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THE BASICS
BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
Organic Chemistry: The chemistry of the
compounds of carbon
(1) The human body is largely composed of organic compounds.
(2) Organic chemistry plays a central role in medicine, bioengineering, etc.
DDT Capsaicin
Vitalism
It was originally thought organic compounds could be made only by living things by
intervention of a “vital force”.
Inorganic Organic
The Structural Theory of Organic Chemistry
Between 1858 and 1861, Kekule, Couper, and Butlerov provided the foundations
for structural theory.
Central Premises:
(1) Valency: atoms in organic compounds form a
fixed number of bonds.
(2) Carbon can form one or more bonds to other carbons.
Isomers
(1) Isomers are different molecules with the same molecular formula.
(2) Many types of isomers exist.
Example:
Consider two compounds with molecular formula C2H6O. These compounds cannot be
distinguished based on molecular formula. However they have different structures. The
two compounds differ in the connectivity of their atoms.
Constitutional Isomers
Constitutional isomers are one type of isomer. They are different compounds that
have the same molecular formula but different connectivity of atoms. They often
differ in physical properties (e.g. boiling point, melting point, density) and chemical
properties.
In Class Problems:
(1) Draw all the constitutional isomers of C4H10O.
Three Dimensional Shape of Molecules
Virtually all molecules possess a 3‐dimensional shape which is often not accurately
represented by drawings,
Example: Lithium Fluoride (a salt)
(1) Lithium loses an electron (to have the configuration of helium) and becomes
positively charged.
(2) Fluoride gains an electron (to have the configuration of neon) and becomes
negatively charged.
(3) The positively charged lithium and the negatively charged fluoride form a strong
ionic bond (actually in a crystalline lattice).
Sodium Chloride‐ An Ionic Salt
Covalent Bonds
(1) Covalent bonds occur between atoms of similar electronegativity (close to each
other in the periodic table).
(2) Atoms achieve octets by sharing of valence electrons.
(3) Molecules result from this covalent bonding.
(4) Valence electrons can be indicated by dots (electron‐dot formula or Lewis
structures) but this is time‐consuming.
(5) The usual way to indicate the two electrons in a bond is to use a line (one line = two
electrons).
Writing Lewis Structures
(1) Atoms bond by using their valence electrons.
(2) The number of valence electrons is equal to the group number of the atom.
(a) Carbon is in group 4A and has 4 valence electrons.
(b) Hydrogen is in group 1A and has 1 valence electron.
(c) Oxygen is in group 6A and has 6 valence electrons.
(d) Nitrogen is in group 5A and has 5 valence electrons.
(3) To construct molecules the atoms are assembled with the correct number of valence
electrons.
(4) If the molecule is an ion, electrons are added or subtracted to give it the proper
charge.
(5) The structure is written to satisfy the octet rule for each atom and to give the correct
charge.
(6) If necessary, multiple bonds can be used to satisfy the octet rule for each atom.
Lewis Symbols
(a) The chemical symbol represents the nucleus and the core electrons.
(b) The dots around the symbol represent the valence electrons.
Some examples:
Lewis Structures for Ionic Compounds:
Barium Oxide
Magnesium Chloride
Lewis Structures for Some Small Molecules
(1) Hydrogen Fluoride
(2) Water
(3) Ammonia
(4) Methane
Lewis Structures with Multiple Covalent Bonds
(1) Nitrogen
(2) Carbon Dioxide
Additional Lewis Structures
(1) Phosgene
(2) Hypochlorous
Acid
(3) Chlorate Ion
(4) Methanol
In Class Problems:
(1) Draw the Lewis structures for each of the following species. The atom
connectivity is indicated.
(b) HNO3 (nitric acid) H O N O
O
(c) CO3‐2 (carbonate ion) O ‐2
O C O
(d) H2C2 (acetylene) H C C H
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
The octet rule applies only to atoms in the second row of the periodic table (C, O, N, F)
which are limited to valence electrons in the 2s and 2p orbitals
In second row elements fewer electrons are possible
Example: BF3
In higher rows other orbitals are accessible and more than 8 electrons around an atom
are possible
Example: PCl5 and SF6
Formal charge
(1) A formal charge is a positive or negative charge on an individual atom.
(2) The sum of formal charges on individual atoms is the total charge of the molecule or
ion.
(3) The formal charge is calculated by subtracting the assigned electrons on the atom in
the molecule from the electrons in the neutral atom.
(4) Electrons in bonds are evenly split between the two atoms; one to each atom.
(5) Lone pair electrons belong to the atom itself.
Ammonium ion (NH4)+
Nitrate ion (NO3)‐
An atom will always have the same formal charge depending on how many bonds
and lone pairs it has regardless of which particular molecule it is in. For example a
singly bonded oxygen with 3 lone pairs will always have a negative charge and an
oxygen with three bonds and one lone pair will always have a positive charge.
Knowing these forms of each atom is invaluable in drawing Lewis structures correctly
and rapidly .
In Class Problems:
(1) Draw the Lewis structure for each of the following species and indicate the
formal charge associated with each atom. The atom connectivity is indicated.
(a) NO3‐ (nitrate) O N O
O
(b) N3‐ (azide) N N N
Resonance
Often a single Lewis structure does not accurately represent the true structure of a
molecule. The real carbonate ion is not represented by any of the structures 1,2 or 3.
Experimentally carbonate is known to have all bonds equal in length and the charge is
spread equally over all three oxygens. The “real” carbonate ion can be represented by a
drawing in which partial double bonds to the oxygens are shown and a partial negative
charge exits on each oxygen. The “real” structure is a resonance hybrid or mixture of all
three Lewis structures. Double headed arrows are used to show the resonance
contributors to the experimental structure. NEVER USE EQUILIBRIUM ARROWS!
One resonance contributor is converted to another by the use of curved arrows which
show the movement of electrons. The use of these arrows serves as a bookkeeping device
to assure all structures differ only in position of electrons
A calculated electrostatic potential map of carbonate clearly shows the electron density is
spread equally among the three oxygens. Areas which are red are more negatively
charged; areas of blue have relatively less electron density.
Rules for Resonance
(1) Individual resonance structures exist only on paper. The real molecule is a hybrid
(average) of all contributing forms.
(2) Resonance forms are indicated by the use of double‐headed arrows.
(3) Only electrons are allowed to move between resonance structures.
(4) The position of nuclei must remain the same.
(5) Usually only electrons in multiple bonds and nonbonding electrons can be moved.
Example: 3 is not a resonance form because an atom has moved
(6) All structures must be proper Lewis structures.
(7) The energy of the actual molecule is lower than the energy of any single contributing
form. The lowering of energy is called resonance stabilization.
(8) Equivalent resonance forms make equal contributions to the structure of the real
molecule. In general, structures with equivalent resonance forms tend to be greatly
stabilized.
Example: The two resonance forms of benzene contribute equally and greatly stabilize it
(9) Unequal resonance structures contribute based on their relative stabilities.
(10) More stable resonance forms contribute more to the structure of the real molecule
Rules to Assign Relative Importance of
Resonance Forms
(1) A resonance form with more covalent bonds is more important than one with less.
Example: 6 is more stable and more important because it has more total covalent
bonds
(2) Resonance forms in which all atoms have a complete valence shell of electrons are
more important.
Example: 10 is more important because all atoms (except hydrogen) have complete
octets
(3) Resonance forms with separation of charge are less important. Separation of
charge cost energy and results in a less stable resonance contributor.
Example: 12 is less important because it has charge separation
(4) Forms with negative charge on highly electronegative atoms are more important.
Those with positive charge on less electronegative atoms are also more important.
Example: Nitrate Ion
The nitrate ion is known to have all three nitrogen‐oxygen bond lengths the same and
the negative charge spread over all three atoms equally.
Resonance theory can be used to produce three equivalent resonance forms . Curved
arrows show the movement of electrons between forms. When these forms are
hybridized (averaged) the “true” structure of the nitrate ion is obtained.
In Class Problems:
(1) Draw the contributing resonance structures for each of the following species.
(b) Acetone enolate O
C _
H3C CH2
Quantum Mechanics (Wave Mechanics), Atomic
Orbitals, and Molecular Orbitals
Quantum mechanics (wave mechanics) provides a model for calculating the energies
and probability locations of negatively charged electrons in the field of positively
charged nuclei. The model is based upon the wave nature of electrons.
A hydrogen atom can be simply described as an electron in the field of a proton. The
application of the principles of quantum mechanics to this system provides the energies
and probability locations of the electron in the ground and excited states of the
hydrogen atom. Each state is mathematically described by a wave function, ψ. The
wave functions associated with each of these states provide the foundation for our
pictorial representation of the various atomic orbitals‐ s, p, d, and f orbitals. The square
of the wave function (ψ2) is related to the probability of finding an electron in a
particular location in space.
Atomic orbitals on different atoms located proximate to one another interact (overlap)
to form molecular orbitals. Molecular orbitals provide the foundation for our
understanding of molecular structure.
The “Shapes” of Some Atomic Orbitals
(2) Pauli Exclusion Principle: A maximum of two spin paired electrons may be placed in
each orbital.
(3) Hund’s Rule: One electron is added to each degenerate orbital before a second
electron is added.
Electronic Configurations of Some Second Row Elements
Molecular Orbitals (MOs)
(1) The overlap of 1s orbitals on each of the hydrogen atoms results in two molecular
orbitals‐ one of lower energy (the bonding molecular orbital‐ addition of the wave
functions) and one of higher energy (the anti‐bonding molecular orbital‐
subtraction of the wave functions). Generalization: The combination of n atomic
orbitals results in the formation of n molecular orbitals.
(2) The molecular orbitals (MO’s) that form encompass both nuclei. The electrons are
not restricted to the vicinity of one nucleus or another.
(3) Each of the resulting MO’s has a maximum of 2 spin‐paired electrons.
(4) The mathematic operation by which wave functions are added or subtracted is
called the linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO).
The energy of electrons in the bonding molecular orbital is substantially less than the
energy of electrons in the individual (isolated) H atoms.
The energy of electrons in the antibonding molecular orbital is substantially more
than the energy of the electrons in the individual (isolated) H atoms.
The two electrons derived from the hydrogen atoms occupy the bonding molecular
orbital. The anti‐bonding molecular orbital is empty (virtual molecular orbital).
The Kinetic and Potential Energies For
the Ground and Excited States of H2+
Bonds are formed because the kinetic energies of electrons are lower in bonding
molecular orbitals than they are in the isolated atomic orbitals. The potential
energy of the system is always higher. Additions of the kinetic and potential
energies results in an optimum bond distance and the common Morse potential
diagrams describing bond lengths and strengths.
Molecular Orbitals (MOs)
A simple model of bonding is illustrated by forming molecular H2 from two H atoms.
The following diagram illustrates the total energy between the two H atoms as a
function of internuclear distance:
Region I: The total energy of two isolated hydrogen atoms. The hydrogen atoms do
not “feel” each other’s presence. This is the reference state.
Region II: As the two hydrogen atoms approach one another their 1s orbitals begin to
overlap initiating the formation of a bond; the total energy of the system is lowered.
Region III: at 0.74 Å a minimum is reached which represents the bond length of H2.
Region IV: energy of system rises.
The Structure of Methane and Ethane:
sp3 Hybridization
The structure of methane with its tetrahedral geometry can be accomodated by the
combination (hybridization) of the 2s and the three 2p atomic orbitals to form four sp3
hybrized atomic orbitals. The four sp3 orbitals can then be combined with the 1s
orbitals of four hydrogens to give the molecular orbitals of methane.
An sp3 orbital looks like a p orbital with one lobe greatly extended. This hybrid orbital
can be looked upon as a “polarized” p atomic orbital.
These type of bond have cylindrical symmetry when viewed along the bond axis; these
type of bond are referred to as sigma (σ) bonds.
A variety of representations of methane show its tetrahedral nature and electron
distribution:
a. calculated electron density surface
b. ball‐and‐stick model c. a typical
c. 3‐dimensional drawing
Ethane (C2H6)
The carbon‐carbon bond is made from overlap of two sp3 orbitals to form a carbon‐
carbon σ bond. Six hydrogen 1s atomic orbitals combine (overlap) with the remaining
sp3 hybridized orbitals. The molecule is approximately tetrahedral around each of the
carbon atoms.
The representations of ethane show the tetrahedral arrangement around each of the
carbon atoms.
a. calculated electron density surface
b. ball‐and‐stick model
c. typical 3‐dimensional drawing
Generally there is relatively “free” rotation about the carbon‐carbon σ bonds. Very little
energy (13‐26 kcal/mol) is required to rotate around the carbon‐carbon bond of ethane.
The Structure of Ethene (Ethylene):
sp2 Hybridization
Ethene (C2H2) contains a carbon‐carbon double bond and is in the class of organic
compounds called alkenes. Another example of the alkenes is propene (propylene).
Overall Structure of Ethene:
The geometry around each carbon is called trigonal planar. All atoms directly
connected to each carbon are in a plane. The bonds point towards the corners of a
regular triangle. The bond angles are approximately 120o.
There are three σ bonds around each carbon of ethene and these are formed by using
sp2 hybridized orbitals. The three sp2 hybridized orbitals come from mixing one 2s and
two 2p atomic orbitals. One p orbital is left untouched (unhybridized).
Restricted Rotation and the Double Bond
There is a large energy barrier to rotation (approximately 264 kJ/mol) around the
double bond. This corresponds to the strength of a π bond. In comparison, the
rotational barrier of a carbon‐carbon single bond is 13‐26 kJ/mol. This rotational
barrier results because the p orbitals must be parallel to one another for maximum
overlap. Rotation of one of the p orbitals 90o breaks the π bond.
Cis‐trans isomers
Cis‐trans isomers are the result of restricted rotation about double bonds. These
isomers have the same atom connectivity and differ only in the arrangement of atoms
in space. This places them in the broader class of stereoisomers. The molecules
below do not superpose on each other. One molecule is designated cis (substitutent
groups on same side of the double bond) and the other is trans (substituent groups on
opposite sides of the double bond).
Cis‐trans isomerism is not possible if one carbon of the double bond has two identical
groups attached to it.
The Structure of Ethyne (Acetylene):
sp Hybridization
Ethyne (acetylene) is a member of a group of compounds called alkynes; alkynes have
carbon‐carbon triple bonds. Propyne is another typical alkyne
The arrangement of atoms around each carbon is linear with bond angles 180o.
The carbons of ethyne are sp hybridized. One 2s and one 2p atomic orbitals are
mixed (hybridized) to form two sp orbitals. Two p orbitals are left untouched
(unhybridized).
Norethindrone is a steroidal oral contraceptive. The structure is drawn below.
(1) Indicate the hybridization at each of the atoms designated by the arrows.
(2) Indicate the geometry at the circled atoms.
H
C
HO C
(3) What is the empirical formula?
(4) What is the molecular formula?
(5) What is the molecular weight?
Summary of Concepts from Quantum Mechanics
Atomic Orbital(AO): region in space around a nucleus where there is a high probability
of finding an electron
Molecular Orbital (MO): results from overlap of atomic orbitals
Bonding Orbitals: overlap of AOs of the same sign
Antibonding Orbitals: overlap of AOs of opposite sign
Sigma (σ) bonds have cylindrical symmetry when viewed along the bond axis.
Pi (π) bonds have nodal symmetry and result from sideways overlap of two p orbitals .
Molecular Geometry: The Valence Shell Electron
Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Model
This is a simple theory to predict the geometry of molecules. All sets of valence
electrons are considered including:
(1) Bonding pairs involved in single or multiple bonds.
(2) Non‐bonding pairs which are unshared
Electron pairs repel each other and tend to be as far apart as possible from each
other.
Non‐bonding electron pairs tend to repel other electrons more than bonding pairs.
The geometry of the molecule is determined by the number of sets of electrons by
using simple geometrical principles.
Methane
The valence shell of methane contains four pairs or sets of electrons. To be as far
apart from each other as possible they adopt a tetrahedral arrangement (bond
angle 109.5o). The molecule methane is therefore tetrahedral.
Ammonia
When the bonding and nonbonding electrons are considered there are 4 pairs or
sets of electrons. In order for the electron pairs to be as far away from each other as
possible, the electron pairs should be at the corners of a regular tetrahedron.
However, because the non‐bonding electron pair is “more repulsive” than the
bonding electron pairs the actual location of the electron pairs is described by a
“distorted” tetrahedral arrangement. Taking into account only the positions of the
nuclei, the molecule is described as trigonal pyramidal. The actual bond angles are
about 107o and not 109.5o.
Water
There are four pairs or sets of electrons including 2 bonding pairs and 2 non‐bonding
pairs. Again, the position of the electron pairs would be at the corners of a regular
tetrahedon. However, because the non‐bonding electron pairs are more repulsive
than the bonding electron pairs the actual location of the electron pairs is described
by a “distorted” tetrahedral arrangement. Taking into account only the positions of
the nuclei, the molecule is described as angular. The bond angle is about 105o.
Boron Trifluoride
Three sets of bonding electrons are farthest apart in a trigonal planar arrangement
(bond angle 120o). The three fluorides lie at the corners of an equilateral triangle
Beryllium Hydride
Two sets of bonding electrons are farthest apart in a linear arrangement (bond angles
180o).
Carbon Dioxide
There are only two sets of electrons around the central carbon and so the molecule is
linear (bond angle 180o). Electrons in multiple bonds are considered as one set of
electrons.
A summary of the results also includes the geometry of other simple molecules
In Class Problems:
Using VSEPR predict the geometry of each of the following:
(1) BH4‐
(2) BH3
(3) H2S
Representations of Structural Formulas
Dot formulas are more cumbersome to draw than dash formulas and condensed
formulas. Lone‐pair electrons are often (but not always) drawn in, especially
when they are crucial to the chemistry being discussed.
Dash formulas
Each dash represents a pair of electrons. This type of representation is meant to
emphasize connectivity and does not represent the 3‐dimensional nature of the molecule.
For instance, the dash formulas of n‐propyl alcohol appear to have 90o angles for carbons
which actually have tetrahedral bond angles (109.5o). There is relatively free rotation
around single bonds so the dash structures below are all equivalent.
Constitutional isomers: Constitutional isomers have the same molecular formula but
different connectivity. n‐Propyl alcohol (above) is a constitutional isomer of isopropyl
alcohol (below).
Condensed Structural Formulas
In these representations, some or all of the dash lines are omitted. In partially
condensed structures all hydrogens attached to an atom are simply written after it
but some or all of the other bonds are explicitly shown. In fully condensed structure
all bonds are omitted and atoms attached to carbon are written immediately after it.
For emphasis, branching groups are often written using vertical lines to connect
them to the main chain.
Bond‐Line Formulas
A further simplification of drawing organic molecules is to completely omit all carbons
and hydrogens and only show heteroatoms (e.g. O, Cl, N) explicitly. Each intersection
or end of line in a zig‐zag represents a carbon with the appropriate amount of
hydrogens. Heteroatoms with attached hydrogens must be drawn in explicitly.
Cyclic compounds are condensed using a drawing of the corresponding polygon.
Multiple bonds are indicated by using the appropriate number of lines connecting the
atoms.
In Class Problems:
(1) Represent the following condensed structural formulas as a bond‐line formula:
CH2=C(CH3)CH(OH)CH3
(2) Represent the following dash formula as a condensed structural formula:
OH
Three‐Dimensional Formulas
Since virtually all organic molecules have a 3‐dimensional shape it is often important to
be able to convey this. The conventions for this are:
(1) Bonds that lie in the plane of the paper are indicated by a simple line.
(2) Bonds that come forward out of the plane of the paper are indicated by a solid
wedge.
(3) Bonds that go back out of the plane of the paper are indicated by a dashed wedge
(4) Generally to represent a tetrahedral arrangement of atom (a) two of the bonds are
drawn in the plane of the paper about 109o apart and (b) the other two bonds are
drawn in the opposite direction to the in‐ plane bonds but right next to each other.
(5) Trigonal planar arrangements of atoms can be drawn in 3‐dimensions in the plane
of the paper. Bond angles should be approximately 120o. These can also be drawn
side‐on with the central bond in the plane of the paper, one bond forward and one
bond back shown as follows:
(6) Linear arrangements of atoms are always best drawn in the plane of the paper.