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Tabular column:
Sl No. Vmax, in Volts Vmin, in Volts Modulation index, m
in percentage
1
2
3
Waveforms:
Modulation index: In order for proper AM to occur, the modulating signal voltage must
be less than carrier voltage. Therefore, the relationship between the amplitudes of the
modulating signal and the carrier is important. This relationship is expressed in terms of a
ratio known as the modulation index, m.
Modulation index is the ratio of the modulating signal voltage to the carrier voltage.
The modulation index should be a number between 0 and 1. If the amplitude of the
modulating voltage is higher than the carrier voltage, m will be greater than 1. This will
cause severe distortion of the modulated wave form. This condition is called over
modulation. When m=1 the condition is called full modulation.
Whenever the modulation index is multiplied by 100, the degree of modulation is
expressed as a percentage. In this case modulation index is called percentage modulation.
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram choosing appropriate
components.
2. Apply 20V/1KHz modulating signal and 20V/10KHz carrier signal.
3. Connect the CRO across the tank circuit and observe the AM waveform.
4. Measure Vmax and Vmin from the AM waveform and calculate the
modulation index, m.
5. Repeat the above step for different values of modulating signal and carrier
signal voltages.
6. Sketch modulating signal, Carrier signal and AM wave forms.
Result:
AM DETECTOR
Fig AM Modulator
Filter design:
Filter cut off frequency, fm = 1/2πR4C2
Assume C2 = 0.1uF
We know that fm = 1 KHz
Therefore, R4 = _________ K Ohms.
Waveforms:
Theory: Fig shows the amplitude modulator circuit and fig shows AM demodulator
(detector) circuit. A demodulator is a circuit that accepts a modulated signal and recovers
the original modulating information. A demodulator circuit is the key circuit in the radio
receiver.
Diode detector: The simplest and most widely used amplitude demodulator is the diode
detector shown in fig .The AM signal is applied to the rectifier circuit consisting of diode,
capacitors and resistors. The diode conducts when the negative half cycles of the AM
signals occur. During the positive half cycles, the diode is reverse biased and no current
flows through it.
To recover the original modulating signal filter is connected after the diode. The
filter is designed such that capacitors have very low impedance at the carrier frequency.
At the frequency of the modulating signal, they have much higher impedance. The result
is that capacitors effectively short or filter out the carrier, thereby leaving the original
modulating signal. The fig shows the demodulated signal.
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram choosing appropriate
components.
2. Connect the out put of AM modulator to the in put of envelope detector.
3. Connect the CRO to the output of envelope detector.
4. Observe the demodulated wave form, measure the frequency of this
waveform and compare it with the original modulating signal.
5. Sketch AM wave and demodulated waveform.
Result:
DSB-SC Modulation
Apparatus Required:
IC 1496,
Resistors,
Capacitors,
Variable
Resistor, CRO, Function Generator and Regulated Power Supply.
Theory:
Balanced modulator is used for generating DSB-SC signal. A balanced modulator consists of two
standard amplitude modulators arranged in a balanced configuration so as to suppress the carrier
wave. The two modulators are identical except the reversal of sign of the modulating signal applied to
them.
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
Waveforms:
SSB Modulation
Theory: An SSB signal is produced by passing the DSB signal through a highly selective band pass
filter. This filter selects either the upper or the lower sideband. Hence transmission bandwidth can be
cut by half if one sideband is entirely suppressed. This leads to single-sideband modulation (SSB). In
SSB modulation bandwidth saving is accompanied by a considerable increase in equipment
complexity.
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1. Switch on the trainer and measure the output of the regulated power supply i.e., ±12V and -
8V.
2. Observe the output of the RF generator using CRO. There are 2 outputs from the RF
generator, one is direct output and another is 90o out of phase with the direct output. The
output frequency is 100 KHz and the amplitude is ≥0.2VPP. (Potentiometers are provided to
vary the output amplitude).
3. Observe the output of the AF generator, using CRO. There are 2 outputs from the AF
generator; one is direct output and another is 90o out of phase with the direct output. A switch
is provided to select the required frequency (2 KHz, 4 KHz or 6 KHz). AGC potentiometer is
provided to adjust the gain of the oscillator (or to set the output to good shape). The oscillator
output has amplitude 10VPP.This amplitude can be varied using the potentiometers
provided.
4. Measure and record the RF signal frequency using frequency counter. (or CRO).
5. Set the amplitudes of the RF signals to 0.1 Vp-p and connect direct signal to one balanced
modulator and 90 deg. phase shift signal to another balanced modulator.
6. Select the required frequency (2 KHz, 4 KHz or 6 KHz) of the AF generator with the help of
switch and adjust the AGC potentiometer until the output amplitude is 10 VPP (when
amplitude controls are in maximum condition).
7. Measure and record the AF signal frequency using frequency counter (or CRO).
8. Set the AF signal amplitudes to 8 Vp-p using amplitude control and connect to the balanced
modulators.
9. Observe the outputs of both the balanced modulators simultaneously using Dual trace
oscilloscope and adjust the balance control until desired output wave forms (DSB-SC).
10. To get SSB lower side band signal, connect balanced modulator output (DSB_SC) signals to
sub tractor.
11. Measure and record the SSB signal frequency.
12. Calculate theoretical frequency of SSB (LSB) and compare it with the practical value.
LSB frequency = RF frequency – AF frequency
13. To get SSB upper side band signal, connect the output of the balanced modulator to the
summer circuit.
14. Measure and record the SSB upper side band signal frequency.
15. Calculate theoretical value of the SSB (USB) frequency and compare it with practical value.
USB frequency = RF frequency + AF frequency
Observations:
Signal Amplitude (volts) Frequency (KHz)
Message signal
Carrier signal
SSB (LSB)
SSB (USB)
FM MODULATOR
Modulating
signal FM modulator
generator
FM signal
Modulating (CH2 of CRO)
Signal (CH1 of CRO)
Waveforms:
When the modulating signal goes negative, the carrier frequency will
decrease. The carrier frequency will continue to decrease until the peak of the negative
half cycle of the modulating sine wave is reached. Then, as the modulating signal
increases towards zero, the frequency will again increase.
Procedure:
1. Connect the trainer kit to the mains supply and switch ON.
2. Observe the modulating signal at ‘modulator out put’ by varying ‘frequency
control’ & ‘amplitude control’ knob.
3. Observe the unmodulated carrier signal at ‘FM out’.
4. Connect the ‘modulator O/P’ to the ‘modulating I/P’ .
5. Connect CH1 of the CRO to the modulating I/P & CH2 of CRO to the ‘FM
out’ as shown in the block diagram. Observe FM wave & compare it with
modulating signal.
Result:
FM DEMODULATOR
Modulating
signal FM FM
generator modulator demodulator
Theory: Fig shows the block diagram of FM demodulator. Demodulation is the process
of recovering the low frequency modulating signal. Here in FM demodulator the
frequency modulated signal is inputted. The output of the demodulator is the original low
frequency modulating signal. Fig shows original modulating signal, FM signal and
demodulated signal.
There are literally dozens of circuits used to demodulate or detect FM
signals. The well-known Foster-Seeley discriminator and the ratio detector were among
the most widely used frequency demodulators at one time, but today these circuits have
been replaced with more sophisticated IC demodulators. Anyhow, they are still found in
older equipment. The most widely used detectors today include the pulse-averaging
discriminator, the quadrature detector and the phase locked loop (PLL).
The PLL is the best of all frequency demodulators in use. Its ability to
provide frequency selectivity and filtering give it a signal to noise ratio superior to any
other type of FM detector. The linearity of the VCO ensures the highly accurate
reproduction of the original modulating signal. Although PLLs are complex, they are easy
to apply because they are readily available in low cost IC form.
Procedure:
1. Connect the trainer kit to the mains supply and switch ON.
2. Observe the modulating signal at ‘modulator out put’ by varying ‘frequency
control’ & ‘amplitude control’ knob.
3. Observe the unmodulated carrier signal at ‘FM out’.
4. Connect the ‘modulator O/P’ to the ‘modulating I/P’ .
5. Connect ‘FM out’ to ‘FM in’ of demodulator.
6. Connect CH1 of CRO to the ‘modulating I/P’ & CH2 to the ‘demodulator
O/P’ as shown in the block diagram. Observe the demodulated wave form
and compare it with the modulating signal.
Result: