Article 1

Rare Super Blue Blood Moon Eclipse Thrills Millions Around the World

The second full moon of January went through Earth's shadow in a Super Blue Blood
Moon obscure today (Jan. 31), an uncommon lunar sight unmistakable to a great many
eyewitnesses the world over.

The present lunar shroud was the first to correspond with a Blue Moon – a second full
moon in multi month – in North America in more than 150 years. It was additionally the
second "supermoon" of 2018, with the moon showing up marginally greater and brighter
than normal because of its closeness to Earth. Also, to finish it off, the supermoon went
through Earth's shadow at the beginning of today, throwing a rosy tone on the lunar
surface for over 4 hours.

This lunar obscuration was noticeable in every one of the 50 U.S. states and in addition
Australia and eastern Asia. Sky watchers in the western U.S. had the best perspective of
the overshadowing. More distant east, the moon set underneath the skyline before the
overshadowing arrived at an end. Mists likewise impeded the view in a significant part of
the U.S., yet sky watcher’s astrophotography’s still figured out how to get a look at the
"blood moon" from the nation over. [In Photos: The Rare Super Blue Blood Moon
Eclipse of 2018]

The shroud started at 5:51 a.m. EST (1051 GMT), when the moon started to enter the
external part of Earth's shadow, known as the obscuration. Amid the penumbral period of
the obscuration, which endured around 60 minutes, the moon started to obscure as the
shadow gradually moved over its surface.

At 6:48 a.m. ET (1148 GMT), the moon started to enter the darker, internal segment of
Earth's shadow, or the umbra. This period of the shroud, known as a fractional
overshadowing, is the point at which the moon started to seem red. That red tint is the
aftereffect of daylight dispersing in Earth's air, a similar impact that makes nightfall’s and
dawns seem red.

By 7:51 a.m. EST (1251 GMT), the moon was completely submerged in Earth's umbral
shadow, denoting the start of the aggregate lunar overshadowing. Amid a live webcast by
the Slooh people group observatory, stargazer Paul Cox said that this lunar shroud was
"by a long shot the best one I've at any point seen." While sky watchers along the U.S.
East Coast were not ready to see this period of the obscuration, as the moon had
effectively set, observers along the West Coast had a fantastic perspective of the divine
sight.

Space.com's Calla Cofield saw the shroud with many excited sky watchers at the Griffith
Observatory in Los Angeles. E. C. Krupp, chief of the Griffith Observatory, gave periodic
editorial amid the obscuration. At the point when the moon was just seconds from rising
up out of Earth's internal shadow (the umbra), denoting the finish of totality.
The moon totally rose up out of the dull, red shadow at 10:11 a.m. EST (1511 GMT),
after which it spent about one more hour by and by advancing through the obscuration.
Amid this time, the darker-than-regular moon gradually started to come back to its typical
level of brilliance.

The present aggregate lunar shroud was the special case that will be unmistakable in
North America all year. In any case, another aggregate lunar shroud on July 27 will be
obvious from South America, Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia. The following
aggregate lunar obscuration in North America will occur on Jan. 21, 2019.

Question:
During the said lunar eclipse, what would be the clear depiction of the moon, as it
dramatically enters the penumbral phase? (Ans: B)

a. As the shadow quickly moved through the surface, the moon began to
lighten.
b. The moon began to darken as the shadow slowly moved through its
surface.
c. After an hour, as the moon began to darken, its shadow slowly moved
away from its surface.
d. The moon began to darken when its shadow slowly moved away from
its surface.
e. The moon began to slowly return to its normal level of brightness.
Article 2

Melting ice could release ancient viruses hidden in glaciers

In 1999, Russian scientists famously dug a long-dead frozen woolly mammoth out of the
Siberian permafrost. Other things lurking in the frozen earth may more alive — and more
dangerous. Scientists warn that global warming could release ancient bacterial, viruses
and fungi from frozen lakes, glaciers and permafrost. If this happens, humans could
become exposed to viruses and diseases they have not encountered in thousands of years.

It happened just last year in a remote part of Siberia in the Arctic. As the BBC reports, an
exceptionally warm summer in 2016 thawed a layer of permafrost, revealing the carcass
of a reindeer infected with anthrax some 75 years ago. Anthrax is caused by a bacterium,
Bacillus anthracis, which leaked into the water supply, soil and food supply. A 12-year-
old boy died from the infection, as did 2,300 reindeer; dozens more people were sickened
and hospitalized.

"Permafrost is a very good preserver of microbes and viruses, because it is cold, there is
no oxygen, and it is dark," evolutionary biologist Jean-Michel Claverie at Aix-Marseille
University in France, told the BBC. "Pathogenic viruses that can infect humans or
animals might be preserved in old permafrost layers, including some that have caused
global epidemics in the past."

Or as Montana State University professor John Priscu told Scientific American: "You put
something on the surface of the ice and a million years later it comes back out."

Question:
Which of the properties of permafrost helped in preserving the ancient bacteria
and viruses? (Ans: B)
a. Its average volume of visible ground ice in glacio-sediments that it can
hold.
b. A good sustainer-like device for it is cold, no presence of oxygen, and
light is barely visible.
c. Its thick organic layer and its massive ice content.
d. The concentration of carbon and nitrogen that are present within.
e. It acts like a lid, locking frozen carbon deposits that release carbon
dioxide and methane as the microbes degrades it.
Article 3

How Do Volcanoes Erupt?

Deep within the Earth it is so hot that some rocks slowly melt and become a thick
flowing substance called magma. Because it is lighter than the solid rock around it,
magma rises and collects in magma chambers. Eventually, some of the magma pushes
through vents and fissures in the Earth's surface. Magma that has erupted is called lava.

Some volcanic eruptions are explosive and others are not. How explosive an eruption is
depending on how runny or sticky the magma is. If magma is thin and runny, gases can
escape easily from it. When this type of magma erupts, it flows out of the volcano. A
good example is the eruptions at Hawaii’s volcanoes. Lava flows rarely kill people
because they move slowly enough for people to get out of their way. If magma is thick
and sticky, gases cannot escape easily. Pressure builds up until the gases escape violently
and explode. A good example is the eruption of Washington’s Mount St. Helens. In this
type of eruption, the magma blasts into the air and breaks apart into pieces called tephra.
Tephra can range in size from tiny particles of ash to house-size boulders.

Explosive volcanic eruptions can be dangerous and deadly. They can blast out clouds of
hot tephra from the side or top of a volcano. These fiery clouds race down mountainsides
destroying almost everything in their path. Ash erupted into the sky falls back to Earth
like powdery snow. If thick enough, blankets of ash can suffocate plants, animals, and
humans. When hot volcanic materials mix with water from streams or melted snow and
ice, mudflows form. Mudflows have buried entire communities located near erupting
volcanoes.

Question:
In what way does a volcano cannot erupt? (Ans: C)
a. By releasing the pressure built up inside the Earth as a result of plate
movements, magma explodes to the surface.
b. By the virtue of the density of the magma between the zone of its
generation and the surface is less than that of the surrounding and
overlying rocks.
c. By the divergent plate movement wherein two plates move away from
each other to make an opening where magma can disintegrate.
d. By implanting of new magma into a chamber that is filled with magma
itself or different composition.
e. By increasing the gas/magma ratio in the conduit, when the volume of
bubbles reaches about 75 percent, the magma disintegrates to
pyroclasts and erupts explosively.
Article 4

Yoesmite’s granite “tells a different story” about Earth’s Geologic History

A team of scientists including Carnegie's Michael Ackerson and Bjorn Mysen revealed
that granites from Yosemite National Park contain minerals that crystalized at much
lower temperatures than previously thought possible. This finding upends scientific
understanding of how granites form and what they can teach us about our planet's
geologic history. Their work is published in Nature.

Granites are igneous rocks comprised predominately of the minerals quartz and feldspar.
They are the link between igneous processes that occur within the Earth and volcanic
rocks that solidified on Earth's surface. “Granites are the ultimate product of the
processes by which our planet separated into layers and they are key to understanding the
formation of the continental crust," Ackerson said. "Minerals from granites record almost
all of our planet's history—from 4.4 billion years ago to today."

So, understanding the conditions under which granites form is important to geoscientists
trying to unravel the processes that have shaped the Earth.
Until now, the prevailing wisdom on granites was that the minerals that comprise them
crystalize as the molten rock cools to temperatures between 650 and 700 degrees Celsius
(or between about 1,200 and 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit). Below these temperatures, the
granites have been assumed to be completely crystallized.

It was previously known that under certain conditions some of the minerals of which
granite is comprised can solidify at lower temperatures. So, the team—which also
included Nicholas Tailby of the American Museum of Natural History and Bruce Watson
of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute—used lab analysis to determine the temperatures
of granite crystallization in granites from Yosemite National Park.

These findings could influence our understanding of the conditions in which the Earth's
crust first formed during the Hadean and Archean. They could also explain some recent
observations about the temperature at which volcanic magmas exist before eruption and
the mechanisms through which economically important ore deposits form.

Question:
Which of the following is true about mineral and rock relationships? (Ans: A)
a. A rock is an aggregate or collection of various type of minerals to form
a solid one.
b. Minerals are naturally occurring and inorganic compounds made of
various elements and contains the properties of a rock.
c. Rocks can only contain one type of mineral for a mineral has a unique
specific makeup and chemical composition.
d. A rock made up of a mineral is also a mineral likewise by means of its
chemical composition and arrangement of its structure.
Article 5

Strange sponge-like fossil creature from half a billion years ago

The creature belongs to an obscure and mysterious group of animals known as the
chancelloriids, and scientists are unclear about where they fit in the tree of life. They
represent a lineage of spiny tube-shaped animals that arose during the Cambrian
evolutionary "explosion" but went extinct soon afterwards. In some ways they resemble
sponges, a group of simple filter-feeding animals, but many scientists have dismissed the
similarities as superficial.

The new discovery by a team of scientists from the University of Leicester, the
University of Oxford and Yunnan University, China, adds new evidence that could help
solve the mystery.
The researchers have published their findings in the Royal Society journal Proceedings of
the Royal Society B. The Leicester authors are Tom Harvey, Mark Williams, David
Siveter & Sarah Gabbott.

The new species, named Allonnia nuda, was discovered in the Chengjiang deposits of
Yunnan Province, China. It was surprisingly large in life (perhaps up to 50 cm or more)
but had only a few very tiny spines. Its unusual "naked" appearance suggests that further
specimens may be "hiding in plain sight" in fossil collections and shows that this group
was more diverse than previously thought.

Furthermore, the new species holds clues about the pattern of body growth, with clear
links to modern sponges. It is too soon to say the mystery has been solved, but the
discovery highlights the central role of sponge-like fossils in the debate over earliest
animal evolution.

Dr Tom Harvey, from the University of Leicester's School of Geography, Geology and
the Environment, explained: "Fossil chancelloriids were first described around 100 years
ago, but have resisted attempts to place them in the tree of life. We argue that their pattern
of body growth supports a link to sponges, reinvigorating an old hypothesis. We're not
suggesting that it's "case closed" for chancelloriids, but we hope our results will inspire
new research into the nature of the earliest animals."
Article 6

Earth’s Magnetic Field Probably isn’t Reversing

The Earth’s magnetic field has been declining about 5 percent every 100 years since at
least 1840, and possibly even earlier. The dip in strength has spurred worries of an
imminent “flip,” a reversal of magnetic polarity that could be catastrophic to our modern
technological networks.

But a study released Monday in the Proceedings of the National Academy of

Sciences brings some good news. A reversal is not likely in the near future, say European
researchers, and the decrease in the field’s strength is in line with similar variations in the
past.

The magnetic field is generated by the roiling core of molten metal that churns deep
within the Earth, and it stretches far above our heads into outer space. But it’s far from a
static field — the movements of the core are complex and varying, and the field changes
accordingly. Two of its most extreme changes are excursions and reversals. During both
events, the strength of the field drops, making the magnetic poles rapidly flip. During an
excursion, the poles return to their former positions, while reversals see them trade
places.

They’ve happened many times throughout history, which reflect changes happening
within the Earth’s core. And reversals aren’t good, to say the least. As Discover blogger
Erik Klemetti points out, a reversal could mean higher levels of radiation, erosion of the
ozone layer and disruptions to some organisms. Oh, and it would also disable pretty much
everything that relies on electricity or satellites.

Back to the study. A group of researchers from University of Iceland, University of

Liverpool and among others analyzed the two most recent excursions: the Laschamp
(41,000 years ago) and the Mono Lake (34,000 years ago). They found no similarities
between the evolution of those excursions and the magnetic field’s current
state. However, about 49,000 and 46,000 years ago the state of magnetic field
was comparable to today. Those didn’t result in an excursion or reversal, so
scientists believe that Earth’s current field, while weakened, will recover similarly.

And for those worried about the South Atlantic Anomaly, a particularly weak area of
Earth’s magnetic field stretching from South America to Africa, the researchers find no
evidence that such areas are indicative of impending pole reversals. Put simply, based on
historic trends it doesn’t look like the magnetic field is headed for a” big flip.”
Article 7

Solar Eclipses Make Waves in the Atmosphere

For the first time, researchers confirmed that that moon’s shadow generates a pair of bow
waves in Earth’s ionosphere, similar to the wake a boat leaves as it travels through the
water. The waves are caused by the sudden drop and rebound in incoming energy from
the sun, and they ripple through the atmosphere ahead of and behind the shadow. Bow
waves are actually a fairly common phenomenon in nature — for a particularly stunning
example check out the bow waves made by this runaway star.

In this case, it wasn’t a physical object shoving the air aside and creating a wave, it was
an energy gradient. If you’ve ever been present for a solar eclipse you probably noticed a
sudden chill as the sun disappeared. This is because the Sun’s rays were momentarily
blocked, creating a dip in insolation, or the amount of solar radiation reaching an
area. The lapse leaves a mark in the ionosphere, a region of our atmosphere beginning at
about 37 miles up and filled with charged particles, or ions.

The waves have been theorized to exist for decades now, but scientists didn’t have
equipment sensitive enough to actually confirm their predictions. This time around,
however, they were ready. Using a network of approximately 2,000 satellite navigation
receivers already stationed around the country, the researchers isolated the small
disturbance from random fluctuations in the atmosphere.

They detected changes in electron content in the ionosphere — bow waves— that lasted
for about an hour and traveled at the same speed as the moon’s shadow over the Earth,
they write in research published this month in Geophysical Research Letters. They’re not
very energetic though, so they don’t pose any danger to us here on the ground, and likely
don’t have much of an effect on the broader atmosphere.

Finally observing the bow wave should give researchers a better idea of how the
ionosphere behaves, as well as how it interacts with the rest of the atmosphere. Along
with tests of general relativity and insights into the Sun’s corona, it’s just one more way
that scientists were able to use the eclipse to do unique research.
Article 8

Yes, the ozone hole has grown larger. No, it doesn’t mean that humans are off the hook
for ozone depletion.

The “ozone hole” over Antarctica grew 22 percent this year over 2014 — finishing out
the season as the fourth largest since the start of the satellite record in 1979.
Concentrations of ozone in the stratosphere over Antarctica also were lower in 2015 than
in most other years. In other words, this year’s hole was relatively broad and deep.

Despite your attempt to cast doubt on the link between the ozone hole and emissions of
human-made compounds called chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, there isn’t ANY scientific
doubt about this. And your statement carries about as much authority as what you have to
say about climate change.

Ozone in the stratosphere occurs naturally. It’s important for a number of reasons, not the
least of which is that it helps screen out cancer-causing ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
Stratospheric ozone is depleted by manmade CFC chemicals that once were commonly
used for refrigeration, air conditioning, in aerosol cans, and in other applications. When
depletion of the ozone layer over Antarctica became evident — and was definitively tied
to these compounds — a treaty to phase out their use was adopted by most nations of the
world, the Montreal Protocol.

Another factor this year has been temperature — unusually cold temperatures in the
stratosphere. It turns out that the colder the temperature, the more effective CFCs are at
breaking down ozone in the stratosphere.
In other words, the growth of the ozone holes this year, while concerning, does not
challenge scientists’ understanding of the issue. Far from it.