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Cone Penetrometer-Based Spudcan Penetration Prediction in Uncemented

Carbonate Sand

Article · January 2012

DOI: 10.4043/23002-MS

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OTC 23002

Cone Penetrometer-Based Spudcan Penetration Prediction in Uncemented

Carbonate Sand
Britta Bienen, University of Western Australia; Tim Pucker, Sascha Henke, Hamburg University of Technology

Copyright 2012, Offshore Technology Conference

This paper was prepared for presentation at the Offshore Technology Conference held in Houston, Texas, USA, 30 April–3 May 2012.

This paper was selected for presentation by an OTC program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Offshore Technology Conference and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Offshore Technology Conference, its
officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Offshore Technology Conference is prohibited. Permission to
reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of OTC copyright.

Abstract
Installation of offshore platforms in carbonate soils is challenging, as evidenced by numerous incidents and accidents. The
installation process of mobile jack-up drilling rigs is no exception. The prevalence of these soils in some oil and gas producing
regions, such as offshore Australia, necessitates thorough understanding of the foundation behaviour as well as prediction
methods capable of capturing the salient features. This contribution therefore develops a method to predict footing penetration
in uncemented carbonate sand. The method directly correlates the cone penetrometer tip resistance with the footing load-
penetration, i.e. without the requirement of selection of a friction angle. The development is based on centrifuge model
experiments as well as large deformation finite element analyses incorporating an advanced constitutive model for the soil.
The direct use of in situ site investigation data increases the confidence in load-penetration predictions for rig moves in these
challenging soil conditions, while at the same time reducing the time required to obtain a prediction.

Introduction
Jack-up rig installation in carbonate soils is challenging, with Erbrich (2005) recounting details of two example cases in the
Bass Straight, Australia. Despite the complex soil behaviour, accurate prediction of the spudcan installation response is
required.
The prediction of load-penetration curves prior to a jack-up rig move is typically performed as a series of bearing capacity
predictions at discrete depths. The use of the bearing capacity approach requires knowledge of the operative friction angle.
Unfortunately, the approach is rather sensitive, with a small uncertainty in the friction angle translating to a relatively large
uncertainty in the predicted bearing capacity. Further, based on experience of offshore jack-up installations, the SNAME
(2008) guidelines recommend the friction angle determined in the laboratory to be artificially reduced to account for “scale
effects” (SNAME 2008).
The above applies to silica sands, where the general shear failure mechanism is observed and penetration typically remains
shallow. Carbonate soils are acknowledged to pose further challenges, with predictions expected to be less accurate than in
silica sand (SNAME 2008, ISO 2011). This is due to characteristics such as crushablibity of particles, high in-situ void ratios,
and high compressibility compared to siliceous sand, resulting from differences in mineral composition and particle shape.
Despite high friction angles measured in laboratory tests, the penetration resistance in uncemented carbonate sand is typically
low, resulting in relatively large footing penetrations. SNAME (2008) therefore recommends a larger reduction of the friction
angle as compared to silica sand, to artificially account for the difference in response.
However, footing penetration in uncemented carbonate sand has been shown to be governed by the punching shear
mechanism (Finnie and Randolph 1994a, Yamamoto et al. 2009), rendering the bearing capacity approach inappropriate as it is
based on the general shear failure mechanism. This is reflected in ISO (2011), which proceed to recommend an alternative
approach based on the concept of a ‘bearing modulus’ (Randolph et al. 1993, Finnie and Randolph 1994a). Yamamoto et al.
(2008, 2009) pursued the concept of a bearing modulus further for the prediction of the bearing response of shallow footings
on uncemented carbonate sand.
In this paper, centrifuge experimental results and new numerical capabilities are employed to illustrate the differences in
the load-penetration response between uncemented carbonate and siliceous sands, respectively. The ultimate aim is the direct
correlation of footing penetration resistance with cone penetrometer tip resistance. This approach is based on the idea of the
similarity of a cone penetrometer test (CPT) and a spudcan footing installation. This eliminates the determination of an
2 OTC 23002

appropriate friction angle for the load-penetration curve prediction. Importantly, the validity of the developed method is shown
through comparison of the predicted response against geotechnical centrifuge data.

Modelling of footing penetration into uncemented carbonate sand

While the geotechnical centrifuge technique allows experiments on model scale footings to be performed under controlled
conditions, maintaining similitude to the prototype, numerical modelling enables extensive parametric studies to be undertaken
at relatively low cost. This study therefore relies on centrifuge experimental data to show the appropriateness of the numerical
model, before the latter is employed to generate further data.

Centrifuge experiments
Load-penetration tests were performed in the geotechnical beam centrifuge at the University of Western Australia (UWA)
(for details on the facility see Randolph et al. 1991). A 100 mm diameter flat footing made from aluminium and roughened at
the base was tested at 200g. This corresponds to a 20 m diameter prototype footing. The soil was dry, uncemented carbonate
sand from the vicinity of the Goodwyn platform on the North-West Shelf of Australia. This soil is assumed to be the same as
that used by Finnie and Randolph (1994a) in similar centrifuge tests. Shell fragments larger than 2 mm were removed from the
sample. Due to suspected loss of fines during sample retrieval, commercially available calcium carbonate powder was added
(20% by weight). Figure 1 shows the particle size distribution (PSD). The Figure includes the particle size distribution for this
study as well as curves reported by Ismail (2000), Finnie and Randolph (1994b), Sharma (2004). The variation illustrates the
natural variability of the material.
Figure 2a shows the bearing pressure-penetration curves obtained in the experiments for the 20 m flat circular footing of
this study and the 7 m and 10 m flat circular footing of Finnie and Randolph (1994a). (The curve of this study represents
continuously measured data. The load-penetration process incorporated two unload-reload loops. The data of Finnie and
Randolph (1994a) were digitsed as discrete points.) The curves are initially very similar. However, the penetration resistance
generally is softer the larger the footing diameter.

Coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian (CEL) approach

The numerical technique employed in this study is called Coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian, or CEL. It is available in
Abaqus/Explicit (Dassault Systèmes 2010) as a method that enables large deformation analysis. This relatively new technique
combines the strength of the Eulerian approach, typically used in fluid mechanics, and the Lagrangian method that
geotechnical and structural engineers are more familiar with. In the Lagrangian formulation, the material is associated with the
mesh, with material deformation resulting in mesh distortion (which becomes critical as deformations increase). The Eulerian
mesh on the other hand remains stationary and undeformed as the material moves through it.
In geotechnical problems, the footing is generally significantly stiffer than the soil it penetrates into. It is the soil
deformations that are of interest. In CEL, the footing is typically modelled as a Lagrangian body while the soil is represented
by an Eulerian part. As the soil deforms, it flows through the stationary Eulerian mesh. As the Lagrangian body penetrates into
the Eulerian material (soil), contact is established, giving rise to bearing resistance. The appropriateness of CEL for
geotechnical problems has been shown by Qiu et al. (2011) and Tho et al. (2011).

Numerical model of the foundation

This study is aimed at jack-up spudcans. However, rather than selecting a particular design, circular footings encompassing
the range of spudcan geometries in the field have been analysed. The diameter D was varied from 10 m to 20 m. Three
different conical shapes were investigated, with angles enclosed by the footing base β of 120º, 150º and 180º. The latter
represents a flat footing. The footing geometry and notation are shown in Figure 3.
The footing is modelled here as a rigid body, discretised as a Lagrangian part. As common in the jack-up industry, the
reference point is located at the centre of the lowest cross-section of maximum diameter as indicated in Figure 3. The
roughness was taken as 0.5, which is appropriate for spudcans in the field (InSafeJIP 2011). The trusswork leg of a jack-up is
not modelled in detail here, but replaced by a solid tubular.
During the CEL analysis, the footing is penetrated into the soil at a constant velocity, with movement in any other degree-
of-freedom prevented. As the soil constitutive model (see below) is velocity independent and the analyses were assumed to be
fully drained (the pore pressure response was not modelled), the penetration velocity of 1 m/s was selected for computational
efficiency. Quasi-static analysis was ensured by maintaining a low energy balance.

Numerical model of the soil domain

The soil modelled in the CEL analyses is the uncemented carbonate sand that the laboratory element tests (PSD see Fig.1)
and centrifuge footing tests (Fig. 2a) of this study were performed on. Key characteristics of the sand are summarized in
Table 1. Note that, similar to variations in the particle size distribution, a range of values have been quoted for the Goodwyn
sand, with the critical state friction angle, cv, ranging from 39.0º (Finnie and Randolph 1994a, this study) to 39.6º (Yamamoto
et al. 2009). The minimum and maximum void ratios have been determined as follows: emin = 0.78 , emax = 1.59. The values
summarized in Table 1 were obtained from laboratory testing performed within this study only.
OTC 23002 3

The same relative density DR of 45% as in the centrifuge footing tests was assumed in the CEL analyses. As this
contribution is aimed at offshore foundations, the effective unit weight of the soil was considered. Note that the response is
assumed to be fully drained.
The soil part was modelled as an Eulerian domain. Due to the element type used in Abaqus, the analysis has to be
performed in three dimensions, even though the problem is axisymmetric. For computational efficiency, the soil domain is
modeled as a quarter of a cylinder. Figure 4a shows an example of the numerical models used in this study. The ability of a
CEL analysis to predict soil heave and back-flow is illustrated in Figure 4b.
Velocity boundary conditions prevent movement in the vertical direction at the base of the soil domain, and lateral
movement at the sides.

Soil constitutive model

An advanced soil constitutive model, hypoplasticity, was employed that captures the dependency of the sand behavior on
the void ratio and stress level. The operative friction angle is not an input parameter, but rather a result of the soil initial state
and the loading history during the analysis.
The hypoplastic constitutive model used is that of von Wolffersdorff (1996) with the extension of intergranular strain by
Niemunis and Herle (1997). The constitutive model is able to realistically reproduce the nonlinear and inelastic behavior of
sands, though the strain is not divided into elastic and plastic components. Specific characteristics of sands are considered,
including dilatant (or contractive) behavior, and a critical state can be obtained. Different stiffnesses for loading and unloading
paths are distinguished. The failure surface of the model matches the failure criterion of Matsuoka and Nakai (1982).
The hypoplastic model parameters for the Goodwyn carbonate sand were calibrated against standard laboratory tests.
These include oedometer tests on a loose and a dense sample, respectively, and a triaxial test on a medium dense sample (DR =
45%, similar to the centrifuge footing tests). Figure 5 compares the oedometer and triaxial test results with the numerical
prediction using hypoplasticity. The hypoplastic parameters for the Goodwyn sand are provided in Table 2.

Validation of the numerical model

The CEL numerical model with the hypoplastic constitutive relation was validated against the centrifuge experimental data
of footing penetration described earlier and shown in Figure 2a. Only the 10 m and 20 m diameter footings were analysed, as
this encompasses the range of current spudcans in the field. The numerical analysis results are shown for comparison with the
experimental data in Figure 2b. The results match well, both qualitatively and quantitatively, which provides confidence in the
numerical model. Only at larger depths are the numerical curves slightly softer than their experimental counterparts.

Results of footing penetration analyses

The load-penetration curves obtained with the numerical model for the different footing diameters and conical base angles are
presented in Figure 6 in terms of the nominal bearing pressure, qnom, which is the vertical penetration resistance V divided by
the largest plan area of the footing A, and the vertical penetration w normalised by the footing diameter D. Three pairs of
curves are shown, illustrating the results for footing base angles of 120º, 150º and 180º (flat) for footing diameters of 10 m and
20 m, respectively.
The curves for the conical footings commence at negative normalised penetration, in accordance with the notation set out
in Figure 3, where zero penetration corresponds to the lowest section of maximum diameter being at the level of the original
mudline.
The increase in bearing resistance relates to the footing geometry as expected, with steeper cones resulting in a more
gradual mobilisation. Further, the larger diameter footings mobilise higher bearing pressure at the same normalised penetration
(though not at the same absolute penetration – here the trend is in line with the observation in Fig. 2a). However, the diameter
dependence (or scale effect) is far less pronounced for the carbonate sand than the same footings penetrating into silica sand
(Pucker et al. 2012). Finnie and Randolph (1994a) also commented on the relative diameter independence of the response
suggested by the centrifuge experimental data.
Unlike the penetration into silica sand, where the bearing resistance of the footings of the same diameter but different
conical angles tend to merge at larger depths, the curves obtained for the uncemented carbonate sand suggest near linear
increases in capacity with depth, running almost parallel for the different elevation geometries. These characteristics are
indicative of punching shear failure (as opposed to the general shear failure expected in less compressible soils). This mode of
failure of footings penetrating into Goodwyn uncemented carbonate sand was postulated by Finnie and Randolph (1994a) and
confirmed in small strain numerical analyses using the MIT-S1 constitutive model by Yamamoto et al. (2009). Figure 7
illustrates the different soil failure mechanisms for a flat footing penetration into uncemented carbonate and silica sand,
respectively, confirming punching shear failure in the more compressible material. Figure 8 highlights the influence of footing
base geometry (flat or conical) on the soil failure mechanism. The 150º base angle was chosen here as representative of a
typical spudcan shape. Though the mechanisms are indeed slightly different (with the mechanism under the flat footing being
slightly wider but shallower), these differences are minor and thus result in corresponding relatively small differences in
penetration resistance, once the full footing base is in contact with the soil.
The results presented in Figures 2a and 6 to 8, especially when compared to the centrifuge experimental data, confirm the
validity of the predicted response and provide confidence in its applicability to prototype spudcans installed offshore.
4 OTC 23002

Cone penetrometer correlation

It is not technically feasible to apply the correct scaling to obtain a miniature cone penetrometer representative of the prototype
(typically 36 mm in diameter) for testing at 200g. Therefore, similar CEL analyses were performed on a 36 mm cone
penetrometer to obtain the tip resistance profile as would be measured offshore.
Relying on the similarity of (conical) objects penetrating into the soil (with limitations of this analogy discussed in Pucker
et al. 2012), correlation factors relating the cone tip resistance with the footing bearing pressure as expressed in Equation 1
were developed.

(1)
Prior to the full embedment of the base of the conical footings, the partial contact is accounted for via the effective area as
set out in Pucker et al. (2012).
The correlation factors for large diameter footings penetrating into uncemented Goodwyn carbonate sand are 0.50 and 0.41
for the 10 m and 20 m diameter footings, respectively. The conical base angle was not found to influence the correlation
significantly, which agrees with the previous observations of only minor size and shape differences of the failure mechanism
(Fig. 8).
Similar factors, obtained from various studies of small diameter foundations and piles, were summarized for the discrete
depths of w/D = 0.05 and 0.10, respectively, by Randolph et al. (2004). The only reference to carbonate sand estimates the
ratio within the range of 0.13 to 0.18. However, these results refer to deep plate tests in a calibration chamber. Lee and Salgado
(2005) propose correlation factors of between 0.2 and 0.36 for small diameter footings (1 to 3 m) at w/D = 0.2, though this is
based on Ottawa silica sand. The authors are not aware of published correlations pertaining to large diameter (conical) footings
and cone tip resistance. The correlation established by the authors (Pucker et al. 2012) that aims at spudcan footings is limited
to siliceous sand. It suggests correlation factors in the range 0.21 for a 10 m diameter footing on dense sand to 0.44 for a 20 m
diameter footing on loose sand.
Figure 9 shows example comparisons of the footing bearing pressure-penetration curve with the prediction obtained
through direct correlation with the cone tip resistance and the factors provided in Table 3. Despite employing a constant factor
for simplicity in the practical application of this method, irrespective of penetration depth, the prediction matches the footing
response curve well.
The direct correlation proposed here therefore represents a simple and practical yet accurate prediction of the load-
penetration curve of large diameter offshore foundations. The prediction importantly does not require estimation of an
appropriate friction angle. Rather, the cone tip resistance is used directly.
The correlation should not be extrapolated to other soils, relative sand densities or footing geometries. Further research is
in progress to extend the current study to different relative sand densities. Of course, validation through field records is highly
desirable.

Conclusions
The paper addresses an area of offshore geotechnical engineering of high uncertainty that is currently lacking clear guidance,
despite the risks involved. Traditionally, footing load-penetration curves, required prior to each rig move, have been obtained
using the bearing capacity approach. This is highly sensitive to the assumed operative friction angle. Even though the bearing
capacity method, which is based on the general shear failure mechanism, is acknowledged not to be applicable to compressible
soil, such as uncemented carbonate sand, it is used for lack of practical alternative.
Therefore, this contribution proposes a direct correlation of footing penetration resistance with cone penetrometer tip
resistance. Cone penetrometer profiling is often included in the offshore site investigation workscope, and this information of
the in situ soil characteristics can be used directly to predict the footing installation response, without the requirement to
estimate a friction angle. The correlation factors derived here relate to uncemented carbonate sand of medium relative density
from the North-West Shelf of Australia. The correlation factors, assumed constant with depth for simplicity, are shown to
provide a prediction that closely corresponds to the footing bearing pressure-penetration curve.
With frequent jack-up rig moves and high financial as well as strong safety incentives, the correlation proposed here
presents a practical method to minimise the potential for accidents during jack-up installation in uncemented carbonate sand.

Acknowledgements
The first author is the recipient of an Australian Research Council (ARC) Postdoctoral Fellowship (DP110101603). The work
described here forms part of the activities of the Centre for Offshore Foundation Systems (COFS), the ARC Centre of
Excellence in Geotechnical Science and Engineering, and The Lloyd’s Register Educational Trust (The LRET), an
independent charity working to achieve advances in transportation, science, engineering and technology education, training
and research worldwide for the benefit of all. This support is gratefully acknowledged. The present work forms part of the
research in the research training group “Seaports for Container-Ships of Future Generations” and the project “Finite element
based multicriterial numerical optimization of geotechnical structures in the service limit state” (GR-1024-9-1) funded by the
German Research Foundation (DFG). The funding is greatly appreciated.
OTC 23002 5

References
Dassault Systèmes (2010). Abaqus analysis user’s manual. Simulia Corp., Providence, RI, USA.
Erbrich, C.T. (2005). Australian frontiers – spudcans on the edge. Frontiers in Offshore Geotechnics (ISFOG 2005), Perth, Australia, pp. 49-
74.s
Finnie, I.M., Randolph, M.F. (1994a). Bearing response of shallow foundations on uncemented calcareous soil. International Conference
Centrifuge '94, Singapore, Vol. 1, pp. 535-540.
Finnie, I.M.S., Randolph, M.F. (1994b). Punch-through and liquefaction induced failure of shallow foundations on calcareous sediments.
Proc. 7th International Conference on the Behaviour of Offshore Structures, Massachusetts, USA, Vol. 1, pp. 217-230.
InSafeJIP. (2011). Improved guidelines for the prediction of geotechnical performance of of spudcan foundations during installation and
removal of jack-up units. Authors: Osborne, J.J., Teh, K.L., Houlsby, G.T., Cassidy, M.J., Bienen, B., Leung, C.F. Available from
http://insafe.woking.rpsplc.co.uk/download.asp.
Ismail, M.A. (2000). Strength and deformation behaviour of calcite-cemented calcareous Soils. PhD thesis, The University of Western
Australia, Australia.
ISO (2011). Petroleum and natural gas industries – Site-specific assessment of mobile offshore units – Part 1: Jack-ups. International
Organization for Standardization, ISO/FDIS 19905-1.
Lee, J., Salgado, R. (2005). Estimation of bearing capacity of circular footings on sands based on cone penetration test. Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering (ASCE), Vol. 131, No. 4, pp. 442-452.
Matsuoka, H., Nakai, T. (1982). A new failure for soils in three-dimensional stresses. Proc. IUTAM - Symposium on Deformation and
Failure of Granular Materials, Delft, pp. 253-263.
Niemunis, A., Herle, I. (1997). Hypoplastic model for cohesionless soils with elastic strain range. Mechanics of frictional and cohesive
materials, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 279-299.
Pucker, T., Bienen, B., Henke, S. (2012). CPT based prediction of foundation penetration in sand. Géotechnique Themed Issue on Offshore
Geotechnics, submitted. Available as COFS report C:2670, Centre for Offshore Foundation Systems, The University of Western
Australia.
Qiu, G., Henke, S., Grabe, J. (2011). Application of a Coupled Eulerian–Lagrangian approach on geomechanical problems involving large
deformations. Computers and Geotechnics, Vol. 38, No. 1, pp. 30-39.
Randolph, M.F., Finnie, I.M., Joer, H. (1993). Performance of shallow and deep foundations on calcareous soil, Proc. Symp. on Foundations
of Difficult Soils, Kagoshima, Japan, pp. 169-220.
Randolph, M.F., Jamiolkowski, M.B., Zdravkovic, L. (2004). Load carrying capacity of foundations. Skempton Memorial Conference -
Advances in Geotechnical Engineering 1, London, UK, pp. 207-240.
Sharma, S.S.A. (2004). Characterisation of cyclic behaviour of calcite cemented calcareous soils. PhD thesis, The University of Western
Australia, Australia.
SNAME (Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers). (2008). Site specific assessment of mobile jack-up units. SNAME Technical
and Research Bulletin 5-5A. 1st Edition, 3rd Revision, New Jersey.
Tho, K.K., Leung, C.F., Chow, Y.K., Swaddiwudhipong, S. (2011). Eulerian finite element technique for analysis of jack-up spudcan
penetration. International Journal of Geomechanics (ASCE), doi:10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000111.
von Wolffersdorff, P.A. (1996). A hypoplastic relation for granular material with a predefined limit state surface. Mechanics of cohesive-
fractional materials, Vol. 1, pp. 251-271.
Yamamoto, N., Randolph, M.F., Einav, I. (2008). Simple formulas for the response of shallow foundations on compressible sands,
International Journal of Geomechanics (ASCE), Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 230-239.
Yamamoto, N., Randolph, M.F., Einav, I. (2009). A numerical study of the effect of foundation size for a wide range of sands, Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering (ASCE), Vol. 135, No. 1, pp. 37-45.
6 OTC 23002

Tables
Table 1. Characteristics of Goodwyn carbonate sand.
Parameter Value
Critical state friction angle, cv 39.0º
Specific gravity, Gs 2.72
Void ratio, emin 0.78
Void ratio, emax 1.59

Table 2. Hypoplastic constitutive model parameters for Goodwyn carbonate sand.

Parameter Value Description
cv 39.0º Critical state friction angle
hs 10,000 Granular hardness
n 0.30 Exponent
ed0 0.78 Minimum void ratio
ei0 1.59 Critical void ratio
ec0 2.28 Maximum void ratio
 0.45 Exponent
 2.13 Exponent
R 0.00032 Maximum value of intergranular strain
mR 1.33 Stiffness ratio at a change of direction of 180°
mT 4.56 Stiffness ratio at a change of direction of 90°
R 0.43 Exponent
 6.27 Exponent
OTC 23002 7

Figures

Figure 1. Particle size distribution of Goodwyn carbonate sand.

a) b)

Figure 2. Load-penetration curves of circular flat footings, a) centrifuge experiments, and b) numerical predictions.
8 OTC 23002

Figure 3. Geometry of the numerical footing model and notation.

Figure 4. Numerical model, a) complete mesh, b) soil heave and back-flow.

OTC 23002 9

Figure 5. Comparison of oedometer and triaxial test results with predictions obtained with hypoplasticity.
10 OTC 23002

Figure 6. Bearing pressure-penetration curves obtained with the numerical model.

Figure 7. Velocity field under a flat footing penetrating into a) uncemented carbonate sand, b) silica sand.
OTC 23002 11

Figure 8. Velocity field under conical footings penetrating into uncemented carbonate sand, a) flat footing, b) 150º base angle.

Figure 9. Comparison of footing pressure-penetration curves with the prediction obtained through direct correlation with cone tip
resistance.

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