Adv.

Higher Geography

Stream Catchment – Form and Process

for

GMT’s and Geographical Study

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 Stream Catchment – Form and Process

Catchment/channel form is the shape or nature of what is produced by stream/river processes. So

form and process are inter-related with process the independent variable. In other words, stream
processes affect the final stream form, not the other way round. The main forms and processes
encountered in stream catchment studies are given below :

Form Process
Catchment
catchment shape rock type
catchment area geological structure
catchment relief climate
stream network land use
Channel
channel width stream velocity
channel depth stream discharge
area of channel cross-sectional stream ‘energy’
channel gradient weather-related (precipitation/evapotranspiration)
channel sinuosity rock/soil-related (infiltration/groundwater movement)
pools/riffles/runs

Note here that the term stream catchment is used in preference to river basin ; this is purely a matter
of scale. The same forms and processes are at work in both river basins and stream catchments.

1. From the above table, identify ONE form/process that would have a strong relationship.
Explain how that relationship would work in practice.

Measuring ‘catchment form’

Catchment shape :
Catchment shape is important when considering flood potential. Consider the catchment shapes shown
below relative to the passage of a storm. Which of the two is most likely to suffer the more serious
flooding and why?
storm path

A B

storm path

Also, consider what would be the impact on the stream’s hydrograph (its discharge over time) if the
storm path moved north west over the catchment.

Shape is very difficult to describe mathematically where the shape is irregular, as it is in catchments.
Two measures are suggested :-

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Form Factor (F) F = A/L
where A is the area of the catchment
and L is the length of catchment from its outflow to back of watershed
(Horton 1932)
Basin Circularity (R) R = Area of basin (A)/area of circle with same perimeter (watershed length)
i.e. R = 4A/p2 where ‘p’ is the catchment perimeter
(Miller 1953)

2. Which do you consider the best measure and why? (hint : the position of the stream outlet is
critical if you think of storm paths)

Catchment Area :
To calculate the total area of a catchment employ the ‘grid-square
method’. Overlay a sheet of tracing paper upon which a grid
equivalent to the map scale has been drawn (normally ‘1km squares’
are sufficient). First count the number of ‘whole squares’, then the
‘parts’ and finally total both ‘whole’ and ‘part squares’.

3. In the example opposite what is the total area of the catchment

(in stipple)?

Each square = 1km 2.

The catchment or drainage area is (A) in equations that follow.

Relief of catchment :
Any description of a catchment should give the altitude of the highest and lowest points of the
catchment. It should also refer to the nature of the land surface – is the relief ‘high’ or ‘low’. Relief is
related to gradient and the steeper the gradient (or slope) the faster the flow - but not always!. Other
factors such as stream bed roughness and frictional drag play vital roles in stream velocity.

Stream network :
Stream networks can be classified by pattern, as below. Other patterns include trellised, parallel and
radial. However they only provide a simple description of the network ; more detailed description and
classification is required usually.

dendritic rectangular deranged

4. Examine two or three OS 1:50000 maps and see if you can identify examples of dendritic,
rectangular and deranged stream networks.

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Stream ordering :
Stream ordering is a way of classifying the individual segments of a network. A number of methods are
available, but the Strahler method is the most used. In it the smallest segments are allotted the
stream order 1. Where two ‘1st order’ streams meet, the next segment becomes a 2 nd order stream.
Where two ‘2nd order’ streams meet, the next segment becomes a 3rd order stream – and so on. No
change in order occurs though where a lower order stream joins a higher order one.

1 Stream orders
1
1st order = 7
2nd order = 2
1 3rd order = 1
2
Strahler, 1964

1
1

3
2

1 1

There is a failing in Strahler’s method – it fails to take account of other lower order streams that might
join higher order ones further downstream. Shreve (1966) devised a method of magnitude ordering by
which each time a 1st order stream joins any other other stream of the same or higher order, it is added
on.

1 Stream orders
1
1st order = 7
2nd order = 2
1 3rd order = 2
2
6th order = 1
7th order = 1

Shreve, 1966
3 1
1
6
3
2 7

1 1

5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Shreve’s system of stream ordering over
Strahler’s method?

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Bifurcation ratio :
Once stream ordering has been done, it is possible to calculate the bifurcation ratio (the Strahler
method of stream ordering is the one used for this purpose). Bifurcation has to do with the number of
times the stream divides. Calculation of the bifurcation ratio is as follows :-

Bifurcation ratio (Rb) - Rb = Nu / Nu+1 where Nu is the number of streams of order ‘n’
and Nu+1 is the number of streams of order ‘n+1’

So in the above example, the ratio of 1st order to 2nd order is 3.3 and 2nd order to 3rd order is 1.

Most bifurcation ratios lie between values of 3 to 5. Where the ratios are lower/higher than 3 to 5,
strong structural factors within the catchment are probably at work, e.g. in strongly jointed limestone
regions or in areas of knock & lochan topography.

Upper Nairn Catchment

Aberarder

watershed B851 road

6. Stream order the Upper Nairn catchment (above) and insert the numbers of streams into a
table similar to the one below.
stream order no. of streams Rb
1st order
2nd order
3rd order
4th order -

7. Calculate the bifurcation ratios for the Upper Nairn catchment and insert them in the same
table.

8. What do the bifurcation ratios suggest about the nature of the Upper Nairn catchment?

9. Calculate the bifurcation ratios for the Allt Goibhre catchment shown in following table.

Allt Goibhre catchment

Stream order number of streams bifurcation ratios stream length (km)
1 60 25.8
2 12 16.7
3 2 3
4 1 8.5

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10. Using semi-log graph similar to that following, plot the the number of streams (Nu) against its
stream order for the Allt Goibhre catchment. Insert a ‘best-fit line’.

Relationship of Stream Numbers

to Stream Order

100

nos. of
10
stream s

1
1 2 3 4
Stream order

11. Describe the relationship that exists between stream order and stream numbers.

10. What general relationship exists between the bifurcation ratios and the number of streams.

Drainage density :
The more streams per unit area of a catchment, the more efficient the catchment’s stream network is in
evacuating floodwaters. Two methods are generally used :-

stream frequency (F) - F = ∑Nu/A

where :
Nu is the total no. of stream segments
(no. of stream segments obtained by Strahler’s stream ordering).
and A is the area of the catchment

drainage density (D) - D = Lc/A

where :
Lc is the total length of all streams in the catchment
and A is the total area of the catchment

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11. Calculate stream frequencies (F) and drainage densities (D) for the two catchments given
below.

Big Burn, Golspie

stream order no. of streams total length of streams (km)
1st order 25 18.5
2nd order 8 12.4
3rd order 1 5.0
Area = 23km2

Allt Fuar Ghlaic, Farr

stream order no. of streams total length of streams (km)
1st order 18 10.7
2nd order 3 7.6
3rd order 1 5.1
Area = 13.4km2

12. What conclusions can you draw concerning the efficiencies of the two catchments’ networks?

Applying ‘form’ measurements in catchment studies :

Initial descriptions of any catchment should include reference to its area, shape, relief and stream
network. It is good policy to give quantitative measurements where possible, as such measurements
allow for objective comparison to other catchments. It is essential, however, that you understand how
such measures were derived, in order to know both their strengths and underlying weaknesses. An
example of how a catchment should be described is given below. A map of the catchment, with all the
quantitative measurements given on it, is definitely a good idea!

“Allt Goibhre rises 700m up on the slopes of Sgurr a’ Phollain and flows a short distance north-east
before turning east to empty into the River Orrin at NH479516, 90m asl. The maximum length of the
catchment is 12.5km and width 3.6km ; in shape, therefore, quite elongated. In area it covers 28.7km2,
but 13km2 of the upper catchment are abstracted for hydro electricity generation at Orrin Power Station.
With a drainage density of 1.88km/km2, stream frequency of 2.61streams/km2, steep gradient and
elongated shape the catchment is prone to flash flooding

Table 1 (stream ordering after Strahler method)

Stream number bifurcation stream
order of streams ratios length (km)
1 60 5 25.8
2 12 6 16.7
3 2 2 3
4 1 0 8.5

Abstract
ed water Cn
to Orrin oc
Ud

Beinn
nam
Fitheach

Carn a
Ghorm
Locha Carn na
Gearrsai watersh
ch ed

0 1 aqueduc
Carn na t
Gabhala
Sgurr a ch
Phollain

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 Measuring ‘channel form’

Channel width :
Channel width is measured in metres using a tape stretched from bank to bank at what would be
‘bankful discharge’. Channel depth is similarly measured at ‘bankful discharge’. The maximum depth
is recorded in metres, but to the nearest centimetre. When relating process to channel form or
measuring the channel cross-section, it is channel width and depth that should be used.

The width/depth ratio is worth computing, as it is a good indicator of channel form and can be used to
test relationships with, for example, sediment load and channel slope. The larger the W/D ratio the
shallower the channel ; the smaller the ratio the narrower and deeper the channel.

If the reason for measuring width and depth is to record stream discharge (Q), then stream width is
recorded ; the measurement is taken between the water’s edge on either side. Stream depth is
measured from the surface of the water to the stream bed. More than one depth measurement may be
taken and the average depth worked out.

Channel sinuosity :
Channel sinuosity is measured from maps of 1:10000 or 1:25000 scale using a map measurer. It is a
measure of how much a channel meanders and is the ratio of channel length to valley length. A straight
stream channel has a sinuosity of 1 ; the higher the value exceeds 1, the greater the sinuosity of the
channel. The equation is :

channel sinuosity (P) - P = Lc/Lv where : Lc is channel length

Lv is valley length

13. The length of the stream channel of Allt Goibhre is 15.6km. The length of the valley is 14.2km.
Calculate the sinuosity (P) of the Allt Goibhre. What conclusion can you draw concerning the
sinuosity of the Allt Goibhre?

It can also be measured as the ratio of valley slope to channel gradient, as measured over the same
length of valley. The equation is then :

- P = Sv/Sc where : Sv is the valley slope

Sc is the channel slope

14. The valley slope is 0.0478, the stream channel slope 0.0435. Calculate the sinuosity (P) of the
Allt Goibhre. Is the ‘P’ value the same as or very similar to that in Q.13 above? If so, there
must be a relationship between slope and sinuosity – can you explain it?

Channel gradient :
Channel gradient is the slope recorded at the stream surface. This is done at the water’s edge and
should be measured over a stretch at least 20 times channel width. A clinometer or Abney Level may
be used to measure the angle of the gradient ; when the gradient is very small, they are not suitable.
Where that is the case, it is better to resort to the use of a level or telescopic alidade. Over large
stretches, i.e. over several kilometres, it is possible to calculate the gradient from map contours.

Channel gradient is an important control on stream velocity and is consequently related to factors such
as channel bed sediment size. The table below is data recorded along 5 reaches of the Allt Goibhre.

reach 1 reach 2 reach 3 reach 4 reach 5

stream gradient (o) 1.3 1.1 1.7 2.1 3.0
median size (cm3) 404 452 810 385 1967

15. (a) Write a working hypothesis (H1) to test whether a relationship exists between stream
gradient and median sediment size.

(b) Use ONE graphical or statistical method to test the hypothesis.

(c) Describe your findings in terms of the working hypothesis (H 1).

(d) Evaluate the method you used in terms of its validity and reliability.

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 Channel cross-section :
As part of the calculation of flow or discharge (Q) of a stream it is necessary to measure the channel
cross-sectional area. Look for a reach of the stream that is straight and reasonably uniform in
character. Stretch a tape or rope horizontally across the stream near the centre of that reach. Using a
long rule or metre stick, record the depths from tape/rope to stream bed at 1m intervals across the
channel (see below).

distance in metres
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Channel X-section measurements

distance (m) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
depth (m) 0.0000 0.0010 0.0035 0.0029 0.0040 0.0038 0.0050 0.0022 0.0000

All measurements are recorded in metres to the nearest centimetre. The cross-section is then drawn to
scale on to graph paper (as shown below). Apply the grid-square method of counting. This channel
was measured at the level of the highest flood tidemark. If only present stream level is required, then
width/depth measurements are taken from the stream’s surface.

Channel cross section area (m2)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 .0 0

0 .50

wetted perimeter
1.0 0

Hydraulic radius :
The hydraulic radius (R) is an indicator of channel efficiency. A higher R-value indicates a greater
channel efficiency. In order to calculate the hydraulic radius (R) the length of the wetted perimeter
(P) is required along with the cross-sectional area (A). The equation is :

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hydraulic radius (R) - R = A/P where : A is the cross-sectional area in m 2
P is the wetted perimeter in m.

The hydraulic radius is used in the application of Manning’s equation. an empirical formula that
permits the calculation of stream velocity and subsequently discharge (Q). Manning’s equation is
used where a flood has occurred, in order to work out the discharge after the event. All that is needed
is a tide mark left by the flood and the channel cross-section measured from that point. The values for
the hydraulic radius, cross-sectional area and channel gradient are then inserted into the equation
along with the value of the Manning coefficient (n), obtained from a table of values related to the
roughness of the channel bed.

Manning Equation - V = k/n (R2/3 S1/2)

where : k = 1 (a constant for metric units)

n = is the Manning coefficient (estimated from a given table)
A = cross-sectional area (in m 2)
P = length of the wetted perimeter (in m)
S = slope of stream surface (ratio of height to distance in m)

The following website provides allows for the rapid calculation of both velocity and discharge -
www.lmnoeng.com/manning.htm. A table of Manning coefficient values (n) are provided.

16. Calculate the area in m 2 of the channel cross-section above (each small square is 0.001m 2).

17. Measure the wetted perimeter in metres, then calculate the hydraulic radius.

18. Using Manning’s equation, calculate the velocity (m/sec) and discharge (m 3/sec) of the stream.

Pools, riffles and runs :

Along any meandering river the flow produces a pattern of pools, riffles and runs. The pools are the
deepest parts of the channel and are separated from each other by shallow gravel bars called riffles.
Runs are stretches of the stream where the channel has straightened out and is generally flowing over
a more bouldery bed for some distance.

riffle

pool

run

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Because pools, riffles and runs are channel responses to stream velocity and discharge, any variations
in velocity or discharge are reflected in changes to their dimensions. They are worth considering for
geographical study.

Stream velocity and discharge :

The speed or velocity of a stream is measured most simply by floating an orange (or similar floating
object) down a measured distance, usually 10m, and timing it. Three or four recordings should be
taken and the average time worked out. The average time should then be divided by 0.85, since the
surface velocity is faster than deeper down. Finally divide the distance by the time. So for example :

distance = 10m
average time recorded = 12 seconds
corrected time - 12secs/0.85 = 14.12secs
velocity (V) = 10m/12secs = 0.833m/sec

To calculate discharge (Q) multiply the velocity by the cross-sectional area ; the result is expressed in
cumecs (m3/sec). So continuing with our example :

velocity (V) = 0.833m/sec

stream cross-sectional area (A) = 2.28m2
discharge (Q) = (V x A) = (0.833 x 2.28) = 1.899cumecs

The use of a flow meter permits greater accuracy, but few Geography Departments have one readily
available. In any case the simple method is more than adequate for a river study. If one is available,
there should be a calibration graph or equation with it, so that the velocity can be worked out against
the number of revolutions per minute.

Cross-sectional area measurement is a lengthy procedure. For speed or where several points on a
stream are to be sampled, it is recommended to take three depths – the maximum depth and the
depths halfway between to the right and left. The average depth is then calculated and multiplied by
the channel width.

(In passing, there are good reasons for using an orange for velocity measurements! Firstly, it floats
almost submerged so is purely affected by the flow ; secondly, being spherical it does not get stuck so
readily on the way down ; thirdly, it is easily seen as it moves downstream ; and finally, you can eat it
afterwards – a good healthy snack in these days of political correctness!).

Stage and discharge :

Stage is the height of the water surface above a known datum point in the stream bed. Once a series
of discharge measurements have been obtained, they are related to stage recordings taken at the
same time. A graph is then drawn relating stage to discharge (see below). The use of stage
measurements in this way greatly simplifies the recording of discharge.

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 Stage/discharge relationship
Reach 7 Allt Goibhre

100.00

10.00

discharge
(cum ecs)

1.00

0.10
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

stage (m)

Note that discharge (Q) frequently requires to be treated logarithmically, because of the effect a few
high values of Q have on the data set.

Stream energy :
Velocity and discharge are the basis of stream energy. However, the actual energy of a stream
available for erosion and transportation is affected by other factors including the amount of sediment
load being carried and the turbulence of the flow.

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