers unless the authority determines that other values are appropriate.
TABLE A3
MINIMUM EFFECTIVE HEIGHT
OF TRAFFIC BARRIER
Minimum effective
Barrier performance level height (H e )
mm
Medium 1100
Special
1400
(TL6–36 t Articulated tanker)
Special
1400
(> TL6–44 t Articulated tanker)
To be specified by
Special—Other
the authority
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AS 5100.2—2004
CORRECTION
SUMMARY: This Amendment applies to the Preface, Clauses 2, 5.4, 6.7.3(ii), 7.3, 8.5.1, 8.5.2, 11.2.1, 14.7.1,
24.2, Figures 6.2.3, 6.2.4, 12.4, 15.2.1, 16.3.3 and 17.3.
Published on 19 April 2010.
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AS 5100.2—2004
74
NOTES
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75
NOTES
AS 5100.2—2004
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AS 5100.2—2004
76
NOTES
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