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Design of an Electric Spring for Power Quality

Improvement in PV-Based DC Grid


Rana Abou Hashem, Yasmin Soliman, Sara Al-Sharm, Ahmed Massoud
Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar

Abstract— Electric Spring (ES) concept has been emerged based


on the mechanical spring concept. ES can be employed in AC or
DC grid for demand side management, and improving the power
quality and energy management. Renewable Energy Sources
(RESs) are intermittent in nature, so the ES is introduced in the
DC grid for stabilizing the voltage fluctuations incurred by the
RESs power changes such as PV systems. The DC ES is inserted in
the DC grid in series with the non-critical loads (e.g.
thermostatically controlled loads as air conditioning systems,
electric water heaters and refrigerators or charging of charging of
plug in electric vehicles) forming a smart load. In this paper, a
comparison between the series and shunt DC ES is held
considering four different operation modes. An ES based on four-
quadrant DC-DC converter is analyzed and designed for
providing a bi-directional power flow. To explore the effect of the
series ES on the non-critical load, simulation results for both open
and closed loop operations, using Matlab/Simulink, are shown to
validate the presented approach. Moreover, experimental results
are presented for a prototyped ES.

Keywords—Electric spring, DC grid, AC grid, Smart load, Fig. 1. Electric and mechanical spring
Non-critical loads.
When the mechanical spring is compressed, the same principle
I. INTRODUCTION occurs in the ES, voltage is boosted, and when the mechanical
In 1678, Hooke’s law introduced the principle of the spring is extended, the voltage of the ES is stepped down
mechanical spring, which became widely used in different [5],[6].
applications [1]. After centuries, an invention emerged in 2010
based the mechanical spring concept introduced by Hooke, A. AC Electric Spring
named Electric Spring (ES) [2]. Table I shows the characteristics The ES is mainly connected in series with Non-Critical Loads
and applications of both mechanical spring and ES. Nonetheless, (NCLs) (e.g. thermostatically controlled loads as air
ES performs different functions to stabilize the voltage and conditioning systems, electric water heaters and refrigerators or
increase the efficiency of the system. charging of charging of plug in electric vehicles). The series
TABLE I. MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL SPRING FUNCTIONS [3] connection between the NCLs and ES forms the so-called smart
Mechanical spring Electrical spring
loads, which can be used for demand side management and
Type of support Mechanical support Voltage support support the voltage at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC) of
Type of stored Mechanical energy Electrical energy other critical loads. With the penetration of Renewable Energy
energy Sources (RESs), ES changes the power consumed by the NCL
Type of Mechanical Electrical oscillation damping to match the intermittency of these sources thus providing a
oscillations oscillation damping
damping demand side management.
Applications Used in vehicles Connected in series with non- ES has emerged in AC grid with three different versions with
and beds critical loads (e.g. different characteristics, which are ES-I, ES-II and ES-III [7],
thermostatically controlled as shown in Fig. 2. The first version, ES-I, controls only the
loads as air conditioning
systems, electric water reactive power by providing reactive power compensation to
heaters and refrigerators [4]) regulate the voltage at the PCC [8]. It has also an ability to
simultaneously alter the NCL power associated to it for power
The similarity between mechanical spring and ES is shown in balancing, especially with the penetration of RESs. Fig. 2(b)
their operating modes in Fig. 1. As the mechanical spring shows that the capacitor of ES-I is replaced by battery and
depends on compression and extension to operate, the ES known as ES-II. It has an ability to operate in eight modes to
voltage is stepped down or boosted depending on the system. control both active and reactive power [7].

978-1-5386-3527-8/18/$31.00 ©2018 IEEE 156


Rg RL VPCC

Electric
Spring
+ Renewable Critical
DC Energy
Grid - Sources Non Load
Critical
Load
(a) ES-I (b) ES-II (C) ES-III
Fig. 2. Different types of AC-ES Fig. 3. Target system topology

It is also capable of adapting the consumption of active and


reactive power, particularly with the intermittent renewable
power generation. The common structure between ES-I and ES-
II is the series connection with the NCL to form a smart load.
The third version of ES (ES-III), is represented as a
bidirectional power converter that is shunt-connected to the grid
without being linked to the NCL [7].
Moreover, the potentiality of the ES for providing a
compensated active and reactive power will enable ES to
provide extra functions [9], for instance, providing a power
factor correction, stabilizing the voltage of the grid, storing (a) Series DC-ES
energy, and controlling power of the NCL [6], [10].
B. DC Electric spring
DC microgrid has received a special attention due to the types
of modern loads (LEDs, electric vehicles, electronic appliances)
and the nature of the RESs outputs. DC microgrid enhances the
efficiency of the power system when compared with AC
microgrid as the required DC-AC conversion stage is
eliminated for DC loads and RESs, when being connected.
Table II presents different DC loads with their nominal voltages
[11].
TABLE II. DC APPLICATIONS AND THEIR VOLTAGE LEVEL [11] (b) Shunt DC-ES
Application DC volts
Wall sockets 12/24 V Fig. 4. Types of ES
Home entertainment system, Vacuum cleaner 24 V
Coffee maker, refrigerator, LED lighting 12 V
In this paper, a comparison between the series and shunt DC ES
Washing machine, Air Conditioner 48 V
Whisper wind turbine 48 V is held considering four different operation modes. An ES based
PVs connected in DC busbar 380 V on four-quadrant DC-DC converter is analyzed and designed
Bus way distribution system, Charger 380 V for providing a bi-directional power flow in a PV-based DC
grid. To explore the effect of the series ES on NCL, simulation
Nevertheless, DC microgrid may experience power quality results, using Matlab/Simulink, are shown to validate the
issues, e.g. voltage fluctuations, due to integration of RESs, presented approach. Moreover, experimental results are
which may lead to instability in the voltage bus. For that presented for a prototyped ES. The targeted system is shown in
purpose, the ES has been introduced in DC microgrid (known Fig. 3, where the ES is employed to regulate the voltage at the
as Direct Current ES (DC-ES)) [12]. The most relative type of critical load (PCC voltage). The voltage regulation will improve
the AC-ES to be implemented in DC microgrid as a DC-ES is the efficiency and enhance the reliability of the system.
the second version as shown in Fig. 2(b). The second version
aims to manage and control the demand side power in DC by II. TYPES OF DC-ES (SHUNT AND SERIES ES)
connecting the ES in series with the NCL while employing
energy storage system. The DC-ES is divided into two parts: The intermittency of the employed RESs will lead to
the storage, which is typically a battery, and the ES converter fluctuations in the output voltage (i.e. PCC voltage where PCC
system, which is the DC-DC converter along with LC filter. The is the point that most of the loads are connected to it as shown
DC-ES is then connected in series with the NCL.

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in Fig. 3). Boosting Charging (BC) operates similar to the BD in stepping
up the voltage at the PCC. However, in this case the battery is
charged by storing surplus power.
BD BC SD
Voltage Power
VPCC_ref PES 0
VES
VPCC_ref / 2
SES
0 IES

0 INC_nom/2 INC_nom IOC


Fig. 5. Curves for voltage and power series ES

To solve the problem of voltage fluctuation at PCC, ES will be


used [13].There are two types of ES, which are series and shunt
as shown in Fig. 4(a) and (b), respectively. Series ES acts as a Fig. 6. Series DC Electric Spring
controlled voltage source, while the shunt ES acts as controlled
current source. In DC-ES, a reference voltage is considered for Suppression Discharging (SD) operates when the voltage at the
the PCC. Based on this reference, the voltage at the PCC should PCC is above the nominal value so the battery of the ES in this
be controlled to this nominal value. In the series connection of case delivers and transfers power to the grid. Furthermore, The
the DC-ES to the NCL, if the voltage source surges, then the ES will step down the voltage at PCC.
voltage at PCC will be greater than the reference voltage. Suppressing Charging (SC) operates similar to the SD.
Therefore, the series ES will absorb more amount of current by However, the battery of ES in this case receives and store power
boosting the voltage of the NCL. Furthermore, when the voltage from the grid.
source drops, this will cause the voltage at the PCC to be less Table IV sums up the difference between the four modes of
than the reference voltage. Therefore, the series ES will reduce operation in both series and shunt ESs. In addition, Fig. 5 shows
the voltage of the NCL to shed the current of the smart load. a graph of the four modes of series ES operation.
Thus, series ES acts as oblique current compensator [13]. In the TABLE IV. FOUR MODES OF OPERATION FOR ES
shunt connection, if the voltage source is increased, this will Point of Comparison Series ES Shunt ES
cause the voltage at the PCC to be more than the reference Boosting Discharge VES > VPCC VES = VPCC
voltage at the same point. Then the current will be absorbed (BD) -IOC < IES < 0 IDis-Max < IES < 0
from the bus voltage by the shunt ES. But, if the voltage source Boosting Charge (BC)
0 < VES < VPCC
Does not operate
is reduced, then the voltage at the PCC will be less than the 0 < IES < INC-nom
reference voltage. Therefore, the current will be injected to the Suppressing Charge VES < 0
Does not operate
bus using the shunt ES [13]. The differences between the shunt (SC) INC-nom < IES < IOC
and the series ES are illustrated in Table III. Suppressing VES = VPCC
Does not operate
Discharge (SD) 0 < IES < Icha - max

TABLE III. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SERIES AND SHUNT ES


Point of
IV. ANALYSIS OF DC-ES
Series ES Shunt ES
comparison There are four classifications for the NCLs, which are positive
Voltage source NCL connected in constant power load, negative constant power load, positive
Type of controller
controller parallel with ES
Type of NCL connected in
constant resistive load, and negative constant resistive load
VES = Vref [14]. According to this classification, there are two types of
Connection series with ES
Voltage across ES VES =Vref ‫ ـــ‬INCRNC PES =VES IES loads, which are constant power loads and constant resistive
Power across ES PES=Vref INC ‫ ـــ‬INC2 RNC PES = VES IES loads. Firstly, constant power load means that the power of the
Indirect current Direct current load does not change with the change of the output voltage.
Compensator
compensator compensator
While, constant resistive load means that the resistance of the
load does not change with the change of the voltage across the
III. MODES OF OPERATION FOR DC-ES
load [15]. For further classification of loads, positive loads
There are four modes of operation for ES, which are: boosting mean that the load consumes power, such as electric water
discharge, boosting charge, suppressing discharge, and heater, while the negative load is used to generate power such
suppressing charge [13], [14]. Each case operates at different as RESs. Using constant power and constant resistance loads on
condition to stabilize the voltage at the PCC. positive DC bus, KVL has been applied on Fig.6 to derive the
Boosting Discharge (BD) occurs when the source sags. The following equations and to calculate the smart load power.
battery will discharge to support the bus in order to restore the
system stability. A. Constant resistance (R0)

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The voltage across the NCL is = , and by applying voltage and current, there are five types of chopper circuits,
KVL analysis, similar to [15], equation (1) can be expressed as: which are types A, B, C, D, and E.

(a) Case (1) (b) Case (2)


(a) Case (1) (b) Case (2)
Fig. 7. First quadrant of DC-DC converter Fig. 9. Third quadrant of DC-DC converter

(a) Case (1) (b) Case (2) (a) Case (1) (b) Case (2)

Fig. 8. Second quadrant of DC-DC converter Fig. 10. Fourth quadrant of DC-DC converter

V =V +I R (1) The type that is used in this paper is type E chopper that can
operate in the four modes (four-quadrants).
( − ) In the first quadrant, in case (1), S1 is operated, S4 is always on
= (2) and S3 and S2 are always OFF. The current will flow from the
The power through the ES is obtained by substituting (2) in the battery to the load passing through S1 and S4 and the inductor
following equation. will store energy on it (Discharging for the battery). The output
( − ) (3) voltage will have the same polarity as the input voltage.
= =
Therefore, the voltage and the current will be positive, thus the
The power through the NCL is also obtained by substituting power will be also positive as it is represented in Fig. 7(a). In
in (4). case (2) S1 will be OFF and D2 will conduct, so the current
( − ) stored in the inductor will flow in the same direction as in case
= = (4) (1) through the freewheeling diode D2 as shown in Fig. 7(b).
The power across smart load can be obtained by summing up Since the diode is conducting, it will act as a short circuit, so it
(3) and (4). will short the load and the output voltage will be zero.
( − ) In the second quadrant, in case (1), S2 is conducting, S4 will be
= = (5) always ON, while the other two switches will be always OFF
B. Constant power so the current flow as represented in Fig. 8(a). Since, the current
flows in a direction opposite to the current in quadrant 1, it will
The NC load voltage is = and by applying KVL analysis be negative while the voltage will be zero. In case (2) the
the voltage across the PCC is obtained current will flow from the load to the battery passing through
P D1 and S4 (charging battery) as shown in Fig.8(b).
V =V + In the third quadrant, in case (1) S3 is conducting, S2 is always
I (6)
By substituting from (6), the power of the ES is expressed ON, and S1 and S4 are always OFF. The current will flow from
as: the battery to the load passing through S2, S3 and the inductor
( ) (7) will store energy on it (discharging of the battery). The output
= voltage will have opposite polarity to the input voltage.
( − )
By substituting from (6), the power of the smart load is Therefore, the voltage and the current will be negative, thus the
expressed as: power will be positive as it is represented in Fig. 9(a). while,
( × ) Fig.9(b) represent case (2), where S3 will be OFF and D4 will
= (8) conduct, so the current stored in the inductor will flow in the
( − )
same direction as in case (1) through the freewheeling diode D4.
Since the diode is conducting, it will act as short circuit, so it
V. FOUR-QUADRANT DC-DC CONVERTER will short the load and the output voltage will be zero.
DC-DC converters are classified as buck, boost, and buck-boost In the fourth quadrant, in case (1), S1 is conducting, S3 is always
according to the relation between the output and input voltages. ON, and S2 and S4 will be always OFF so the current flow as
There is a further classification, which is unidirectional and shown in Fig. 10(a). Since, the current in this quadrant flows in
bidirectional DC-DC converter. According to the direction of the same direction to the current in quadrant 1, it will be positive

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while the voltage will be zero. In case (2) the current will flow
from the load to the battery passing through D2 and S3 (charging

Fig. 13. Case3 (S3 is conducting, S2 is always ON)

Fig. 11. Case1 (S1 is conducting, S4 is always ON)

Fig. 14. Case4 (S3 is conducting, S1 is always ON)

Fig. 12. Case2 (S2 is conducting, S4 is always ON)

battery) as shown in Fig. 10(b).


VI. SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
A. Simulation results
In each case, there was one switch conducting, one switch was Fig. 15. The effect of using DC ES in open loop mode.
always ON, while the other two switches were always OFF. The
iL(s) sL
duty cycle that has been used was 50% with a switching R iN(s) iC(s)

frequency of 20 kHz. There will be four waveforms shown in ves(s)


va(s) 1/sC
Figs. 11, 12, 13, and 14 for each case that represents the voltage ieq(s) Req RC vPCC(s)
of the ES, the inductor current, and the converter output
RN
waveform voltage. The voltage of the ES is a DC waveform as vN(s)

expected after using second order LC filter. In open loop


Fig. 16. Small signal model of DC micro grid using DCES
operation, the DC ES decreases the voltage drop even with the
presence of renewable energy sources as shown in Fig. 15.
B. Design of PI controller
Closed operation is implemented using Proportional-Integral
(PI) controller. The PI controller transfer function is expressed
as follows:
1 (9)
( ) = (1 + )

where KP and Ki are the proportional and integral coefficients


of the PI controller. The voltage of the ES (shown in Fig. 16)
Fig. 18. Output voltage of the PCC with PV system
can be expressed as follows:
( ) ( )[ + ] ( ) (11)
( )= + (10) ( )=
1+ +
1+ + 1+ +
( )[ + + + + ]
where ves is the voltage across the ES, va is a voltage source, iN +
1+ +
is the current through the NCL. L and C are the inductance and Where RN is the resistance of the NCL.
the capacitance of the second order filter respectively, while R The transfer function of the system is shown in (12) [16].
is the internal resistance of the inductor. The voltage at the PCC
(VPCC) is expressed as follows:

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explained for providing voltage regulation for DC bus to
maintain the PCC voltage constant. Simulation results for the
open and closed loop system have been provided for the electric
spring operation. The closed loop system with PI controller has
been presented to regulate the voltage even in the presence of
fluctuations. Experimental results have been provided pertinent
to the four-quadrant DC-DC converter-based ES.
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